DRYLAND RIVERS
CONTENTS (Pages 2-7)
Introduction
Distinctiveness and diversity of dryland fluvial environments- Channel hydrological
process, sediment dynamics and channel morphology
Channel equilibrium and formative events
Process-form relationship in dryland
Dry-river beds in semi-arid region
Environmental Water Requirements and Assessments
Dryland river response to future hydro-climatic changes
Dryland River response to Anthropogenic changes
Significance of understanding the changes related to dryland rivers
Conclusion
NAME: ANUKRITIKA RAJ
ROLL NO: 19310069
1
1) INTRODUCTION
Drylands characterized by high but different degrees of aridity, i.e., arid, semi-arid, hyper-arid, dry-
sub humid regions covers 50% of the global landscape. Warm drylands have the largest expanse and
often support infrequently flowing ephemeral Dryland Rivers. The variability of the flow regime
associated with rainfall patterns, primarily controls the process and form relationship of dryland
Rivers. The dryland river have significant contrasts with that of the rivers in humid region (Tooth, 2000,
2013; Jaeger et al., 2017). Water is the limiting factor in drylands, thus any variability in the flow of
ephemeral river (responsible for water storage and delivery) affects the ecosystem functions of the
drylands (Belnap, 1995; Levick et al., 2008; Steward et al., 2012).
2) DISTINCTIVENESS AND DIVERSITY OF DRYLAND FLUVIAL ENVIRONMENT
Indicating nature and range of fluvial processes in drylands. Different processes causing this
variations are mentioned below.
1) Channel Hydrological Process
2) Sediment Dynamics
3) Channel Morphology
2.1) Channel Hydrological Process (Dominated by Ephemeral Streams): Dryland River have dynamic
characteristic governed by its infrequent and episodic behaviour. It is characterized by frequent
occurrence of flash floods which are responsible for the morphological changes and sediment supply
variations in Dryland Rivers. Extreme temporal and spatial flow variation characterizes the Dryland
River.
2.1.1) Flood properties: Floods of various sizes in dryland rivers governs the sediment
transport and channel change in drylands (e.g., Leopold and Miller, 1956; Schumm and Lichty,
1963; Bourke and Pickup, 1999.).Channelled flow within which fluvial process and forms occur
are of most importance (Graff 1988a).
Dryland rivers flash flood hydrographs are characterized by steep rising-residing limb and
short time base (e.g., Walters 1989a, Rhoads, 1990; Hassan, 1990a; Reid et al., 1994; Dick et
al., 1997). Scientific research in dryland extensively uses flash flood hydrographs.
2.1.2) Temporal flow variations: It is exemplified by the precarious nature of flow and
sediment transport during the often short-lived floods, and by the collective importance of
floods as a dominant control on channel morphology.
2.1.3) Spatial flow variation: In drylands, there is a downstream decrease in discharge
volume, principally due to highly variable transmission losses. It is exemplified by the non-
uniform nature of flow and sediment transport during floods and by the frequent lack of
integration between tributary and trunk channels.
2.1.4) Morphological impacts of flow events
Flash floods can be devastating and have significant geomorphological impacts. Data on
morphological impacts of flow are needed to increase the understanding of geomorphic
responses in such channels in terms of landscape dynamics and for management purposes.
However, the infrequency of flow events in the semi-arid environment makes data collection
particularly challenging, resulting in data sparsity.
2
Model constructed to assess morphological flow impacts such as CHANGISM involves the
interactions of flow processes, sediment flux, and vegetation to produce the spatial patterns
and magnitudes of erosion and deposition in channel reaches (Hooke et al., 2005). It is
designed to provide data on spatial and temporal variations to ensure capture of flow events
and morphological changes, given the infrequent and episodic nature of flow and geomorphic
processes in this semiarid region (Hooke, 2016).
2.1.5) Mapping of ephemeral stream networks:
Unique characteristics of arid stream channel highlights the need for mapping ephemeral
stream networks specific to desert regions. Methods of generating synthetic stream channel
networks from digital elevation models (DEMs) are available in several geographic information
systems (GIS) and hydrological modelling packages. However, these methods limit the
resolution of the DEM, which is typically at best on 10 m. Cost-effective remote sensing
methods have been developed for mapping ephemeral stream networks in a desert landscape
in recent years by use of VHSR (Very High Spatial Resolution) multispectral imagery. The VHSR
provides a means of obtaining detailed information about surface hydrologic features in
desert regions and information that is difficult to obtain at the watershed scale (Hamada et
al., 2016).
2.2) Sediment dynamics:
2.2.1) Bedload sediment transport: Mobilization occurs during rising limb and deposition
during the hydrograph's falling limb. "Scour and fill' has been shown to operate in sand &
gravel beds and are of particular significance in many dryland environments (Leopold et al.,
1966; Foley,1978; Schick et al., 1987a; Hassan, 1990b.).The development of the scour is
facilitated by the absence or poor development of the armor layer (Tooth, 2000). There is
often an unlimited supply of sand and fine gravel that is readily entrained by infrequent, but
intense flooding (Pearson et al., 2020).
Methods for predicting bedload sediment transport:
Indirect method for the study of bedload transport processes such as "Particle tracing
technique" for ephemeral rivers enables tracer recovery and relocation after flow events
(Hassan and Erginzinger 2003). Dryland stream beds are easily accessible, and post flow-
event measurements of the particle travel distance and the depths of bed scour provides
an enticing and economic method to quantify the bed material movement rates (Pearson
et al., 2020). Reservoirs which acts as effective sediment traps, provide a methodology for
assessing sediment yield and delivery processes in catchments of drylands (Laronne 2000;
Haregeweyn et al. 2005; Griffiths et al. 2006).
Direct methods involve measurements done during floods. Attempts of making
contemporaneous measurements of bedload discharge and shear stress associated with
the flash floods has been carried out with the help of automatic sediment transport
monitoring stations. The high transport rates indicates the high transport phases
generated by the flash flood (Pearson et al., 2020).
2.2.3) Suspended sediment transport: It is mainly composed of suspended bed material load and
the wash load. It is dictated more by hydraulic changes than the sediment supply (Reid and
Frostick., 1997).In some drylands, it can also be affected by the chemistry of floodwaters. Size
variation of the suspended load does vary with change in water velocity discharge.
3
The Drylands Rivers, which are generally dominated by ephemeral streams, shows a higher
concentration at the rising limb of flow hydrographs than falling limb for the same discharge.
Catchments have control over the sediment supply which ultimately governs the behaviour of
suspended sediment in dryland environments (Pearson et al., 2020).
Methods of predicting suspended material load transport: It is generally measured from the
flow and sediment characteristic using vertical profiles of concentration and velocity. Channel
hillslope constitutes the wash load and hence is not considered as a true representative of
channel hydraulics.
Development of supply-based models for the distribution of sediment sources and the
complex spatio-temporal rainfall-runoff patterns is significant for the improved understanding
of suspended sediments dynamics (Pearson et al., 2020).
2.2.4) Sediment Yield: High bedload sediment transport and suspended sedimentation
concentration suggests that sediment yield is generally high for drylands. (Tooth, 2000).
2.3) Channel Morphology
2.3.1) Cross-sectional form: In a spatial context, Wolman and Gerson (1978) demonstrated
that the rate of change of channel width with increasing drainage is more rapid in Dryland
Rivers than it is in humid-temperate rivers, at least in catchments up to about 100 km2.
Interestingly, dryland channels draining larger catchment maintain near constant widths. This
has been attributed to various factors including an imposition of an upper limit on stream
discharge caused by the limited areal extent of storm events (Sharon 1972, 1981; Renard et
al. 1993; Goodrich et al. 1995). Where transmission losses exceed tributary inflows, the
resultant downstream decrease in discharge can lead to concomitant reductions in channel
width and depth (e.g. Dunkerley1992; Fig. 12.21b) leading to the termination of channelized
flow and bedload transport in broad low gradient surfaces known as floodouts.
The erodibility of channel banks exerts critical secondary controls on cross-sectional
adjustment. Since dryland weathering processes do not produce significant amounts of
cohesive silts and clays, bank materials often lack the strength to resist bank erosion
processes. As a result, channels tend to respond to floods by widening, rather than deepening
their cross-section Schumm (1960).
2.3.2) Role of vegetation in bank stability: Vegetation has a strong influence on bank
erodibility and, thus the stability. Riparian vegetation also increases flow resistance, thereby
decreasing flow velocities and the shear stress available for erosion. Vegetation
encroachment raises the threshold for channel adjustment with the result that the
subsequent floods cannot widen the channel as they might have previously (Eschner et al.
1983; Hooke 1996). The decreased ability of the channels to adjust to significant flood events
may lead to increases in the magnitude and frequency of overbank flooding and floodplain
sedimentation, resulting in further increases in the channel form's stability through positive
feedback (Graf 1978).
2.3.3) Bed configuration and texture:
Bed-Forms and structures: The three most important attributes of ephemeral dryland
streams are 1) thin beds in gravel and sand beds, 2) predominance of horizontal laminae,
and 3) the widespread presence of mud drapes and mud inter-clasts. (Tooth. 2000).
4
There is a contrasts between the structural sedimentology of ephemeral dryland rivers
and perennial humid temperate rivers (Wittenberg, 2002).
The pool-riffle undulating topography sequence is markedly absent from many single-
thread dryland rivers. Imbrication or other surface structures like stone cells/particle
clusters are rarely present on the surfaces of channel bars (Hassan, 2005).
Decreasing flow competence due to infrequent flow coupled with the short durations of
active movement of bedload’s and the lack of tributary inputs are the factors controlling
pattern and rates of downstream fitting in Dryland Rivers.
Bed Texture Adjustments: Due to high sediment supply and discharge of bedload, limited
duration of flash flood recession limbs, and the absence of base flow, the gravels in
dryland environments are weakly or unarmoured (Laronneet et al., 1994).
2.3.4) River pattern:
Dryland River channels often exhibit a composite single and multi-threaded channels. The
composite cross-sections does not exhibit congruous channel adjustments that should be
associated with the hydrological-inputs (Tooth, 2000; Vineberg, 2010). The braided river is the
commonly occurring alluvial channel form. The reliance of channel patterns on stream power
describes the frequent occurrence of braided rivers in dryland environments. Braided river is
often considered as disequilibrium response to aggradation resulting from high sediment
load. High width/depth ratio and low sinuosity associated with these forms facilitate the
bedload transport (Graf 1988a). Apart from these anastomosing, distributary, compound
forms (meandering river nested in the braided river) are also known to occur.
2.3.5) Channel change: Hydraulic thresholds governs the channel change. Channel change
measurements indicates the scale related to maximum erosion and the deposition occurring
over a wide range of flow magnitudes within the channels as well as on the floodplains. These
measurement of changes can be further contemplated for management purpose (Hooke,
2016).
The temporal aspect of river channel change: Dryland channel is highly sensitive
(encompasses propensity to change and ability to recover) to the effect of a large and
catastrophic flood. Different aspects of dryland channel development are dependent
upon flood events of high magnitudes and low frequencies. Vegetation plays a key
role in the drylands recovery. (Tooth, 2000)
The spatial aspect of river channel change: Different semi-arid, arid, and extremely
arid areas data (Wolman and Gerson, 1978) shows a rapid downstream increase of
channel width in small- to moderate-size catchments. However, the width approach
reaches an equitably universal asymptote value of 100–200 m once the area of
catchment has exceeded 50 km2. Different pattern of downstream width increase is
also known to occur in different drylands (Tooth. 2000).
2.3.6) Channel gradient and longitudinal profile: The long profiles of many dryland rivers are
less concave than the humid temperate rivers. This is due to the effect of water and sediment
inputs from tributary on the concavity of dryland channels profile. Due to transmission losses
the ratio of sediment to streamflow increases downstream (e.g., Leopold and Miller 1956).
This generate a propensity for aggradation and the convex-profile development (Pearson et
al., 2020).
5
3) CHANNEL EQUILIBRIUM AND FORMATIVE EVENTS:
Dryland rivers generally do not exhibit equilibrium behaviours as opposed to humid-temperate rivers.
This contrast in behaviour is due to elemental differences in the relationship of magnitude and
frequency (Baker 1977) and relaxation times (Wolman and Gerson 1978; Brunsden and Thornes 1979).
Tooth and Nanson (2000a) suggested that the prospect of Dryland Rivers to develop an equilibrium
channel is depends on local geomorphological, hydrological and sedimentological conditions. Non-
(dis-) equilibrium channel development is favoured in environments having high energy with low
thresholds for erosion (steep, low-order Rivers subject to short-lived high magnitude flash floods
carrying large amounts of coarse bedload). Lower energy environments with high thresholds for
erosion (medium-large low gradient rivers with resistant, confining banks subject to long-duration
floods) favour the development of equilibrium forms (Pearson et al., 2020).
4) PROCESS-FORM RELATIONSHIP IN DRYLAND RIVERS:
The dryland process-form relationship is marked discontinuous both in space and time as opposed to
perennial rivers. Discontinuity is demonstrated at both network and reach scale, which can be
attributed to extreme spatio-temporal flow variability in drylands.( Tooth, 2000)
5) DRY RIVER BEDS IN ARID-SEMI ARID REGIONS
Dry river beds are common in desert environment though not exclusive (Steward et al., 2012). These
riverbeds sustain numerous ecosystem function and play vital roles among humans. Many of the arid
and semi-arid rivers are generally dry along much of their length for most of the time, except for the
isolated perennial pools. Waterholes which are relatively deeper sections of the river channel holds
water during no- flow periods and are critical for aquatic ecosystem resilience.
As many of the perennial rivers are being transformed into temporary rivers due to pressure on water
resources or changes in climate and the pattern of land use (Steward et al., 2012), it has become very
significant to examine the dry-beds which sustain many ecosystem functions
6) ENVIRONMENTAL WATER REQUIREMENTS (EWRs)
Environmental water requirements (EWRs) in drylands are essential to maintain aquatic ecosystems
at various ecological conditions. Dryland Rivers which characterized by infrequent and episodic nature,
do not easily yield a reference condition that can be used to compare present and future scenarios of
EWR. A two-way approach is generally implemented: firstly, use of historical data and clues from
landscape for the estimation of original/reference condition and secondly use of the present condition
as the starting point for comparison of scenario that can be seen and measured.
Environmental water requirements (EWRs) assessment methods are necessary to maintain ecosystem
function at different ecological conditions. These levels can be assessed and implemented by the
government and stakeholder for the sustainable use of water resources.
EWR requirements assessment methods such as DRIFT-ARID has been applied to ephemeral dryland
rivers for estimating the water that should be retained in the dryland rivers to sustain ecological
functioning and biodiversity at desired level (Seaman et al., 2016).
7) DRYLAND RIVER RESPONSE TO HYDRO-CLIMATIC FORCINGS:
Dryland Rivers are lifelines of water-stressed arid regions and are often threatened by water declines
due to climate change impacts such as less rainfall, increase in temperature, evapotranspiration and
human activities (such as regulation of river, diversion and extraction of flow, and change in pattern
6
of land-use). Early identification of dryland response to hydro-climatic forcing will have profound
implication for 2 billion people living in drylands (Larkin et al., 2020).
Potential threshold of change can be identified by methods such as using mean catchment aridity
index for defining different river styles and quantifying their present-day catchment hydroclimate.
Expanding these approaches to include other river styles would allow the global analysis of Drylands
Rivers where hydro-climate is an essential driver of change. Downscaled global data projections,
coupled with multivariate analysis of the variables associated with different types of river will help in
the assessment of drylands with respect to future hydro-climatic forcing.
8) DRYLAND RIVER RESPONSE TO ANTHROPOGENIC CHANGES:
Channel adjustments due to anthropogenic changes can occur over a long periods and follows a
complex pattern (Petts and Gurnell, 2005). Nature, trajectory and magnitude of adjustments
pertaining to morphology arising due to anthropogenic changes is crucial for defining the result of
human interference. Any modification in the physical template of river can affect the longitudinal
connectivity and the riverine biota habitat (Jacobson and Galat , 2006).Wolman (1967) first illustrated
the increase in runoff from the impervious surfaces and several stages of responses produced in river
systems due to development in urban area(Gregory, 2011).
Downstream adjustments in urbanizing dryland channels: Deviation in the relation of
downstream urban areas from those extrapolated upstream can be inferred in urban context.
Examples of recent space-time substitution techniques for urban development assessment in
river channels has been discussed in Navratil et al. ( 2012) , Phillips and S catena (2012), and
Taniguchi and Biggs( 2015).
In the last four decades there has been considerable advancement in the investigation pertaining to
effect of urbanization on channel. Growing number of studies contribute in the understanding of
sensitivity and complexity of processes in arid and semi-arid environments (Chin et al., 2017).
SIGNIFICANCE OF UNDERSTANDING THE CHANGES RELATED TO DRYLAND RIVERS: Due to climatic
forcing, urbanization, change in land use pattern, it is expected that most of the perennial river could
transform into dry river beds even if not all along its entire length but at reach level. Also drylands are
expected to face population influx as the population grows and will serve as a significant resource.
Thus an understanding of the Dryland Rivers can help in combating these extreme future scenarios
and help formulate and operationalize proper management plans.
9) CONCLUSION:
Dryland river research has advanced and enhanced over the years, but the basic question as to how
the morphologies encountered and the channel change is associated with infrequent flowing dryland
river, sediment flux variations and their interaction with boundary conditions needs to be answered
(Pearson et al., 2020).This will contribute in the development of integrated theory for the behaviour
of dryland rivers explaining the process, form and morphology (Graf, 1988). The fluvial diversity of
drylands need recognition, but should not be limited to generalization (Tooth, 2000)
Predicting the response of Dryland River to hydro-climatic and anthropogenic changes is very crucial
to foresee the sustainable development of drylands as it supports many ecological function as well as
provides for about 2 billion people living in drylands (Larkin et al., 2020). Thus the identification of
gaps with the help extensive field, modelling and laboratory studies will help in the better
understanding of environmentally sensitive marginal dryland environments (Tooth, 2000).
7
REFERENCES:
Chin, A., Gidley, R., Tyner, L., Gregory, K., 2017. Adjustment of dryland stream channels over four decades of
urbanization. Anthropocene 20, 24–36. [Link]
Hamada, Y., O’Connor, B.L., Orr, A.B., Wuthrich, K.K., 2016. Mapping ephemeral stream networks in desert
environments using very-high-spatial-resolution multispectral remote sensing. J. Arid Environ. 130, 40–
48. [Link]
Heritage, G., Entwistle, N., Milan, D., Tooth, S., 2019. Quantifying and contextualising cyclone-driven, extreme
flood magnitudes in bedrock-influenced dryland rivers. Adv. Water Resour. 123, 145–159.
[Link]
Hooke, J.M., 2016. Morphological impacts of flow events of varying magnitude on ephemeral channels in a
semiarid region. Geomorphology 252, 128–143. [Link]
Hooke, J.M., Brookes, C.J., Duane, W., Mant, J.M., 2005. A simulation model of morphological, vegetation and
sediment changes in ephemeral streams. Earth Surf. Process. Landforms 30, 845–866.
[Link]
Jaeger, K.L., Sutfin, N.A., Tooth, S., Michaelides, K., Singer, M., 2017. Geomorphology and Sediment Regimes of
Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams. U.S. geological survey information technology report, 2002-
0010., Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams: Ecology and Management. Elsevier Inc.
[Link]
Larkin, Z.T., Ralph, T.J., Tooth, S., Fryirs, K.A., Carthey, A.J.R., 2020. Identifying threshold responses of
Australian dryland rivers to future hydroclimatic change. Sci. Rep. 10, 1–15.
[Link]
Levick, L.R., Goodrich, D.C., Hernandez, M., Fonseca, J., Semmens, D.J., Stromberg, J., Tluczek, M., Leidy, R. a.,
Scianni, M., Guertin, P.D., Kepner, W.G., 2008. The Ecological and Hydrological Significance of Ephemeral
and Intermittent Streams in the Arid and Semi-arid American Southwest. US Environ. Prot. Agency, Off.
Res. Dev. 1–116. [Link] Environmental Protection Agency and USDA/ARS Southwest
Watershed Research Center, EPA/600/R-08/134,ARD/233046
Parsons, A.J., Abrahams, A.D., 2009. Geomorphology of desert environments, in: Geomorphology of Desert
Environments. pp. 1–831. [Link]
Pearson, M.R., Reid, M.A., Miller, C., Ryder, D., 2020. Comparison of historical and modern river surveys reveal
changes to waterhole characteristics in an Australian dryland river. Geomorphology 356, 107089.
[Link]
Seaman, M., Watson, M., Avenant, M., King, J., Joubert, A., Barker, C., Esterhuyse, S., Graham, D., Kemp, M., Le
Roux, P., Prucha, B., Redelinghuys, N., Rossouw, L., Rowntree, K., Sokolic, F., Van Rensburg, L., Van Der
Waal, B., Van Tol, J., Vos, T., 2016. DRIFT-ARID: A method for assessing environmental water
requirements (EWRs) for non-perennial rivers. Water SA 42, 356–367.
[Link]
Steward, A.L., Von Schiller, D., Tockner, K., Marshall, J.C., Bunn, S.E., 2012. When the river runs dry: Human
and ecological values of dry riverbeds. Front. Ecol. Environ. 10, 202–209.
[Link]
Tooth, S., 2013. Dryland Fluvial Environments: Assessing Distinctiveness and Diversity from a Global
Perspective, Treatise on Geomorphology. Elsevier Ltd. [Link]
6.00257-8
Tooth, S., 2000. Process, form and change in dryland rivers: a review of recent research. Earth-Science Rev. 51,
67–107. [Link]