main January 25, 2000 14:26

Dynamics and mechanics

1.2 Frames of reference

Galilean transformations
r,r position in frames S S
r = r  + vt S m
Time and (3.1) and S 
positiona t = t (3.2) v velocity of S  in S r
r
t,t time in S and S 
vt
u = u + v (3.3) u,u velocity in frames S
Velocity and S 
p,p  particle momentum
Momentum p = p  + mv (3.4) in frames S and S 
m particle mass
Angular  
J = J + mr × v + v× p t 
(3.5) J ,J  angular momentum
momentum in frames S and S 

Kinetic 1 T ,T  kinetic energy in

T = T  + mu · v + mv 2 (3.6) frames S and S 
energy 2
a Frames coincide at t = 0.

Lorentz (spacetime) transformationsa

 −1/2 γ Lorentz factor
Lorentz factor v2 velocity of S  in S
γ = 1− 2 (3.7) v
c c speed of light

Time and position


x = γ(x + vt ); x = γ(x − vt) (3.8) S S
  x,x x-position in frames
y=y ; y =y (3.9) S and S  (similarly v
z = z; z = z (3.10) for y and z)
x x

! v " ! v " t,t time in frames S and
t = γ t + 2 x ; t = γ t − 2 x (3.11) S
c c
Differential dX = (cdt,−dx,−dy,−dz) X spacetime four-vector
four-vectorb (3.12)
a For frames S and S  coincident at t = 0 in relative motion along x. See page 141 for the

transformations of electromagnetic quantities.

b Covariant components, using the (1,−1,−1,−1) signature.

Velocity transformationsa
γ Lorentz factor
Velocity = [1 − (v/c)2 ]−1/2
ux + v ux − v
ux = ; ux = (3.13)
1 + ux v/c2 1 − ux v/c2 v velocity of S  in S

uy uy c speed of light S S
uy = ; uy = (3.14) ui ,ui
u
γ(1 + ux v/c2 ) γ(1 − ux v/c2 ) particle velocity
v
components in
uz uz frames S and S 
uz = ; uz = (3.15) x x

γ(1 + ux v/c2 ) γ(1 − ux v/c2 )
a For frames S and S  coincident at t = 0 in relative motion along x.
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Momentum and energy transformationsa

γ Lorentz factor
Momentum and energy = [1 − (v/c)2 ]−1/2

px = γ(px + vE  /c2 ); px = γ(px − vE/c2 ) (3.16) v velocity of S  in S

py = py ; py = py (3.17) c speed of light

S S

px ,px x components of
pz = pz ; pz = pz (3.18) momentum in S and
S  (sim. for y and z) v
E = γ(E  + vpx ); E  = γ(E − vpx ) (3.19)
E,E  energy in S and S  
x x
2 2 2
E −p c =E −p c
2 2 2
= m20 c4 (3.20) m0 (rest) mass
p total momentum in S
P momentum
Four-vectorb P = (E/c,−px ,−py ,−pz ) (3.21)
four-vector
a For frames S and S  coincident at t = 0 in relative motion along x.
b Covariant components, using the (1,−1,−1,−1) signature.

Propagation of lighta
Doppler ν ! v " ν frequency received in S S c
= γ 1 + cosα (3.22) ν frequency emitted in S  y
effect ν c α arrival angle in S
α

γ Lorentz factor x
cosθ + v/c = [1 − (v/c)2 ]−1/2
cosθ = (3.23)
1 + (v/c)cosθ v velocity of S  in S S S 
Aberration b y y
cosθ − v/c c speed of light v
cosθ = (3.24)
1 − (v/c)cosθ θ,θ emission angle of light θ c
in S and S  x x
Relativistic sinθ P (θ) angular distribution of
P (θ) = (3.25)
beamingc 2γ 2 [1 − (v/c)cosθ]2 photons in S
a Forframes S and S  coincident at t = 0 in relative motion along x.
b Lighttravelling in the opposite sense has a propagation angle of π + θ radians.&
c Angular distribution of photons from a source, isotropic and stationary in S  . π P (θ) dθ = 1.
0

Four-vectorsa
Covariant and x0 = x0 x1 = −x1 xi covariant vector
contravariant components
components x2 = −x2 x3 = −x3 (3.26) xi contravariant components

Scalar product xi yi = x0 y0 + x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 (3.27)

xi ,x i four-vector components in

Lorentz transformations frames S and S 
x0 = γ[x + (v/c)x ]; x = γ[x0 − (v/c)x1 ]
0 1 0
(3.28) γ Lorentz factor
1 1
x = γ[x + (v/c)x ]; 0 1
x = γ[x − (v/c)x ]
1 0
(3.29) = [1 − (v/c)2 ]−1/2
v velocity of S  in S
2 2 3 3
x =x ; x =x (3.30) c speed of light
a For frames S and S  , coincident at t = 0 in relative motion along the (1) direction. Note that the (1,−1,−1,−1)
signature used here is common in special relativity, whereas (−1,1,1,1) is often used in connection with general
relativity (page 67).
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Dynamics and mechanics

Rotating frames
A any vector
    S stationary frame
Vector trans- dA dA
= + ω× A (3.31) S rotating frame
formation dt S dt S ω angular velocity
of S  in S

v̇,v̇ accelerations in S
and S 
Acceleration v̇ = v̇  + 2ω× v  + ω× (ω× r  ) (3.32)
v  velocity in S 
r  position in S 
F cor coriolis force
Coriolis force F cor = −2mω× v  (3.33) ω
m particle mass F cen
F cen centrifugal force r ⊥ m
Centrifugal F cen = −mω× (ω× r  ) (3.34)
r ⊥ perpendicular to
force = +mω 2 r ⊥ (3.35) particle from r
rotation axis
Fi nongravitational ωe
mẍ = Fx + 2mωe (ẏ sinλ − ż cosλ) force y z
Motion (3.36) λ latitude
relative to x
mÿ = Fy − 2mωe ẋsinλ (3.37) z local vertical axis
Earth λ
mz̈ = Fz − mg + 2mωe ẋcosλ (3.38) y northerly axis
x easterly axis
Ωf pendulum’s rate
Foucault’s Ωf = −ωe sinλ (3.39) of turn
penduluma ωe Earth’s spin rate
a The sign is such as to make the rotation clockwise in the northern hemisphere.

1.3 Gravitation

Newtonian gravitation
m1,2 masses
Newton’s law of Gm1 m2 F1 force on m1 (= −F 2 )
F1= r̂ 12 (3.40)
gravitation 2
r12 r 12 vector from m1 to m2
ˆ unit vector
G constant of gravitation
Newtonian field g = −∇φ (3.41) g gravitational field strength
equationsa ∇2 φ = −∇ · g = 4πGρ (3.42) φ gravitational potential
ρ mass density

 GM r vector from sphere centre
− 2 r̂ (r > a)
Fields from an r M mass of sphere
g(r) = (3.43)
isolated 
− GMr r̂ (r < a) a radius of sphere
3
uniform sphere,  a
 GM
mass M, r from − (r > a) M
the centre r r
φ(r) = (3.44) a

 GM (r 2 − 3a2 ) (r < a)
2a3
a The gravitational force on a mass m is mg.
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General relativitya
ds invariant interval
Line element ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν = −dτ2 (3.45) dτ proper time interval
gµν metric tensor
dxµ differential of xµ
1
Γαβγ = g αδ (gδβ,γ + gδγ,β − gβγ,δ ) (3.46) Γαβγ Christoffel symbols
Christoffel 2
,α partial diff. w.r.t. xα
symbols and φ;γ = φ,γ ≡ ∂φ/∂xγ (3.47)
;α covariant diff. w.r.t. xα
covariant Aα;γ = Aα,γ + Γαβγ Aβ (3.48) φ scalar
differentiation
Bα;γ = Bα,γ − Γβαγ Bβ (3.49) Aα contravariant vector
Bα covariant vector

R αβγδ= Γαµγ Γµβδ − Γαµδ Γµβγ

+ Γαβδ,γ − Γαβγ,δ (3.50)
R αβγδ Riemann tensor
Riemann tensor Bµ;α;β − Bµ;β;α = R γµαβ Bγ (3.51)
Rαβγδ = −Rαβδγ ; Rβαγδ = −Rαβγδ (3.52)
Rαβγδ + Rαδβγ + Rαγδβ = 0 (3.53)

Dv µ vµ tangent vector
=0 (3.54)
Geodesic Dλ (= dxµ /dλ)
equation DAµ dAµ λ affine parameter (e.g., τ
where ≡ + Γµαβ Aα v β (3.55) for material particles)
Dλ dλ
Geodesic D2 ξ µ
deviation = −R µαβγ v α ξ β v γ (3.56) ξµ geodesic deviation
Dλ2

Ricci tensor Rαβ ≡ R σασβ = g σδ Rδασβ = Rβα (3.57) Rαβ Ricci tensor

1 µν Gµν Einstein tensor

Einstein tensor Gµν = R µν − g R (3.58)
2 R Ricci scalar (= g µν Rµν )

Einstein’s field Gµν = 8πT µν (3.59) T µν stress-energy tensor

equations p pressure (in rest frame)

ρ density (in rest frame)

Perfect fluid T µν = (p + ρ)uµ uν + pg µν (3.60)
uν fluid four-velocity
   
Schwarzschild 2M 2M −1 2 M spherically symmetric
ds2 = − 1 − dt2 + 1 − dr mass (see Section 9.5)
solution r r
(r,θ,φ) spherical polar coords.
(exterior) + r 2 (dθ2 + sin2 θ dφ2 ) (3.61) t time

Kerr solution (outside a spinning black hole)

∆ − a2 sin2 θ 2 2Mr sin2 θ J angular momentum
ds2 = − dt − 2a dt dφ (along z)
2 2
a ≡ J/M
(r 2 + a2 )2 − a2 ∆sin2 θ 2 2 2 2 ≡ r2 − 2Mr + a2
+ sin θ dφ + dr + 2 dθ2 (3.62) ∆
2 ∆  2 ≡ r2 + a2 cos2 θ
a General relativity conventionally uses “geometrized units” in which G = 1 and c = 1. Thus, 1kg = 7.425 × 10−28 m

etc. Contravariant indices are written as superscripts and covariant indices as subscripts. Note also that ds2 means
(ds)2 etc.
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Dynamics and mechanics

1.4 Particle motion

Dynamics definitionsa
F force
Newtonian force F = mr̈ = ṗ (3.63) m mass of particle
r particle position vector

Momentum p = mṙ (3.64) p momentum

1 T kinetic energy
Kinetic energy T = mv 2 (3.65)
2 v particle velocity

Angular momentum J = r× p (3.66) J angular momentum

Couple (or torque) G = r× F (3.67) G couple

Centre of mass N R0 position vector of centre of mass

mi r i
(ensemble of N R0 = i=1
N
(3.68) mi mass of ith particle
particles) i=1 mi ri position vector of ith particle
a In the Newtonian limit, v  c, assuming m is constant.

Relativistic dynamicsa
 −1/2 γ Lorentz factor
Lorentz factor v2
γ = 1− 2 (3.69) v particle velocity
c c speed of light
p relativistic momentum
Momentum p = γm0 v (3.70)
m0 particle (rest) mass

dp F force on particle
Force F= (3.71)
dt t time

Rest energy Er = m0 c2 (3.72) Er particle rest energy

Kinetic energy T = m0 c2 (γ − 1) (3.73) T relativistic kinetic energy

E = γm0 c2 (3.74)
Total energy 2 2 E total energy (= Er + T )
= (p c + m20 c4 )1/2 (3.75)
a It
is now common to regard mass as a Lorentz invariant property and to drop the term “rest mass.” The
symbol m0 is used here to avoid confusion with the idea of “relativistic mass” (= γm0 ) used by some authors.

Constant acceleration
v = u + at (3.76)
u initial velocity
2 2
v = u + 2as (3.77) v final velocity
1 t time
s = ut + at2 (3.78)
2 s distance travelled
u+v a acceleration
s= t (3.79)
2
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Reduced mass (of two interacting bodies)

r
m2 centre m1
of
mass
r2 r1
m1 m2 µ reduced mass
Reduced mass µ= (3.80)
m1 + m2 mi interacting masses
m2 ri position vectors from centre of
r1 = r (3.81)
Distances from m1 + m2 mass
centre of mass −m1 r r = r1 − r2
r2 = r (3.82)
m1 + m2 |r| distance between masses

Moment of I = µ|r|2 (3.83) I moment of inertia

inertia
Total angular J = µr× ṙ (3.84) J angular momentum
momentum
1 L Lagrangian
Lagrangian L = µ|ṙ|2 − U(|r|) (3.85)
2 U potential energy of interaction

Ballisticsa
v0 initial velocity ŷ
v = v0 cosα x̂ + (v0 sinα − gt) ŷ v velocity at t v0
Velocity (3.86) α elevation angle
α h x̂
v 2 = v02 − 2gy (3.87) g gravitational
acceleration
l
gx2 ˆ unit vector
Trajectory y = xtanα − 2 (3.88) t time
2v0 cos2 α
Maximum v02 h maximum
height h= sin2 α (3.89) height
2g
Horizontal v02
range l= sin2α (3.90) l range
g
a Ignoring the curvature and rotation of the Earth and frictional losses. g is assumed
constant.
 main January 25, 2000 14:26

Dynamics and mechanics

Rocketry
vesc escape velocity
 1/2
Escape 2GM G constant of gravitation
velocitya vesc = (3.91) M mass of central body
r
r central body radius
Isp specific impulse
Specific u
Isp = (3.92) u effective exhaust velocity
impulse g
g acceleration due to gravity
R molar gas constant
Exhaust  1/2 γ ratio of heat capacities
velocity (into 2γRTc
u= (3.93) Tc combustion temperature
a vacuum) (γ − 1)µ µ effective molecular mass of
exhaust gas
∆v rocket velocity increment
Rocket  
Mi Mi pre-burn rocket mass
equation ∆v = uln ≡ ulnM (3.94)
Mf Mf post-burn rocket mass
(g = 0)
M mass ratio
N number of stages
Multistage 
N
∆v = ui lnMi (3.95) Mi mass ratio for ith burn
rocket
i=1 ui exhaust velocity of ith burn
In a constant
t burn time
gravitational ∆v = ulnM − gtcosθ (3.96)
θ rocket zenith angle
field
 1/2  1/2 ∆vah velocity increment, a to h
GM 2rb ∆vhb velocity increment, h to b
∆vah = −1
ra ra + rb ra radius of inner orbit
Hohmann
(3.97) rb radius of outer orbit
cotangential  1/2   1/2 transfer ellipse, h
transferb GM 2ra
∆vhb = 1− a b
rb ra + rb
(3.98)
a From the surface of a spherically symmetric, nonrotating body, mass M.
b Transfer between coplanar, circular orbits a and b, via ellipse h with a minimal expenditure of energy.
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Gravitationally bound orbital motiona

U(r) potential energy
G constant of gravitation
Potential energy GMm α
U(r) = − ≡− (3.99) M central mass
of interaction r r m orbiting mass ( M)
α positive constant
E total energy (constant)
α J2 α
Total energy E =− + =− (3.100) J total angular momentum
r 2mr 2 2a (constant)

Virial theorem E = U /2 = −T (3.101) T kinetic energy

(1/r potential) U = −2T (3.102) · mean value

Orbital r0
= 1 + ecosφ , or (3.103) r0 semi-latus-rectum
equation r
r distance of m from M
(Kepler’s 1st a(1 − e2 )
r= (3.104) e eccentricity
law) 1 + ecosφ
Rate of
sweeping area dA J A area swept out by radius
= = constant (3.105)
(Kepler’s 2nd dt 2m vector (total area = πab)
law)
r0 α a semi-major axis
Semi-major axis a= = (3.106)
1−e 2 2|E| b semi-minor axis

r0 J 2a
Semi-minor axis b= = (3.107)
(1 − e2 )1/2 (2m|E|)1/2 m
A r
 1/2  1/2 r0
Eccentricityb 2EJ 2 b2 φ
e= 1+ = 1 − (3.108)
mα2 a2 M

Semi-latus- J 2 b2 2b ae
rectum r0 = = = a(1 − e2 ) (3.109)
mα a rmax rmin
r0
Pericentre rmin = = a(1 − e) (3.110) rmin pericentre distance
1+e
r0
Apocentre rmax = = a(1 + e) (3.111) rmax apocentre distance
1−e
(J/r) − (mα/J)
Phase cosφ = (3.112) φ orbital phase
(2mE + m2 α2 /J 2 )1/2
 1/2 ! m "1/2
Period (Kepler’s m
P = πα 3
= 2πa3/2 P orbital period
3rd law) 2|E| α
(3.113)
a For an inverse-square law of attraction between two isolated bodies in the nonrelativistic limit. If m is not  M,
all explicit references to m in Equations (3.100) to (3.113) should be replaced by the reduced mass, µ = Mm/(M +m),
and r taken as the body separation. The distance of mass m from the centre of mass is then rµ/m (see earlier table
on Reduced mass). Other orbital dimensions scale similarly.
b Note that if the total energy, E, is < 0 then e < 1 and the orbit is an ellipse (a circle if e = 0). If E = 0, then e = 1

and the orbit is a parabola. If E > 0 then e > 1 and the orbit becomes a hyperbola (see Rutherford scattering on next
page).
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Dynamics and mechanics

Rutherford scatteringa
y
trajectory
b for α < 0

scattering x
centre
χ
a a

rmin (α<0)
trajectory
for α > 0 rmin (α>0)
α
U(r) = − (3.114) U(r) potential energy
Scattering potential # r
r particle separation
energy < 0 repulsive
α (3.115) α constant
> 0 attractive
χ scattering angle
χ |α|
Scattering angle tan = (3.116) E total energy (> 0)
2 2Eb b impact parameter
 
|α| χ α
rmin = csc − (3.117) rmin closest approach
Closest approach 2E 2 |α| a hyperbola semi-axis
= a(e ± 1) (3.118) e eccentricity

|α|
Semi-axis a= (3.119)
2E
 2 2 1/2
Eccentricity 4E b χ
e= +1 = csc (3.120)
α2 2
4E 2 2 y 2 x,y position with respect to
Motion trajectoryb x − 2 =1 (3.121) hyperbola centre
α2 b
 2 1/2
Scattering centrec α
x=± + b2
(3.122)
4E 2
dσ
dΩ differential scattering
dσ 1 dN cross section
= (3.123)
Rutherford dΩ n dΩ n beam flux density
scattering formulad ! α "2 χ dN number of particles
= csc4 (3.124) scattered into dΩ
4E 2
Ω solid angle
a Nonrelativistic treatment for an inverse-square force law and a fixed scattering centre. Similar scattering results
from either an attractive or repulsive force. See also Conic sections on page 38.
b The correct branch can be chosen by inspection.
c Also the focal points of the hyperbola.
d n is the number of particles per second passing through unit area perpendicular to the beam.
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Inelastic collisionsa

m1 v1 m2 v2 m1 v1 m2 v2

Before collision After collision

v2 − v1 = (v1 − v2 ) (3.125)  coefficient of restitution

Coefficient of  = 1 if perfectly elastic (3.126) vi pre-collision velocities
restitution
 = 0 if perfectly inelastic (3.127) vi post-collision velocities

T ,T  total KE in zero
Loss of kinetic T −T momentum frame
= 1 − 2 (3.128)
energyb T before and after
collision
m1 − m2 (1 + )m2
v1 = v1 + v2 (3.129)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Final velocities mi particle masses
m2 − m1 (1 + )m1
v2 = v2 + v1 (3.130)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
a Along the line of centres, v1 ,v2  c.
b In zero momentum frame.

Oblique elastic collisionsa

v2
θ2
m2 m2
Before collision θ After collision m1
m1 v θ1
v1
θ angle between
m2 sin2θ
Directions of tanθ1 = (3.131) centre line and
m1 − m2 cos2θ incident velocity
motion θ2 = θ (3.132) θi final trajectories
mi sphere masses


> π/2 if m1 < m2
Relative
θ1 + θ2 = π/2 if m1 = m2 (3.133)
separation angle 

< π/2 if m1 > m2
(m21 + m22 − 2m1 m2 cos2θ)1/2
v1 = v (3.134) v incident velocity
Final velocities m1 + m2 of m1
2m1 v vi
v2 = cosθ (3.135) final velocities
m1 + m2
a Collision between two perfectly elastic spheres: m2 initially at rest, velocities  c.
 main January 25, 2000 14:26

Dynamics and mechanics

1.5 Rigid body dynamics

Moment of inertia tensor


Moment of r r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
Iij = (r 2 δij − xi xj ) dm (3.136)
inertia tensora δij Kronecker delta
& & &  I moment of inertia
(y 2 + z 2 ) dm − xy dm − xz dm tensor
 & & 2 & 
I =  − xy dm (x + z 2 ) dm − yz dm  dm mass element
& & & 2
− xz dm − yz dm (x + y 2 ) dm xi position vector of
dm
(3.137)
Iij components of I
Y
I12 = I12 − ma1 a2 (3.138) IijY tensor with respect
to centre of mass
Parallel axis Y
I11 = I11 + m(a22 + a23 ) (3.139) ai ,a position vector of
theorem centre of mass
Iij = IijY + m(|a|2 δij − ai aj ) (3.140)
m mass of body

Angular J angular momentum

J = Iω (3.141)
momentum ω angular velocity

Rotational 1 1
T = ω · J = Iij ωi ωj (3.142) T kinetic energy
kinetic energy 2 2
ii are the moments of inertia of the body. Iij (i = j) are its products of inertia. The integrals are over the body
aI

volume.

Principal axes
  I principal moment of
Principal I1 0 0 inertia tensor
moment of I =  0 I2 0 (3.143) Ii principal moments of
inertia tensor 0 0 I3 inertia
J angular momentum
Angular J = (I1 ω1 ,I2 ω2 ,I3 ω3 ) (3.144) ωi components of ω
momentum along principal axes
Rotational 1
T = (I1 ω12 + I2 ω22 + I3 ω32 ) (3.145) T kinetic energy
kinetic energy 2

Moment of T = T (ω1 ,ω2 ,ω3 ) (3.146)

inertia ∂T
Ji = (J is ⊥ ellipsoid surface) (3.147) I3
ellipsoida ∂ωi
# I1
Perpendicular ≥ I3 generally I2
axis theorem I1 + I2 (3.148)
= I3 flat lamina ⊥ to 3-axis
lamina
I1 = I2 = I3 asymmetric top
Symmetries I1 = I2 = I3 symmetric top (3.149)
I1 = I2 = I3 spherical top
a The ellipsoid is defined by the surface of constant T .
 main January 25, 2000 14:26

Moments of inertiaa
ml 2 l
I1 = I2 = (3.150)
Thin rod, length l 12
I3 I2
I3  0 (3.151)
I1
2 I1
Solid sphere, radius r I1 = I2 = I3 = mr 2 (3.152)
5 r I3
2
Spherical shell, radius r I1 = I2 = I3 = mr 2 (3.153) I2
3
  l
m 2 l2
I1 = I2 = r + (3.154) I1 I3
Solid cylinder, radius r, 4 3
r I2
length l 1
I3 = mr 2 (3.155)
2
I1
I1 = m(b2 + c2 )/12 (3.156)
Solid cuboid, sides a,b,c I2 = m(c2 + a2 )/12 (3.157) I3
a I2
I3 = m(a2 + b2 )/12 (3.158)
b
  c
2
3 h
I1 = I2 = m r2 + (3.159)
Solid circular cone, base 20 4
I3 I h
radius r, height hb 3 2
I3 = mr 2 (3.160)
10 I r
1

2
I1 = m(b + c )/5 2
(3.161) I3
Solid ellipsoid, semi-axes I2 = m(c2 + a2 )/5 (3.162) a c b
a,b,c I2
I3 = m(a2 + b2 )/5 (3.163) I1

I2
I1 = mb2 /4 (3.164) b I1
Elliptical lamina, I2 = ma2 /4
semi-axes a,b
(3.165) I3 a
I3 = m(a2 + b2 )/4 (3.166)
I2
2 r I1
I1 = I2 = mr /4 (3.167) I3
Disk, radius r
I3 = mr 2 /2 (3.168)
a
m
Triangular plate c I3 = (a2 + b2 + c2 ) (3.169) b I3 c
36
a With respect to principal axes for bodies of mass m and uniform density. The radius of gyration is defined as
k = (I/m)1/2 .
b Origin of axes is at the centre of mass (h/4 above the base).
c Around an axis through the centre of mass and perpendicular to the plane of the plate.
 main January 25, 2000 14:26

Dynamics and mechanics

Centres of mass
Solid hemisphere, radius r d = 3r/8 from sphere centre (3.170)

Hemispherical shell, radius r d = r/2 from sphere centre (3.171)

Sector of disk, radius r, angle 2 sinθ

d= r from disk centre (3.172)
2θ 3 θ
Arc of circle, radius r, angle sinθ
d=r from circle centre (3.173)
2θ θ
Arbitrary triangular lamina, d = h/3 perpendicular from base (3.174)
height ha
Solid cone or pyramid, height d = h/4 perpendicular from base (3.175)
h
3 (2r − h)2
Spherical cap, height h, solid: d = from sphere centre (3.176)
4 3r − h
sphere radius r shell: d = r − h/2 from sphere centre (3.177)

Semi-elliptical lamina, 4h
d= from base (3.178)
height h 3π
ah is the perpendicular distance between the base and apex of the triangle.

Pendulums
P period
   g gravitational acceleration l θ0
Simple l θ02
pendulum P = 2π 1 + + ··· (3.179) l length
g 16 θ0 maximum angular m
displacement
  l
Conical l cosα 1/2 α cone half-angle
α
pendulum P = 2π (3.180)
g m
 1/2 I0 moment of inertia of bob
Torsional lI0
penduluma P = 2π (3.181) C torsional rigidity of wire l I0
C (see page 81)
 a distance of rotation axis
1 from centre of mass
P  2π (ma2 + I1 cos2 γ1 m mass of body I1
a
Compound mga I3
pendulumb 1/2 Ii principal moments of
2 2 inertia I2
+ I2 cos γ2 + I3 cos γ3 ) (3.182)
γi angles between rotation
axis and principal axes
l
Equal  1/2 m
l
double P  2π √ (3.183) l
pendulumc (2 ± 2)g m
a Assuming the bob is supported parallel to a principal rotation axis.
b I.e., an arbitrary triaxial rigid body.
c For very small oscillations (two eigenmodes).
 main January 25, 2000 14:26

Tops and gyroscopes

J 3
herpolhode ω
space J3
invariable cone polhode
plane Ωp
body
moment cone θ
of inertia support point
ellipsoid a mg
2

prolate symmetric top gyroscope

G1 = I1 ω̇1 + (I3 − I2 )ω2 ω3 (3.184) Gi external couple (= 0 for free

rotation)
Euler’s equations a G2 = I2 ω̇2 + (I1 − I3 )ω3 ω1 (3.185)
Ii principal moments of inertia
G3 = I3 ω̇3 + (I2 − I1 )ω1 ω2 (3.186) ωi angular velocity of rotation

I1 − I3
Ωb = ω3 (3.187) Ωb body frequency
Free symmetric I1
Ωs space frequency
topb (I3 < I2 = I1 ) J
Ωs = (3.188) J total angular momentum
I1
Free asymmetric (I1 − I3 )(I2 − I3 ) 2
Ω2b = ω3 (3.189)
topc I1 I2
Ωp precession angular velocity
Ω2p I1 cosθ − Ωp J3 + mga = 0 (3.190) θ angle from vertical
Steady gyroscopic # J3 angular momentum around
precession Mga/J3 (slow) symmetry axis
Ωp  
(3.191)
J3 /(I1 cosθ) (fast) m mass
g gravitational acceleration
a distance of centre of mass
Gyroscopic J32 ≥ 4I1 mgacosθ (3.192) from support point
stability I1 moment of inertia about
support point
Gyroscopic limit J32  I1 mga (3.193)
(“sleeping top”)

Nutation rate Ωn = J3 /I1 (3.194) Ωn nutation angular velocity

Gyroscope mga
Ωp = (1 − cosΩn t) (3.195) t time
released from rest J3
a Components are with respect to the principal axes, rotating with the body.
b The body frequency is the angular velocity (with respect to principal axes) of ω around the 3-axis. The space
frequency is the angular velocity of the 3-axis around J , i.e., the angular velocity at which the body cone moves
around the space cone.
c J close to 3-axis. If Ω2 < 0, the body tumbles.
b
 main January 25, 2000 14:26

Dynamics and mechanics

1.6 Oscillating systems

Free oscillations
x oscillating variable
2 t time
Differential dx dx
equation + 2γ + ω02 x = 0 (3.196) γ damping factor (per unit
dt2 dt mass)
ω0 undamped angular frequency

Underdamped x = Ae−γt cos(ωt + φ) (3.197) A amplitude constant

φ phase constant
solution (γ < ω0 ) where ω = (ω02 − γ 2 )1/2 (3.198) ω angular eigenfrequency

Critically damped x = e−γt (A1 + A2 t) (3.199) Ai amplitude constants

solution (γ = ω0 )

Overdamped x = e−γt (A1 eqt + A2 e−qt ) (3.200)

solution (γ > ω0 ) where q = (γ 2
− ω02 )1/2 (3.201)

Logarithmic an 2πγ ∆ logarithmic decrement

∆ = ln = (3.202)
decrementa an+1 ω an nth displacement maximum
ω0  π 
Quality factor Q=  if Q1 (3.203) Q quality factor
2γ ∆
a The decrement is usually the ratio of successive displacement maxima but is sometimes taken as the ratio of successive

displacement extrema, reducing ∆ by a factor of 2. Logarithms are sometimes taken to base 10, introducing a further
factor of log10 e.

Forced oscillations
x oscillating variable
Differential d2 x dx t time
equation + 2γ + ω02 x = F0 eiωf t (3.204)
dt2 dt γ damping factor (per unit
mass)

x = Aei(ωf t−φ) , where (3.205) ω0 undamped angular frequency

Steady- A = F0 [(ω02 − ωf2 )2 + (2γωf )2 ]−1/2 (3.206) F0 force amplitude (per unit
mass)
state F0 /(2ω0 ) ωf forcing angular frequency
 (γ  ωf ) (3.207)
solutiona [(ω0 − ωf )2 + γ 2 ]1/2 A amplitude
2γωf φ phase lag of response behind
tanφ = 2 (3.208) driving force
ω0 − ωf2
Amplitude 2
ωar = ω02 − 2γ 2 (3.209) ωar amplitude resonant forcing
resonanceb angular frequency

Velocity ωvr = ω0 (3.210) ωvr velocity resonant forcing

resonancec angular frequency

Quality ω0
Q= (3.211) Q quality factor
factor 2γ
ωf2 − ω02
Impedance Z = 2γ + i (3.212) Z impedance (per unit mass)
ωf
a Excluding the free oscillation terms.
b Forcing frequency for maximum displacement.
c Forcing frequency for maximum velocity. Note φ = π/2 at this frequency.