HORTSCIENCE 54(9):1448–1458. 2019. [Link]

21273/HORTSCI14073-19 The term controlled-environment agricul-

ture (CEA) was first introduced in the 1960s
Controlled Environment Food and refers to an intensive approach for con-
trolling plant growth and development by
Production for Urban Agriculture capitalizing on advanced horticultural tech-
niques and innovations in technology (Hodges
Celina G
omez2 et al., 1968). Controlled environments (CEs)
provide advantages to predict plant responses
Environmental Horticulture Department, University of Florida, 1549 Fifield to their environment and increase production
Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611 efficiency, optimize plant yield, and improve
product quality. They play a key role in the
Christopher J. Currey commercial production of ornamental plants
Department of Horticulture, Iowa State University, 008 Horticulture Hall, and vegetable crops and in the production of
Ames, IA 50011 young plant material from seed, cuttings, or
tissue-culture (Jensen, 2002; Kozai and Niu,
Ryan W. Dickson 2016a). The recent increase in market demand
Department of Horticulture, University of Arkansas, PTSC 311, Fayetteville, for locally grown produce is generating interest
AR 72701 in applying CEA practices to urban agriculture
(UA), including small- (e.g., in-home produc-
Hye-Ji Kim tion or indoor gardens), medium- (e.g., com-
Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, munity gardens), or large-scale commercial
625 Agriculture Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907 operations [e.g., rooftop greenhouses or
warehouse-based indoor ‘‘plant factories’’
Ricardo Hern
andez (PFs), sometimes referred to as vertical, ware-
Department of Horticultural Sciences, North Carolina State University, 2721 house, or container farms] (Eaves and Eaves,
2018; Jansen et al., 2016).
Founders Drive, Suite 170, Raleigh, NC 27695 Before land and labor shortages prompted
Nadia C. Sabeh by the Industrial Revolution forced food pro-
duction to move away from cities, agriculture
Dr. Greenhouse, Inc., 930 Alhambra Boulevard, Suite 260, Sacramento, CA 95816 was central to urban environments and their
Rosa E. Raudales planning (Vitiello and Brinkley, 2014). Al-
though some efforts were made to promote UA
Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of by documenting health, educational, and social
Connecticut, 1376 Storrs Road, Storrs CT 06269 benefits, urban food production was viewed
mostly as a strategy to reduce pressure on the
Robin G. Brumfield public food supply during hardships such as
Department of Agriculture, Food and Resource Economics, Rutgers war (Hynes and Howe, 2004; Lawson, 2005).
University, 55 Dudley Road, New Brunswick, NJ 08901 However, recent shifts in consumption pat-
terns are allowing UA to make a comeback
Angela Laury-Shaw through its concerted efforts to address sus-
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, tainability issues in our food system (e.g.,
2577 Food Sciences Building, 536 Farm House Lane, Ames, IA 50011 reduced dependence on fossil fuels, increased
food security) and promote social and envi-
Adam K. Wilke1 ronmental cohesion (Peterson et al., 2015).
Iowa State University Extension and Outreach, 418 East Hall, Ames, IA 50011 CEs have tremendous potential for commer-
cial urban food production. The high plant
Roberto G. Lopez density and year-round production attainable
Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University, 1066 Bogue Street, with CEA optimize space use and can help
East Lansing, MI 48824 overcome challenges associated with costs and
availability of land in urban settings. More-
Stephanie E. Burnett over, soilless culture systems allow plants to
School of Food and Agriculture, The University of Maine, 5722 Deering Hall, grow in nonconventional spaces, as opposed to
fertile soil, while maximizing use of available
Orono, ME 04469 resources (e.g., water and nutrients). For a
Additional index words. economics, food safety, food security, greenhouse, plant factory, comprehensive review of the benefits from
review, sole-source lighting, and supplemental lighting CEA in UA, see Kozai and Niu (2016b) and
Takagaki et al. (2016).
Abstract. The recent increased market demand for locally grown produce is generating For UA producers to benefit from CEA,
interest in the application of techniques developed for controlled environment agriculture results from studies evaluating the applicabil-
(CEA) to urban agriculture (UA). Controlled environments have great potential to ity of CEs for commercial food production
revolutionize urban food systems, as they offer unique opportunities for year-round should be considered. Although profitability
production, optimizing resource-use efficiency, and for helping to overcome significant will typically depend on the local demand and
challenges associated with the high costs of production in urban settings. For urban supply of food, location, population density,
growers to benefit from CEA, results from studies evaluating the application of controlled facility design, and crops produced, prelimi-
environments for commercial food production should be considered. This review includes nary research suggests that economic sustain-
a discussion of current and potential applications of CEA for UA, references discussing ability for commercial CEA requires careful
appropriate methods for selecting and controlling the physical plant production environ- consideration of capital investment and
ment, resource management strategies, considerations to improve economic viability, operating costs, production volume, product
opportunities to address food safety concerns, and the potential social benefits from quality and consistency, and local market
applying CEA techniques to UA. Author’s viewpoints about the future of CEA for urban trends (Al-Kodmany, 2018; Kozai et al.,
food production are presented at the end of this review. 2016). A review of key studies, followed by

1448 HORTSCIENCE VOL. 54(9) SEPTEMBER 2019

 REVIEWS

a discussion of current and potential applica- tural support to satisfy building codes and strate, substrate components, and amendments
tions regarding opportunities and limitations of withstand strong wind loads and substantial used to adjust substrate pH. Raviv et al. (2019)
commercial CEA for urban food production sun exposure (Meier et al., 2013). Numerous also discuss common irrigation and fertiliza-
follows. studies assess the impact of building rooftop tion equipment used for container production
greenhouses in urban settings from an eco- systems, including overhead, drip, and sub-
Physical Environment nomic (Benis et al., 2018; Sany
e-Mengual irrigation systems. Nelson (2012) provides a
et al., 2015), environmental (Jones and detailed review of management strategies
Production environment. A key benefit of Gilbert, 2018; Nadal et al., 2017; Sanjuan- across soilless culture systems, including strat-
CEA is the ability to modify production Delm
as et al., 2018; Sany
e-Mengual et al., egies on system design, substrates, water and
environments to maximize plant quality and 2018), social (Davis, 2011), and educational fertilizer, production environment, and mar-
yield, extend growing seasons, and enable crop (Nadal et al., 2017; Sany
e-Mengual et al., keting and business planning.
production in unfavorable climatic conditions 2014) perspective. In addition, a number of Substrate selection is a critical aspect of
(e.g., wind, rain, extreme temperature, and commercial operations have demonstrated soilless culture. Primary substrate compo-
limited light). Greenhouses and PFs are the the economic viability of rooftop green- nents (i.e., >40% of the substrate volume)
most common types of CEs used in UA. houses for urban food production (e.g., often consist of organic materials with low
Following the construction of an efficient Gotham Green Farms, Lufa Farms). Fur- bulk density and high water holding capacity,
transportation system after World War II, most thermore, rooftop greenhouse designs can such as peatmoss and coconut coir fiber
commercial greenhouses in the United States include photovoltaic systems and rainwater (Argo and Fisher, 2002). Conversely, sec-
settled in rural locations with favorable cli- harvesting strategies, increasing their poten- ondary components (i.e., <40% substrate
mates (e.g., high-light, moderate temperatures) tial to expand sustainable UA production volume) often include materials such as
or near large markets to improve economic practices. expanded minerals (e.g., perlite and vermic-
viability (Nelson, 2012). Therefore, it is not In contrast, the economic sustainability of ulite), clays, sand, and composts that increase
uncommon for greenhouse-grown food crops indoor PFs has demonstrated to be more drainage and cation exchange capacity to
to travel long distances before reaching con- challenging, in part due to their dependence increase aeration and nutrient retention. Sev-
sumers (Weber and Matthews, 2008). How- on electricity to run all systems (Banerjee and eral authors have reviewed the most common
ever, increasing interest in local food systems Adenaeuer, 2014). Indoor PFs are widely organic and inorganic components of sub-
is bringing attention to the impact that green- used in Asia and are gaining popularity in strates, manufacturing, and cultural plant pro-
house gas emissions associated with food pro- the United States and European countries for duction advantages and disadvantages to using
duction against long-distance distribution producing high-value crops such as leafy different materials (Bunt, 1988; Burnett et al.,
channels (i.e., ‘‘food miles’’) have on our food greens (Kozai et al., 2016). However, most 2016; Raviv et al., 2019).
chain. Although some argue that reducing countries successfully adopting PFs for fresh Hydroponic systems commonly used in
‘‘food miles’’ is necessary to improve the food production have land and/or environ- UA differ in their design and suitability for
sustainability of our food chain (Morgan, 2009; mental limitations, which, coupled with certain crops and production scenarios. The
Paxton, 1994), others call attention to the fact that food-safety concerns, justify the high pro- most common hydroponic systems include
several key transportation factors (e.g., vehicle duction costs. However, preliminary research nutrient-film technique (NFT), deep-water
efficiency, infrastructure, alternative fuels) affect suggests that some U.S. consumers are not culture (DWC; also known as deep-flow
the sustainability of many CEs typically used in willing to pay higher prices for indoor-grown technique, raft, raceway, or floating hydro-
UA (Coley et al., 2009; Mundler and Rumpus, produce (Coyle and Ellison, 2017; Short ponics, among others), and aggregate cul-
2012). However, the potential for reducing et al., 2018). ture. NFT consist of crops grown in sloped
environmental impacts from UA needs to be Production systems. Production systems troughs where a thin film of nutrient solution
assessed from a broad perspective, including for CEA typically consist of soilless culture, flows (either continuously or intermittently)
evaluating the life cycle assessment (LCA) of a with or without the use of an organic or over the roots, whereas DWC systems con-
product and incorporating socioeconomic factors inorganic substrate and with active application sist of crops grown with their roots contin-
(Edwards-Jones et al., 2008). of water and fertilizer, typically provided with uously submerged in a nutrient solution.
Greenhouses built on vacant rooftops of a dilute nutrient solution. Hydroponic pro- Aggregate culture consists of growing crops
city buildings have become popular in recent duction is a type of soilless culture in which in bagged substrates (e.g., rockwool or co-
years as they capitalize on sunlight to pro- plant roots are suspended in either a static, conut coir slabs) or containers (e.g., Dutch/
duce plant products in close proximity to continuously aerated nutrient solution, or in a Bato buckets) with the nutrient solution
consumers. In addition, because rooftops continuous flow or mist (Jones, 2014). The applied using drip emitters. Typically,
represent close to one fourth of residential terms ‘‘soilless culture’’ and ‘‘hydroponics’’ NFT and DWC systems are used for short-
and nonresidential urban areas, they have often are used interchangeably, especially term, non-fruiting crops such as leafy greens
significant potential to contribute to the when using substrates that are chemically inert and herbs, whereas long-term fruiting crops
expansion of UA (Getter and Rowe, 2006). and provide little nutrient supply or retention. such as tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum),
Nonetheless, important economic aspects of Crop production using soilless culture or cucumber (Cucumis sativus), sweet pepper
producing in rooftop greenhouses should be hydroponics has several potential benefits (Capsicum annuum), and strawberry (Fra-
considered, as they may require special con- compared with traditional field production, garia ·ananassa) are usually grown in
struction materials, components, and struc- including isolation from soil or water-borne aggregate culture. Several authors have
issues (e.g., nematodes, salinity, or heavy reviewed specific plant species, water and
metals) and an improved ability to control nutrient management, structural design, and
water and nutrient uptake. For comprehensive economic considerations for producing
Received for publication 22 Mar. 2019. Accepted reviews about the benefits of using soilless crops in NFT and DWC (Blok et al., 2017;
for publication 22 May 2019. culture in CEA, see Raviv et al. (2019) and Walters and Currey, 2015), and aggregate
We gratefully acknowledge support from the US Jones (2014). Crops produced using soilless culture (Raviv et al., 2019; Sonneveld and
Department of Agriculture National Institute of culture often are grown in containers, troughs, Voogt, 2009).
Food and Agriculture, Multistate Research Project or bags with a limited volume, allowing for Soilless culture and hydroponic systems
NE1835: Resource Optimization in Controlled efficient root-zone management. Argo and used in CEs also provide opportunities for
Environment Agriculture and thank Dr. A.J. Both
for his valuable review.
Fisher (2002), Bunt (1988), and Raviv et al. producing medicinal and pharmaceutical
1
Current address: University of Minnesota Water (2019) list common sources of nutrients in crops with high quality, purity, consistency,
Resources Center, 183 McNeal Hall, 1985 Buford soilless culture, which include the raw irriga- bioactivity, and biomass (Hayden, 2006;
Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108. tion water, fertilizers either dissolved in the Lopez and Runkle, 2017; Papadopoulos
2
Corresponding author: E-mail: cgomezv@[Link]. irrigation water or incorporated into a sub- et al., 2001; Potter, 2014). Hayden (2006)

HORTSCIENCE VOL. 54(9) SEPTEMBER 2019 1449

and Maggini et al. (2014) discuss the ad- iron, and manganese may alleviate crop because LED fixtures typically have lower
vantages of using hydroponic systems for growth and yield losses associated with electric power requirements per unit of grow-
producing medicinal crops commonly nutritional deficiencies (Rakocy et al., 2004, ing area (kW·m‒2) and deliver high light
grown in CEs. Moreover, despite being 2006; Roosta and Hamidpour, 2011). intensities with small amounts of radiant heat
regulated as an illicit crop in many coun- delivered to crops, theoretically resulting in
tries, production of cannabis (Cannabis Technologies significant savings for energy-intensive in-
sativa) using soilless culture in CEs has door food production. In addition, by maxi-
increased and gained significant public at- Electric lighting. The daily light integral mizing photon capture efficiency using
tention in recent years, particularly in (DLI) requirement of food crops commonly ‘‘precision’’ or ‘‘smart’’ lighting’’ such as
Europe and North America. Cultivation, grown in CEs typically ranges from 12 to 30 targeted (Poulet et al., 2014), intracanopy
processing, and regulation of cannabis for mol·m‒2·d‒1 (Dorais et al., 2017). Greenhouse (Dueck et al., 2012; G
omez and Mitchell,
medicinal use is reviewed by Potter (2014). production located in regions with consider- 2016; Massa et al., 2005), or dynamic
Aquaponic production, integrating hydro- able seasonal variation in solar radiation (Clausen et al., 2015; Pinho et al., 2012;
ponic systems with aquaculture (i.e., fish typically relies on supplemental lighting to van Iersel, 2017; van Iersel and Gianino,
production), recently has increased in popu- increase DLI (Faust and Logan, 2018). Fur- 2017; van Iersel et al., 2016; Weaver et al.,
larity for UA (dos Santos, 2016). Aquaponics thermore, solar spectrum can vary depending 2019) LED lighting, efficiency of production
involves converting water and organic waste on location, season, and time of day; how- systems can significantly increase. For a
produced by cultivated fish or crustaceans ever, in general, it is composed of 0.1% comprehensive review of the adoption of
into nutrient solutions used for hydroponic ultraviolet-B (280–315 nm), 5% ultraviolet- LEDs in UA see Gupta (2017).
plant production. Potential benefits of aqua- A (315–400 nm), 19% blue (400–500 nm), Carbon dioxide (CO2) enrichment. In
ponics include the ability to increase 25% green (500–600 nm), 26% red (600–700 closed environments with high planting den-
resource-use efficiency (e.g., shared startup, nm), 25% far-red (700–800 nm) (extracted sities (typical for greenhouses and PFs), the
operating, and infrastructure costs) and im- from Kotilainen et al., 2018). High-pressure CO2 concentration can rapidly drop below
prove sustainability (e.g., reduced water use sodium (HPS) lamps are the most common the ambient concentration (approx. 400
and waste discharge to the environment) type of electric light source used in commer- mmol·mol‒1), requiring supplemental CO2
while simultaneously producing fish and food cial greenhouses, whereas metal halide lamps injection to avoid limiting photosynthesis
crop commodities (Tyson et al., 2011). Recir- are used occasionally because of their higher and plant growth. Enrichment up to 800
culating the nutrient solution between the blue light output (Menard et al., 2006; Nelson mmol·mol‒1 is typically cost-effective to pro-
hydroponic and aquaculture production com- and Bugbee, 2014). However, the use of mote photosynthesis and growth of most
ponents, essentially forming a completely light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in CEs has plants grown in CEs (Both et al., 2017).
closed system, is termed ‘‘coupled’’ aqua- substantially increased in recent years However, enrichment strategies and benefits
ponics. Due to the technical challenges with (Lopez and Runkle, 2017; Mitchell et al., depend on, among others: plant species, tar-
maintaining appropriate chemical and bio- 2015). get CO2 concentration, environmental con-
logical properties in a recirculating solution, Research comparing LED and HPS lamps trol strategies for light, ambient temperature,
‘‘decoupled’’ aquaponics has been proposed as supplemental lighting sources mainly fo- and humidity, and the cost and source of CO2
as a more efficient alternative to ‘‘coupled’’ cuses on: 1) evaluating potential reductions injection (e.g., equipment and electricity)
aquaponics. In ‘‘decoupled’’ aquaponics, the in energy consumption; and 2) understanding (Both et al., 2017). Indoor CO2 concentration
aquaculture effluent is collected and supple- the effects of light spectra on plant growth, can be increased by releasing pure gas or by
mented with specific nutrients for higher morphology, and quality. Although HPS producing CO2 from fuel combustion. When
yield of fish and hydroponic food crops lamps have a set spectrum that typically is using the latter approach, carbon monoxide
(Kloas et al., 2015). However, commercial composed of approx. 5% blue, 49% green, and ethylene production are also important
applications of ‘‘decoupled’’ aquaponics are 39% red, and 7% far-red (measurements from factors to consider with CO2 enrichment, as
still under development. Although integrated a 600-W HPS fixture; P.L. Light Systems they can be toxic to plants at relatively low
aquaponic production systems have been Inc., Beamsville, ON, Canada), LED fixtures concentrations and may result from ineffi-
used for over 30 years, the commercial can have different color diodes to achieve cient fuel combustion or by improperly ad-
application of aquaponics is relatively new customized spectra. However, the most com- justed burners (Nelson, 2012).
to UA. For a comprehensive review on the mon LED fixtures available for plant lighting Several studies report responses of differ-
history of aquaponics see Palm et al. (2018). contain mainly red and blue diodes (10% to ent food crops to CO2 enrichment. Generally,
For appropriate functioning, aquaponic 25% blue diodes), with some fixtures in- studies suggest that doubling ambient CO2
systems require balancing multiple factors, cluding a small number of far-red and/or levels increases lettuce yield by 25 to 60%
including solution pH (Wongkiew et al., white diodes. For a review of different uses, (Chagvardieff et al., 1994; P
erez-L
opez et al.,
2017a; Zou et al., 2016), plant and animal fixture characteristics, and application of 2015). Conversely, some report small or non-
density (Buzby and Lin, 2014; Hussain et al., LEDs for supplemental lighting in CEA see significant differences in lettuce fresh and dry
2014, 2015), solution flow rates (Hussain Lopez and Runkle (2017) and Mitchell et al. mass grown under elevated CO2 (>800 ppm)
et al., 2015; Khater and Ali, 2015; Wongkiew (2015). compared with ambient levels (Fu et al., 2015;
et al., 2017b), economics (Quagrainie et al., Although initial efforts to produce high- Mortensen, 1994; Park and Lee, 2001). Yield
2018; Tokunaga et al., 2015), system config- value food crops in warehouse-based PFs (kg per plant) of strawberry plants grown in
uration (Klemencic and Bulc, 2015; Monsees used water-cooled HPS lamps, challenges CEs significantly increases by doubling the
et al., 2017), and food safety considerations associated with their economic and thermal ambient CO2 concentration (Enoch et al.,
(Elumalai et al., 2017; Pantanella et al., 2015). management negate the application of these 1976; Sun et al., 2012). For cucumber, sup-
Several authors have reviewed system types, lamps for sole-source lighting in multitiered plemental nitrate enhances the positive effects
management, and potential profitability of PFs (Mitchell and Stutte, 2015). Fluorescent of CO2 enrichment on fruit yield (Dong et al.,
aquaponic production systems (Blidariu and lamps have been commonly used for indoor 2017; Enoch et al., 1976). However, Peet
Grozea, 2011; Lewis et al., 1978; Love et al., CEA for many years. However, with increas- (1986) found no response to cucumber pro-
2015). ing light efficacy (mmol·J‒1), capital cost duction under an elevated CO2 concentration.
Leaf chlorosis and/or reduced yields are reductions, and widespread availability, Similarly, although some studies report to-
reported for some crops grown in aquaponics, LEDs are becoming the light source of choice mato yield increases with CO2 enrichment
such as tomato (unpublished data) and egg- for PFs. In fact, introducing commercial (Calvert and Slack, 1975), others have re-
plant (Solanum melongena) (Roosta and LEDs as plant lighting sources was a major ported increased individual fruit mass and
Mohsenian, 2015). However, supplementing contributing factor to the renewed interest in number of high-rated fruits, but no increase
aquaponic solutions with potassium, sulfur, CEA for urban food production. This is in total yield (Peet and Willits, 1984).

1450 HORTSCIENCE VOL. 54(9) SEPTEMBER 2019

 Heuvelink and Kierkels (2015) reported Under high-humidity conditions in CEs, equipment (i.e., sensible heat) (Graamans
that in general, CO2 enrichment from 400 to water vapor has to be removed from the air to et al., 2017). When sizing a heating, ventila-
1000 mmol·mol‒1 in CEs can increase total maintain desirable humidity levels. The tion, and air conditioning system, it is impor-
yield by 35 to 50%. For comparison, yield lowest-cost, lowest-energy method of dehu- tant to consider 1) the increase in humidity in
increases with higher DLIs are often linear, midification is ventilation, which is the ex- the air from plant transpiration; 2) the evap-
as commonly observed in yield differences change of indoor air with outdoor air, either orative cooling effect of plant transpiration;
between greenhouse crops produced during with fans or vents (Wang et al., 2016). and 3) the resulting increase in latent and
spring-to-summer vs. fall-to-winter seasons Ventilation works best when outside air is decrease in sensible heat that has to be
(Acock et al., 1971; Cockshull, 1992; dry and cool. Therefore, in northern climates removed from the growing environment.
Kubota et al., 2016). Also, responses to during winter conditions, ventilation is
CO2 enrichment are species-specific and mainly used for dehumidification. However, Resource Management
concentrations above 1000 mmol·mol‒1 are if the outside air is too cold, simultaneous
not typical for commercial production, since heating is needed to maintain the desired air Resource cycling and environmental
several studies have shown little or no temperature. Alternatively, if the outside air footprint of CEA in UA. Recent LCA studies
additional benefit at higher concentrations is too hot, cooling will be needed, usually in urban settings provide insights in the
(Calvert and Slack 1975; Enoch et al., 1976; with an air conditioner (common practice for carbon footprint of several CE systems.
Peet and Willits, 1984). Furthermore, crops PFs) (Kozai et al., 2016). Growers typically Sany
e-Mengual et al. (2015) report that the
with high harvest indices (dry mass of make economic decisions to balance the cost environmental impact of a rooftop green-
harvestable organs/total plant biomass of of temperature control with the benefits of house in a city is higher at the construction
plant) such as leafy greens benefit most from lower humidity obtained by ventilation. stage and lower during the cultivation and
CO2 enrichment, as increases in photosyn- Kubota et al. (2006) reports that under typical transportation stages compared with a multi-
thesis directly affect the harvestable portion semiarid midday weather, humidity control span greenhouse in a rural area. Goldstein
of the plant (i.e., leaves). In contrast, bene- inside the greenhouse is very efficient. In et al. (2016) concludes that the overall
fits from CO2 supplementation are less contrast, humidity control in greenhouses environmental impact of urban CEA depends
significant with fruiting crops because in- located in continental climates is challenging on the local energy costs and production
creased photosynthesis does not directly in the winter months when using ventilation materials, and suggest that CEA for urban
translate into increased fruit yield. (Kubota et al., 2006). Therefore, the common food production might be better-adapted to
Humidity control. In CEs, the areal hu- humidity set point in greenhouses located in mild climates. While results from these pro-
midity (both absolute and relative) is affected continental climates is 80 to 85% relative jects cannot be extrapolated to all locations or
by several factors, such as plant transpiration humidity (K€ orner and Challa, 2003). CEA structures, they underline the impor-
rate, irrigation strategy, infiltration and ven- Ventilation is not desirable in PF opera- tance of breaking down environmental foot-
tilation, and active systems used to humidify tions due to reductions in CO2-use-efficiency print and costs by processes in the supply
or dehumidify the air (von Caemmerer and from venting out supplemental CO2 and the chain and location.
Baker, 2007). Managing humidity is essential potential introduction of pests from the out- CEA is energy intensive. Some studies
for optimal plant growth and development, doors (Kozai, 2013). For that reason, de- conclude that the establishment and infrastruc-
but it is often the hardest environmental humidification with air conditioning is ture of CEA in cities can have a high envi-
parameter to fully control in CEs. Although typically used in PFs, as opposed to ventila- ronmental and economic footprint (Coley
relative humidity is the most common mea- tion in greenhouses. However, reports using et al., 2009; de Villiers et al., 2011; Mundler
sure of humidity, it is not indicative of the an internal dehumidification system in the and Rumpus, 2012). In addition, the energy
plant’s relationship to humidity. Vapor pres- greenhouse (dehumidifier or heat pump) in- requirement for heating in northern climates
sure deficit (VPD) is the driving force of dicate reductions in energy consumption can be high. Therefore, some debate whether
water loss from a leaf, and therefore, it is a compared with the venting-heating technique reducing distance from source to consumer
more accurate measure of humidity in CEs. A (de Zwart, 2014; Vallieres et al., 2014). justifies the high-energy footprint of CEA in
review of the thermodynamic properties of Furthermore, several studies have evaluated urban settings (Goldstein et al., 2016; Sany
e-
moist air and their effect on plant growth in night-time greenhouse dehumidification us- Mengual et al., 2015; Weber and Matthews,
CEs can be found in Hanan (1997) and Kozai ing a heat pump to prevent condensation on 2008). Alternative energy resources, such as
et al. (2016). foliage (Boulard et al., 1989; Campen et al., geothermal, solar, wind, and hydropower, can
Plant transpiration generally increases 2003; Chass
eriaux and Gaschet, 2011; be an improvement over traditional carbon-
linearly with increasing VPD, radiation, and Migeon et al., 2012), preventing venting the based energy sources. Nonetheless, local land
air speed. Therefore, all factors indirectly greenhouse during the night to reduce the and infrastructure design need to be consid-
affect nutrient uptake, leaf temperature, and consumption of energy by conditioning (re- ered in the overall footprint of a production
overall plant growth and development. For heating) the air. In some instances, night-time system.
leafy greens and culinary herbs grown in heat-pump dehumidification requires up to five Soilless culture requires less water than
CEs, high VPDs are desirable to prevent times less energy than the common venting- soil-based agriculture. However, environ-
calcium deficiencies such as tipburn (Frantz heating technique (Chass
eriaux et al., mental gains from the overall net effect of
et al., 2004; Goto and Takakura, 1992). For 2014). Furthermore, proof-of-concept stud- water consumption in UA remain to be de-
CE-grown tomato, VPDs in the range of 0.5 ies demonstrate the feasibility of using termined, considering that the irrigation effi-
to 1.0 kPa are positively correlated with desiccant-based systems to absorb moisture ciency (kg·m‒3) and indirect water use (e.g.,
increases in fruit yield and stomatal conduc- from the greenhouse environment during for cooling and heating) depends on the
tance, and reductions of blossom-end rot and periods with high humidity (Davies, 2005; system infrastructure, irrigation design, and
fungal diseases (Barker, 1990; Guichard Lychnos and Davies, 2012; Mei and Dai, location, among other production factors.
et al., 2005; Leonardi et al., 1999; Shamshiri 2008). The multidimensional concept of water foot-
et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2017). Studies also Transpiration increases the amount of print considers the whole supply chain, as
report that low nighttime VPDs enhance water in the air and increases the energy well as geographical and temporal parame-
calcium uptake of young and inner straw- content (i.e., enthalpy) of the air. Heating, ters. Hoekstra et al. (2011) define water
berry leaves (Bradfield and Guttridge, 1979; ventilation, and air conditioning systems are footprint of a product as ‘‘the total volume
Choi et al., 1997), whereas VPDs <0.1 kPa able to cool the air (remove energy) while of fresh water that is used directly or in-
for at least 3 h each night help prevent lowering the humidity (dehumidification). In directly to produce the product.’’ In urban
calcium deficiencies in strawberries pro- PFs, it is not uncommon for the energy input CEs, the water footprint of the whole system
duced under environments with high daytime from transpiration (i.e., latent heat) to be must be considered to measure the true
VPD (Kroggel and Kubota, 2017). larger than the energy input from electric impact on water resources. Rainwater and

HORTSCIENCE VOL. 54(9) SEPTEMBER 2019 1451

wastewater are potential water sources for the kept the number of urban farms small. For 2011; Kopsell and Kopsell, 2008; Vicente
production system. However, it is unknown UA to be viable, CEs must derive profits from et al., 2009). Using CEs provide opportunities
how capturing rainwater in urban environ- extending the economic benefit to the local for improving the quality of horticultural
ments may affect the entire water system community, or by focusing on targeted sales commodities through precise control and ma-
(Goldstein et al., 2016; Hoekstra et al., 2011). to markets that can pay high prices nipulation of these factors. For example, plant
In addition, wastewater must be treated to (Brumfield and Singer, 2018; Singer and phytochemicals serve functional roles in re-
reduce human health risks from pathogens, Brumfield, 2017). sponse to environmental stress, and many of
pharmaceuticals, or excess salts, which can UA can bring value to local communities the compounds protecting plant cells also
be energy-intensive. Goldstein et al. (2016) by providing opportunities for strengthening protect human cells (Demmig-Adams and
show that the total amount of water and social bonds, expressing and maintaining cul- Adams, 2002). Thus, environments inducing
nutrient use per crop for production in CEA tural heritage, and engaging in activities pro- plant protection can stimulate accumulation
can be lower compared with conventional moting social and political change (Steele, of nutritional compounds of interest to con-
agriculture. Nonetheless, until indirect ef- 2017). A social business model offers oppor- sumers.
fects on the overall water system are tunities for alternate funding sources from Although high light intensities are associ-
accounted for, the net effect on water con- schools, governmental programs, or donors ated with phytochemical accumulation, main-
sumption in urban setting is unknown. particularly interested in education, research, taining high light with sole-source or
Fertilizer applications in CEA are more or community development. Some businesses supplemental lighting in CEs increases oper-
efficient compared with field production be- have reduced labor costs through the assis- ating costs and may induce photoinhibition
cause of targeted applications (in time and tance or use of volunteers (Reisman, 2012). (Bian et al., 2015). Therefore, optimum light
space) and the physical ease of recirculating In addition, commercial CE businesses with intensities should be considered to avoid these
nutrient solutions (Goldstein et al., 2016). In an integrated educational component offer issues while maximizing phytochemical accu-
urban environments, human food waste could the social benefit of providing job training mulation. Increasing light intensity across the
be used as fertilizer sources for plant pro- and skill development for individuals. For range of 100 to 400 mmol·m–2·s–1 increases
duction (Chiew et al., 2015; Spangberg et al., example, CEA offers students opportunities accumulation of lutein and b-carotene in kale
2014). However, while integrating solid and to learn about food systems, nutrition, tech- (Brassica oleracea) (Lefsrud et al., 2006) and
liquid waste to supply nutrients for UA is nology, and environmental sustainability, spinach (Spinacea oleracea) (Li et al., 2011)
technically feasible, its implementation and as well as teaching skills in customer ser- grown indoor with LEDs. Similarly, increas-
technology requires maximum integration to vice, leadership, marketing, and fundraising ing light intensity with supplemental HPS
make it economically feasible (Villarroel (Steele, 2017). lamps increases nutritional quality of vegeta-
Walker et al., 2014). Consumer sociodemographic background bles grown in the greenhouse. For example,
typically drives preferences and willingness increasing light intensity increases sugar con-
Economic Environment to pay for local food products. Yue and Tong tent in tomato (Dorais and Gosselin, 2002) and
(2009) show that urban consumers are more soluble sugars in lettuce (Fu et al., 2012).
Although buying local food products may likely to buy locally grown produce com- Additionally, chicory (Cichorium endivium),
not be economically cost-effective in terms of pared with rural consumers. Therefore, due to lettuce, mizuna (Brassica rapa var. niposin-
comparative advantages, consumer groups the high costs associated with CEs for urban ica), and chard (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris)
endorse UA for a number of reasons, such as food production, some urban growers target grown at a high light intensity contain higher
to support local economies, promote environ- high-value niche products (e.g., microgreens total phenolic content compared with those
mental sustainability, and reduce food insecu- and heirloom tomatoes), charging premium grown at lower intensities (Colonna et al.,
rity by providing access to local, fresh food in prices to cover the added costs of operating in 2016).
inner-city food deserts (Ikerd, 2017; Peterson the city. To increase profitability, urban Manipulating light spectra also affects the
et al., 2015; Scharber and Dancs, 2015; Steele, growers also target high-end restaurants and quality of plant products, even at low light
2017). Although interest in UA is growing, supermarkets, whose customers are prepared intensities. Although various light sources
few studies evaluate its cost effectiveness. For to pay a premium price for locally-grown are used to grow plants in CEs, the narrow-
example, studies compare rooftop green- produce (Sace and Natividad, 2015). band light output produced by LEDs offer the
houses with other rooftop production systems, opportunity to manipulate spectra to control
but not to the cost of greenhouse production in Potential Improvement of Product flavor, pigmentation, and other consumer-
rural areas (Quagrainie et al., 2018; Tokunaga Quality in CEA desired traits in CE-grown plants. While
et al., 2015). There is a need for research that promising, there are inconsistent results on
accurately assesses the return on investment Increasing awareness of health and well- the effects of light spectra on crop quality,
and LCA of various types and sizes of CE ness has generated significant interest in the partly due to the complex interactions of
systems for UA (Al-Kodmany, 2018). nutritional composition and health-promoting multiple factors, including plant genetics
The number of urban farms is currently compounds of fruits and vegetables. The and environmental conditions (e.g., temper-
low due to the many challenges faced by contribution of UA to human health can be ature, light intensity). For a review on the
urban growers, such as tight regulations, significant because urban settings may provide application of light spectra to manipulate
zoning restrictions, limitations to water ac- easier access to fresh food (Orsini et al., 2013). product quality of key crop species see Bian
cess, and high capital and operating costs Fruits and vegetables are excellent sources of et al. (2015), Carvalho and Folta (2014),
(e.g., land and electricity), among others selected minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants, Mitchell et al., (2015), and Samuolien_e
(Reisman, 2012; Steele, 2017). In addition, and their impacts on human health are affected et al. (2017).
shade from tall buildings and skyscrapers is by environmental and cultural factors (Bian High CO2 concentration can also impact
particularly problematic with growing plants et al., 2015; Bjorkman et al., 2011). In plant phytochemical and nutritional com-
in cities, partly explaining the increasing contrast, harmful substances such as nitrate pounds. Based on a meta-analysis using
interest in rooftop greenhouses in urban also can accumulate in these commodities, published literature, Dong et al. (2018) sur-
settings. However, rooftop greenhouses have negatively affecting product quality (Colla veyed the effect of elevated CO2 on the
higher capital costs compared with standard et al., 2018). Environmental and cultural nutritional quality of vegetables. The authors
ground-based greenhouses. An alternative to factors influencing mineral and phytochemical concluded that in general, elevated CO2 has
overcoming issues associated with shade is to content of fruits and vegetables include light potential to improve the quality of vegetable
produce in PFs, but this increases production (intensity, quality, and duration), CO2 concen- crops by increasing fructose, glucose, total
costs even further because of the need for tration, water availability, fertilization, and soluble sugar, total antioxidant capacity, total
adequate environmental control (Banerjee pH, as well as plant species, cultivar, and phenols, total flavonoids, ascorbic acid, and
and Adenaeuer, 2014). These high costs have plant developmental stage (Bjorkman et al., calcium (Dong et al., 2018). Water and

1452 HORTSCIENCE VOL. 54(9) SEPTEMBER 2019

nutrient availability also affect the quality of ganisms can survive and multiply (Shaw Social Environment
plant products. Crops grown under water et al., 2016). Orozco et al. (2008) reported
deficit tend to have higher nutrient content that 2.8% of tomatoes harvested from a Humans and social systems are an impor-
than those grown under abundant water, greenhouse were contaminated with Salmo- tant component of the horticultural industry
although this may partly be due to an increase nella and 0.7% with E. coli, whereas other (Lohr and Relf, 2000; Relf and Lohr, 2003).
in concentration per unit dry mass (Bjorkman environments and materials within the green- However in 2012, there were slightly more
et al., 2011). Reducing irrigation increases house tested positive for Salmonella included than three million growers in the United States,
glucosinolate content and total carotenoids in puddles, soil, cleaning cloths, and sponges. which accounted for less than 2% of the
cabbage (Brassica oleracea) and pak choi Food safety–relevant contamination of population (United States Department of Ag-
(Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis), respec- produce can occur during production, har- riculture, 2014). This relatively recent discon-
tively, compared with well-watered plants vest, processing, wholesale storage, distribu- nect from food production presents questions
(Hanson et al., 2009; Radovich et al., 2005). tion, retail, and preparation (i.e., food service concerning the role of horticultural systems in
In addition, manipulating the nutrient solu- or in-home). Contamination also can be human well-being, particularly involving the
tion in soilless culture can help regulate caused by physical aspects (i.e., substrate, role of UA to provide services which promote
secondary metabolite production in fruits water, air, harvesting/processing equipment), public health and other social benefits (Brown
and vegetables (Borgognone et al., 2016; animals (i.e., wild or domesticated), or hu- and Jameton, 2000; Relf, 1992).
Colla et al., 2013; Fallovo et al., 2009). man handlers (Food and Drug Administra- CEA is an important field with many
Similarly, controlling the EC of the nutrient tion, 2018). All growing materials (e.g., unique facets. However, to date, the role of
solution affects the composition and concen- substrates, seeds, fertilizers) should be ob- humans, social benefits, and communities
tration of fruit phytochemicals (Colla et al., tained from vendors who can provide evi- with access to CE systems has not been
2013; Rouphael et al., 2012; Wu and Kubota, dence of following Good Manufacturing thoroughly studied. Although we understand
2008). Practices, including careful monitoring of that urban food production can increase food
personnel, physical plant and grounds main- access in cities, questions remain as to what
Food Safety tenance, sanitary operations, equipment and extent CEA may alter social connections,
utensils, processing controls, warehouse and community capitals, and education in both
Food safety risks for urban food produc- distribution, and holding and distribution of positive and negative ways (Eigenbrod and
tion are triggered by microbiological, chem- human food for use in animal food (Food and Gruda, 2015). By extrapolating from the
ical, or external contaminants within the Drug Administration, 2017). available literature about urban horticultural
system. All of these risks can be prevented, Pathogens of greatest concern in produce production, we hypothesize that urban CE
minimized or reduced through proper train- include viruses (Hepatitis A and norovirus), systems can have benefits for community
ing, documentation, policies, and resources. parasites (Cryptosporidium), and bacteria in- food security, agricultural education, and
The Centers for Disease Control and Pre- cluding Bacillus cereus, Clostridium spp., E. horticultural therapy. For example, integrat-
vention reported that an estimated 48 million coli STEC, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmo- ing CEA and UA has great potential to serve
people (one in six U.S. residents) suffer from nella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Shigella extreme-poverty areas by providing job op-
a food-borne illness each year (Scallan et al., spp., and Campylobacter spp. (Beuchat 2002; portunities and access to fresh food that can
2011); 128,000 are hospitalized, and 3000 die Harris et al., 2003; Olaimat and Holley, support a healthy diet (Bohm, 2017; Specht
each year from foodborne diseases. Between 2012). It is important to note that Salmonella et al., 2014). In addition, hands-on teaching
1998 and 2008, 46% of all food-borne ill- spp. and E. coli O157:H7 are consistently tools, facilitated through demonstrations of
nesses reported were associated with fruits, associated with outbreaks of food-borne ill- CE systems within schools and classrooms,
vegetables, and nuts (Painter et al., 2013). ness, and Listeria monocytogenes has been allow students direct access to understand the
Contamination of fruits and vegetables pro- implicated in fewer, but particularly large, process of food crop production. Previous
duced in the United States is one of the most produce-related outbreaks (Olaimat and Hol- research has shown that school gardens pos-
important issues for the food industry sector ley, 2012). In addition to microbiological itively impact student attitude toward vege-
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, food safety concerns, chemical and heavy tables (Lineberger and Zajicek, 2000).
2011). After recent high-profile outbreaks metal concerns must be considered for urban Furthermore, students experiencing hands-
associated with fresh-cut produce (Centers food production. These contaminants can be on gardening opportunities in school exhibit
for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011; introduced in the water throughout the grow- more positive outlooks toward school
Food and Drug Administration, 2018), ing cycle and can cause harm to consumers if (Waliczek et al., 2001). In addition, CEA
widespread scrutiny of the U.S. fruit and ingested in large amounts (United States may hold benefits to increase access to
vegetable supply underscores a growing Geological Survey, 2013). horticultural therapy. In settings such as
concern regarding the awareness of and Water is an essential component in all prisons (Rice and Remy, 1994) and rehabil-
adherence to best practices by growers and production systems and many foodborne itation centers (Wichrowski et al., 2005),
processors. outbreaks are associated with water contam- horticultural therapy facilitates both psycho-
Typically, fruits and vegetables grown in inated with [Link] O157:H7, Salmonella, logical and physiological healing and recov-
CEs are perceived to have fewer potential and Cyclospora (Hedberg and Osterholm, ery (Lewis, 1994; Simson and Straus, 1997).
food safety concerns than field-grown pro- 1993). Furthermore, water sources can be By incorporating CE technologies into social
duce due to their isolation from the soil and categorized as low risk or high risk. While institutions such as prisons, hospitals, or
wild animals. However, human pathogens municipal water sources are considered low- nursing homes, we may realize additional
can still be introduced into CE production risk due to daily testing by cities and social benefits beyond the individual connec-
systems from various sources including wa- municipalities for E. coli, surface water tion to plants. Furthermore, increasing re-
ter, substrates, and human contact (Olaimat sources (e.g., ponds, streams) are high-risk habilitation time reduce taxpayer burden for
and Holley, 2012; Shaw et al., 2016). In since they are not regularly tested by a social systems and promote overall human
addition, because CEA often uses recirculat- government body. Therefore, the end user health and wellbeing in society.
ing nutrient solutions, human pathogens can is responsible for testing and results are
be introduced into the solutions (i.e., agricul- more easily influenced by watershed activ- Author’s Viewpoints
tural water or nutrients) and rapidly spread ities and seasonal variation. Lopez-Galvez
throughout the production system. Research et al. (2014) showed that the prevalence of Long-term success and economic viabil-
in hydroponic systems show if Escherichia Salmonella spp. was 7.7% in irrigation ity of CEs used for food production largely
coli O157:H7, [Link] non-O157 STEC, and water samples and 62.5% in reclaimed water will depend on future trends in consumer
Salmonella are introduced into systems over sources for tomatoes grown hydroponically preferences and market demand for agricul-
a short period of time (48 h), these microor- in greenhouses. tural products produced in urban settings.

HORTSCIENCE VOL. 54(9) SEPTEMBER 2019 1453

The efficiency of most urban CE systems on four main areas: substrate, water and Conclusions
will be improved by optimizing resources to nutrient solutions, facilities, and people.
maximize crop production and quality. For Prevention of foodborne microorganisms, UA will continue to increase in impor-
example, as LED technologies continue to chemicals, and contaminants from entering tance as populations move into cities and the
increase in efficacy and decrease in cost, into a CE system should be the focus of demand for local food increases. Although
more CE operations will adopt the technol- training and protocols. Employees within currently it is not uncommon for UA to take
ogy to reduce electrical costs and/or to production facilities should be trained on place on relatively inexpensive land in the
improve product quality. Horticultural- how to properly sanitize the facilities, tools, urban core (e.g., public land or city-owned
grade LED fixtures are expected to be and equipment, along with personal health properties that are economically rented to
classified in two main groups: 1) relatively and hygiene (i.e., washing stations, rest- reduce the municipal maintenance burden),
affordable fixtures with fixed spectra, often rooms, clothing, sickness and injury poli- CE food production for UA is expected to
fixed emission rate (light output), high cies). Strict visitor policies minimizing expand to land that is significantly more
efficacy, and simple on/off controllers; and introductions of food safety risks to the expensive than rural farming land. Therefore,
2) custom-made fixtures with advanced crops (e.g., hand washing, disposable boo- one of our goals as CEA researchers will be to
controllers to manipulate emission rate, ties, no-touching policies) should also be continue exploring how to make UA as
spectral control, and/or with sensor integra- implemented. economically, socially, and environmentally
tion. The economic value to end-users will Regarding the sustainability of CEA, sustainable as possible. For example, we will
determine fixture applicability. Nonethe- local and regional limitations and resource try to recommend the most effective lighting
less, HPS lamps will continue to be widely availability must determine the net environ- sources available as we continue to explore
used for greenhouse supplemental lighting mental and economic impacts of CEs in ways to improve the efficiency of implement-
due to their lower initial capital cost and urban environments. The integration of wa- ing LED lighting. We will also assist growers
acceptable efficacy compared with LEDs ter, energy, nutrients, and plant production in in managing available resources to reduce
(approx. 1.7 to 1.9 vs. 2.4 to 3.0 mmol·J‒1 cities could help promote the local food negative impacts of agriculture on the urban
for some LEDs). movement (e.g., eliminate food deserts, fresh environment. We may do this by helping
Future research evaluating ‘‘dynamic’’ produce with large carbon-footprints) by de- growers select irrigation systems and fertil-
control of CO2 enrichment will help reduce livering a neutral net carbon and water izers that will result in less leaching and
the long-term adaptation to high CO2 con- footprint. However, the footprint for crop runoff. This is particularly important in an
centration, which over time, diminishes the production will depend on the crop and urban setting so that UA does not contribute
positive impacts of CO2 enrichment in CEs. location, factors that are not commonly to storm-water management issues. We also
Studies focused on changing concentration considered when assessing the environmental hope to identify crops that are economically
levels during the daytime and/or manipulat- and economic benefits of CEA for urban food viable to grow in an urban environment,
ing the environment to increase CO2 uptake production. Consideration should be given to considering external competition and market
during specific times of the day will be the fact that goods already flow in and out of trends. Furthermore, our research efforts
helpful in furthering our understanding about cities; limiting these flows may result in should consider all energy inputs to ensure
the potential benefits of using CO2 enrich- negative side-effects for UA. Although sci- that local products truly have a lower carbon
ment in CEs. Further studies focusing on entists have advanced our understanding in footprint compared with crops produced out-
breeding or sink-source relationships may CEA and many discuss the potential of in- doors and shipped to the city. Lastly, we must
elucidate ways in which CO2 enrichment tegrating resources in built settings, few have consider that UA creates green spaces in
can increase yield by ensuring translocation investigated a truly integrated system in areas with very few plants, allowing city-
of photoassimilates to the harvestable portion which waste is captured and processed in situ dwellers to connect with how their produce is
of plants. Humidity control will continue to to supply water, nutrients, and energy to local grown. This human connection to plants and
be an important challenge in CE production. CE operations. Engineers and horticulturists food is a major benefit of UA that warrants
However, with the continued technological must work together to improve system per- our support so that urban producers can
development of dehumidification systems formance at the establishment and production benefit from CEA.
(e.g., heat pumps and desiccants), mainly stages, and design truly integrated and effi-
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