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A Survey on Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Pollution

Research · July 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2213.2728

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SEES 595 - Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science

Spring 2016

A Survey on Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Pollution

Kemal İhsan Kılıç

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES.........................................................................................................................3
LIST OF TABLES...........................................................................................................................4
ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER I: Nuclear Energy and Its Uses................................................................................6
I.1. Nuclear Energy and Its Nature........................................................................................6
I.2. Radioactivity...................................................................................................................7
I.3. Use of Nuclear Power and its Environmental Impact...................................................11
CHAPTER II: Nuclear Pollution and Its Properties.................................................................18
II.1. Sources of Nuclear Pollution.......................................................................................18
II.1.1 Natural Sources of Ionizing Radiation..................................................................19
II.1.2 Man-Made (Artificial) Sources of Ionizing Radiation..........................................21
II.2. Radiation Doses and Effects of Nuclear Pollution......................................................25
CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................28
BIBLIOGRAPHY..........................................................................................................................29

2
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Different types of Decay.................................................................................................8

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of a Pressurized water reactor........................................................12
Figure 3: Worldwide Electricity Generation.................................................................................13
Figure 4: Comparison of the different fuel types for generation of electricity.............................14
Figure 5: Estimated levelized cost of electric generation.............................................................15
Figure 6: EROI ratios for different energy sources......................................................................16
Figure 7: CO2 emissions for different energy sources.................................................................16
Figure 8: Mortality in terms of Years of Life Lost (YOLL) per kWh electricity.........................17
Figure 9: Radiation Exposure pathways from Nuclear Power Plants...........................................19
Figure 10: Annual worldwide average doses from different exposure pathways.........................21
Figure 11: Atmospheric and underground tests of the nuclear weapons......................................22
Figure 12: Nuclear Fuel Cycle......................................................................................................23
Figure 13: Sources of ionizing radiation.......................................................................................26

3
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Properties of the particles...................................................................................................9

Table 2: Different measures of Ionizing radiation.........................................................................10
Table 3: Relationship among different dose types.........................................................................10
Table 4: Different nuclear reactor types.........................................................................................11
Table 5: Emission ranges produced by 1 kWh of electricity, based on Life-Cycle Analysis........15
Table 6: Natural sources of ionizing radiation...............................................................................20
Table 7: Average annual worldwide exposure to natural radiation................................................20
Table 8: The doses received by persons from artificial sources of radiation.................................25
Table 9: Typical hourly doses experienced....................................................................................26
Table 10: Indicative dose ranges and their effects on human health.............................................27
Table 11: Approximate lethal doses of radiation for plants and animals.......................................27

4
 ABSTRACT

This paper aims to provide preliminary background understanding for the

issues related to nuclear energy and nuclear pollution. The basic concepts introduced in
bottom up manner, starting from the basic physics of the isotopes. Sources and effects of
the ionizing radiation presented and discussed in a detailed manner. Important concepts
are explained through illustrations and figures. Basic claims are supported with the
scientific data from authorities. Information from diverse disciplines and researchers is
synthesized into instructive survey.

5
 INTRODUCTION

Environmental pollution is one of the significant problems that urged mankind

to act for his survival. Today, “sustainable development” plans contain measures that
directly related to the pollution problem. Normally there is no “waste” in the Nature. The
ecosystem “recycles” everything. However after the Industrial Revolution and Population
Growth, not only “artificial” waste material, but also quantity of the waste started to force
Nature beyond its “carrying capacity”.

In this paper Nuclear (radiation) Pollution aspect of the general pollution

problem will be presented. For this, the nature of the Nuclear Pollution, along with its
effects on the nature will be discussed. Before that basic introduction on the nature of
Nuclear Energy will be presented.

CHAPTER I: Nuclear Energy and Its Uses

Although there are natural causes (so small and can be regarded as negligible)
for the Nuclear Pollution, it is not a result of a deliberate act of polluting. Most of the
pollution is resulting from the “by products” of the Nuclear Energy use. In this sense, the
uses of Nuclear Energy should be mentioned briefly to see the extent of the applications
of the Nuclear Technology in the world. Here the main goal is to see, how the different
uses of the Nuclear Technology can be regarded as different sources of the pollution.

I.1. Nuclear Energy and Its Nature

For mankind “Energy” is important for his life and for his survival. Man
utilizes “forces” that are in the Nature for the Energy. Nuclear force is one of the basic
forces known to man, beside gravitational, electrostatic and electromagnetic forces. For
each force there is ability to do “work”. In fact, when we look at the origin of the word
“energy”, we find that it means “activity” in Greek. Although nuclear force has “short
range”, it is the force that keeps subatomic particles, namely “nucleons” (neutrons and

6
protons) together. Associated to this force there is that “binding energy” (or separation
energy). The mass of the nucleus is less than the sum of its constituents (protons and
neutrons), this is known as the “mass defect”, which is basically, another way of looking
Einstein’s, E=mc2 relation. Mass defect is associated with the amount of energy released
when nucleus is formed. Through “fusion” (small nuclei fuse together) and “fission” (big
nuclei divide into smaller nuclei) exothermic reactions, the released energy can be
utilized. [Murray-Holbert2015].

I.2. Radioactivity

Isotopes are atoms that have same number of protons but different number of
neutrons. In this sense they have different atomic masses and different properties. But
still they are variations of the same element. Both natural and man made isotopes exist in
the nature. Although many isotopes are “stable”, some man made and natural isotopes are
not. They go through process called “decay”, in which “unstable” nuclei disintegrates
(decays). This is due to the imbalance between Coulombic forces and nuclear forces. As
the nucleus decays, releases energy and it can “radiate” (emit) alpha particles, beta
particles, gamma rays. This activity is called “Radioactivity” and elements exhibiting
such properties are called “Radioactive Elements”. In the case of isotopes different terms
can be used like radioisotopes, radioactive isotope, radionuclide, radioactive nuclide. For
example in the following reaction Tritium (sometimes Triton) which is one of the isotope
of the Hydrogen, decays into lighter Helium-3 (non radioactive isotope of Helium).
Through this “beta decay” or “β-decay” (the electron emitted is called high speed beta
particle) energy is released too:
3
1
H→ 32He +−10e

In another example it can be seen “alpha decay” or “α-decay” of the Uranium-238 to

Thorium-234:
238
92
U→ 234
90
Th + 42α

In Figure 1 different types of decays and their products are shown in details.

7
 Figure 1: Different types of Decay. (Source: University of California, Davis.
<URL=[Link]

Each isotope has certain “half-life”, which is the measure of time required for
half of the atoms to “decay”. This measure is important in determining the persistence
characteristic of the nuclear waste. The material remains radioactive till it decays
completely, although it radioactivity decreases as it decays. Some types of waste may
remain hazardous for several hundred of years. The radioactive “activity” is the measure
of the number of disintegrations per second, which has unit of measure as Curie - “Ci”
(named after Marie Curie) or Becquerel - “Bq” (Named after Henri Becquerel). The
difference is that, Bq is measure of one disintegration per second, whereas Ci is based on
the measure of 1 gram of the Radium-226’s disintegration. Basically 1 Ci = 3.7 x 10 10 Bq.
It can be seen that smaller amount of radioactive material and longer half-life is desirable
for having less hazardous effects [Murray-Holbert2015].

“Radiation” is the general term used for carried energy through particles or

8
waves and not specific to radioactive materials. For example electromagnetic radiation,
which is “Non-Ionizing Radiation”, is used for communication. However “Ionizing
Radiation” is a special type of radiation when a radioactive material decays. Ionization
implies removal of electrons. Sometimes the radiation from the radioactive materials has
such a high energy level that when interact with the other materials, electrons can be
removed from atoms. As a result of ionization, chemical bonds can be broken and in this
way harmful effects for the biological tissues can be observed. Especially harm to genetic
information can be propagated to future generations. Besides harmful effects to health,
this type of radiation can also be harmful to electronic devices. There are also beneficial
ways to utilize low energy level radiation from radioactive materials. The emitted
gamma rays from Cobalt-60, can be used in medicine as an alternative to X-rays, since
they have low energy level (1.25Mev) [Murray1981]. In the Table 1 below different types
of ionizing radiation and their penetration potential with respect to the human skin and to
the human body are shown.

Radiation Mass Penetration Potential

α Big Low: Can not pass through human skin*
β Smaller Medium: Can pass through human skin
γ Pure energy with no mass High: Can pass through human body
Table 1: Properties of the particles. *: α-particles can enter human body through ingestion and inhalation.

In the Table 2, different measures for radioactivity and ionizing radiation are
listed. In order to understand the significance of these measure, one has to know the
difference of the stated “dose” types. Here “dose” signifies the amount of energy
absorbed by the human body (or material in general), as the particles (waves) from
ionizing radiation carry energy to be deposited.

9
Unit Symbol Type Description
Becquerel Bq Radioactivity (SI) Radioactive decay per sec
Curie Ci Radioactivity 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq

RAD rad Absorbed Dose (SI) Radiation Absorbed Dose†

Gray Gy Absorbed Dose 1Gy = 100 rad
REM rem Equivalent Dose (SI) rad * relative biological effectiveness‡
Sievert Sv Equivalent Dose 1Sv = 100 rem
Table 2: Different measures of Ionizing radiation. †: rad is the measure of the energy that is absorbed by the living
tissue. ‡: Different types of radiation have different penetration potentials. Because of this their effect on the living
tissue is different. For this rad should be multiplied by factor called “relative biological effectiveness” (radiation
weighing factor) to convert it to rem or Sv. (Source: [Botkin2011])

Radiation doses generally stated in 3 different ways and all are related to each
other. The relationship among these different doses are summarized in Table 3 below. For
the rest of the paper “radiation” can be used to mean “ionizing radiation”.

Dose Description
Absorbed Quantifies the amount of energy absorbed by the target material (i.e. human tissue). Gy
(gray) is the common measure and 1 Gy signifies the 1 unit of energy (as Joule) absorbed
by 1Kg of the tissue or material.
Equivalent As different types of radiation posses different energies, their penetration potential is
different. Multiplying the absorbed dose amount with the “weighing factor (W R)” specific
to radiation type, “Equivalent dose” can be obtained. For example when we consider the
same amount of radiation absorbed from each particle, α-particles can be the most
dangerous compared to others, as they can ionize more than other particles. To find the
“Equivalent Dose” on a tissue under different radiation types weighted sum should be
calculated to find the combined effect.[Rangacharyulu2014]
Effective Equivalent dose can unify the radiation amount coming from different types of particles.
But for the effect of the equivalent dose on the different types of tissues or material,
“Equivalent Dose” should be multiplied by “weighing factor (WT)” specific to tissue or
material type. “Effective Dose” is the sum of all weighted equivalent doses in all tissues.
[Rangacharyulu2014]. Critical analysis on this dose type is given in [Yablokov2013].
Table 3: Relationship among different dose types.

10
 I.3. Use of Nuclear Power and its Environmental Impact

The word “power” is used to stress the ability to do work and the consumption
of energy. After the second world war (use of atomic bomb) there were initiatives to use
the nuclear energy for the benefit of the humanity. In fact during the war, in 1942, the
first controlled nuclear fission experiment carried out by Enrico Fermi at the University
of Chicago. In 1950s Nuclear power plants were built. As of today there exist
technologies that can utilize fission, fusion and decay as energy sources. In utilizing
Nuclear Power the common idea is to utilize the heat energy that emanates from the
nuclear reactions (in controlled manner) to generate steam out of heated water and then
utilize the steam to rotate the generator for the electricity (Figure 2). Most of the Nuclear
235
Power plants uses fission of the enriched Uranium (Uranium-235, U) as a fuel source.
“Fast” type reactors use Plutonium-239 (239Pu) as a fuel, which can also be produced by
the fission of Uranium. We can classify the existing reactor technologies into different
groups depending on the production purpose and the “coolant” type. In the Table 4
different type of reactors are listed. Fast Breeder type reactors are designed to use
Uranium 60-100 times more efficient than the other types. In this respect they are
promising technologies for sustainable electricity production [Cohen1983].

Technology Production Coolant

Boiling Water Electricity Water
Pressurized Water Electricity Water
Heavy Water Electricity, Plutonium Heavy Water - Deuterium Oxide
Graphite Moderated Electricity, Plutonium Gas or Water
Fast Breeder Electricity, Plutonium Liquid Sodium
Table 4: Different nuclear reactor types.

11
 Figure 2: Schematic diagram of a Pressurized water reactor. (Source: US Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
<URL=[Link]

One of the major concerns in using Nuclear Reactors is the safety issue.
Reactors are built in a robust manner but sometimes due to certain technical problems
disasters can be experienced. The “meltdown” is the disastrous nuclear accident in which
the fuel can from high temperature molten mass that can break the protective containment
structure (Figure 2), causing very dangerous radioactive pollution. This happened in the
case of Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima Daiichi (2011) nuclear disasters. The waste
problem is another major problem that has to be dealt. Especially “used fuel” or “spent
fuel” from the reactors is still radioactive and in some cases may not be reused.
Management of such wastes are also costly and hazardous. In the following chapters,
nuclear pollution and its effects will be studied in detail. In Figure 1, the distribution of
the world wide electricity generation by fuel is given. It can be seen that since 1973 use
of oil is decreasing where as use of natural gas and nuclear power is increasing.

12
 Figure 3: Worldwide Electricity Generation. (Source: International Energy Agency, Keyworld Energy
Statistics 2015, p24,
<URL=[Link]

However on the economy of the Nuclear Power plants there are discussions
about their cost-benefit analysis. The paper by Shrader [Shrader2011] summarizes the
studies done on the cost analysis of the power plants and classifies them according to
their shortcomings. The author concludes that it is reasonable to construct reactors when
the concern is climate change, but not for the economical concerns. Very detailed
discussion for the motivation to use nuclear reactors can be found in Chapter 1 of the
[Bodansky2004]. The author discussed extensively many dimensions of the issue by
considering economical political and engineering aspects of the using nuclear reactors.
His main point was that the concerns about the use of nuclear power are exaggerated and
that without the use of nuclear power, reducing CO2 emission and breaking the world
dependence on oil could be difficult. The Table 5 supports the authors claim about CO2
emissions.

13
 Figure 4: Comparison of the different fuel types for generation of electricity. (Source: European Nuclear
Society. <URL=[Link]

The comparison of the different fuel types is given in the Figure 4. It can be
238 235
seen that small amounts of natural Uranium (about 99% U and 1% U) can produce
energy quantity that may require tons of oil or coal. In one of the more recent (2013)
studies done by US Energy Information Administration, the situation of electricity
generation by nuclear power is shown to be not too bad in comparison to other fuel types
(Figure 5). The technology is improving and the cost of the electricity generation is
becoming cheaper. Extensive overview on the reactor technologies and the prospects of
the industry can be found in [Adaman2009]. On the efficiency of the energy another
comparison is given in the Figure 6. Energy Return On Investment (EROI) is a tool
introduced by J. Conca, (cited in [McCombie2016]) in which ratio of energy returned to
energy invested over the life cycle of the energy source is considered. The superiority of
the nuclear power can be seen from the Figure 6. Further analysis and assessment can be
found in [McCombie2016].

14
 Figure 5: Estimated levelized cost of electric generation. (Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual
Energy Outlook 2013, graph by Institute of Energy Research, <URL= [Link]
content/uploads/2009/05/[Link]>)

NOx Particulate
Greenhouse gas SO2 emissions NMVOC
emissions matter
emissions gram milligram/ milligram/
milligram/ milligram/
Generation option equiv CO2/kWh kWh kWh
kWh kWh

Hydro-power 2-48 5-60 3-42 0 5

Coal - modern plant 790-1182 700-32321+ 700-5273+ 18-29 30-663+
Nuclear 2-59 3-50 2-100 0 2
Natural gas
389-511 4-15000+ 13+-1500 72-164 1-10+
(combined cycle)
Biomass forestry
15-101 12-140 701-1950 0 217-320
waste combustion
Wind 7-124 21-87 14-50 0 5-35
Solar photovoltaic 13-731 24-490 16-340 70 12-190
Table 5: Emission ranges produced by 1 kWh of electricity, based on Life-Cycle Analysis. (Source: FRANS H.
KOCH, "Hydropower-Internalised Costs and Externalized Benefits", International Energy Agency - Implementing
Agreement for Hydropower Technologies and Programmes, Ottawa, Canada, 2000.)

15
Figure 6: EROI ratios for different energy sources. (Source: Conca, J., 2015. EROI - A Tool to Predict the Best
Energy Mix. <URL=[Link]
mix/>)

In more recent study (Figure 7) CO2 emission assessed for various energy
sources by considering direct and indirect emissions. As it is expected nuclear power has
the least emission.

Figure 7: CO2 emissions for different energy sources. (Source: [Markandya2007])

16
Figure 8: Mortality in terms of Years of Life Lost (YOLL) per kWh electricity produced for different systems
and different locations. (CH=Switzerland, FR=France, IT=Italy, DE=Germany, DK=Denmark, CC=Combined
Cycle, CHP=combined heat and power, SOFC=solid oxide fuel cell, PV=photovoltaic, FGD=flue gas
desulfurization. Source: [Hirschberg2014])

In [Hirschberg2014] health impacts of different electric generation

technologies assessed and compared. In Figure 8 YOLL (Years Of Life Lost) measure is
considered per kWh of electricity production of various sources from various locations. It
is interesting to see high YOLL rate of the coal based production in China compared to
low values of nuclear based in Switzerland.

17
 CHAPTER II: Nuclear Pollution and Its Properties

This chapter presents different sources of the nuclear pollution and general
exposure pathways of the ionizing radiation. Numeric data will be provided to
demonstrate the magnitude of the exposures from each type of sources. On the effects of
the ionizing radiation information will be provided.

II.1. Sources of Nuclear Pollution

In this chapter sources of the nuclear pollution will be introduced.

Classification of the sources and their properties will be discussed.

Ionizing Radiation, as we have explained in Chapter I.2, is harmful to

biological tissues. It can not be seen neither can be smelled nor can be heard. Human
senses can not detect Ionizing Radiation. Special instruments, like Geiger-Mueller
detectors, are necessary to measure its existence before one can see it from its harmful
effects. In this sense nuclear pollution can be regarded as the most dangerous type of
pollution. There are basically, two types of sources for the ionizing radiation. Natural and
man made (Artificial) sources. Tissues exposed to radiation can absorb the radiation in 3
different pathways. Namely through internal pathways which are “inhalation” (Radon
and dust), and “ingestion” (drinking water and food material containing radionuclides).
There are also “external” pathways, in which source of ionizing radiation can effect
tissues outside of the human body. The Figure 9 illustrates possible pathways of the
ionizing radiation exposure from the nuclear reactors. But these pathways can be
regarded as general exposure pathways for any source of ionizing radiation. In the
following chapters both types of ionizing radiation will be studied in more details.

18
Figure 9: Radiation Exposure pathways from Nuclear Power Plants. (Source: Japan Atomic Energy Agency.
<URL=[Link]

II.1.1 Natural Sources of Ionizing Radiation

As we said in Chapter I.2, in the nature there are radioactive elements. Among
them it can be listed widely known natural isotopes such as Uranium-238, Radon-222,
Radium-224. Especially Radon is very prevalent and dangerous since it is in gas form
and since Radon decay involves α-particle emission. It can pass through the ground and
accumulate in the buildings. Through inhalation, Radon enters into body and emits α-
particles (they have the highest ionizing power), damaging tissues. According to the
[UNSCEAR2000B] Report there are 3 natural sources of ionizing radiation that human
beings are exposed to. They are summarized in Table 6. They can be effective on human
body in 3 different ways. Namely they can enter into body by penetrating the human skin
in the case of high energy radiation, they can enter into human body by inhalation and
ingestion. Radon-222 which is a gaseous can be taken into body by inhalation. Trace
amount of radioactive material naturally exists in food (fruit and vegetables grown on the
soil containing radionuclides) and drinking water. Through inhalation and ingestion
radioactive material can enter into body and can cause to natural radiation exposure.

19
 Source Description
Cosmic Radiation From Sun and from outer space
Terrestrial Radiation From radionuclides present in the soil
From Industrial Activities This type can be regarded as enhanced exposure of the terrestrial
radiation. Represents the released natural radiation during the
extraction of the materials containing radionuclides.
Table 6: Natural sources of ionizing radiation. (Source: [UNSCEAR2000B])

In Table 7 the distribution of the average annual worldwide natural radiation

exposures can be seen. As it can be seen from the Table 7 the highest amount of natural
radiation exposure is received through the inhalation. This is mainly (1.15 mSv 47.5% of
the TOTAL) from the naturally existing Radon-222 (222Rn) that is inhaled.

Source of exposure Annual effective dose (mSv)

Average Typical range
Cosmic 0.39 (16% of TOTAL) 0.3 - 1.0
Terrestrial (Indoors and outdoors) 0.48 (20% of TOTAL) 0.3 - 0.6
Inhalation (From Uranium and Thorium series, 1.26 (52% of TOTAL) 0.2 - 10
Radon (222Rn) and Thoron(220Rn))
Ingestion (40K, Uranium and Thorium series) 0.29 (12% of TOTAL) 0.2 - 0.8
TOTAL 2.42 1 - 10
Table 7: Average annual worldwide exposure to natural radiation. (Source: [UNSCEAR2000B] Table 31, p140).

20
II.1.2 Man-Made (Artificial) Sources of Ionizing Radiation
After the discovery of the radioactive materials, mankind tried to utilize these
materials in various ways, in weapon technology, in medicine (diagnosis, treatment,
sterilization), in engineering (testing, measurement), in energy production and in various
other fields. Especially the production of artificial radioisotopes increased exposure to
ionizing radiation very much. According to UNSCEAR report [UNSCEAR2000C] three
main source of artificial ionizing radiation are as follows:

1-) Testing and production of nuclear weapons: For this type of pollution atmospheric
and underground tests are considered. According to [UNSCEAR2000C] atmospheric
testing of the nuclear weapons is the greatest artificial ionizing radiation source. For this
reason, the graph of the annual worldwide average doses from atmospheric test is shown
in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Annual worldwide average doses from different exposure pathways from
radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing. (Source: [UNSCEAR2000C], p171)

The Figure 11 shows the comparison of the numbers and the annual total yield
(Mega tonne) of the nuclear weapon tests. Although the number of the underground tests

21
is higher, their total yield is less than the atmospheric tests. Also it can be noted from the
Figure 11 that, after the decrease of the atmospheric tests (banned in 1960), the number of
underground tests started to increase. In addition to the tests, nuclear weapon production
is another source of artificial ionizing radiation. Especially wastes from the weapon
industry can cause environmental contamination.

Figure 11: Atmospheric and underground tests of the nuclear weapons. (Source: [UNSCEAR2000C], p160)

22
2-) Nuclear power production: As it is discussed in Chapter I.3, about 10% of the world
electricity production comes from the nuclear production. During the “nuclear fuel
cycle”, (Figure 12) which is the collection of the processes from the extraction of the
natural Uranium till the disposal of the “spent fuel”, ionizing radiation is emitted in
various stages. These stages that are sources of the ionizing radiation are listed as, Mining
and milling, Uranium enrichment and fuel fabrication, reactor operation and fuel
reprocessing [UNSCEAR2000C]. For the year 2000, according to [UNSCEAR2000C]
the exposure dose (per person) from nuclear plants is calculated as less than 1 μSv.
Where as exposure from artificial isotopes and industrial-medical applications would be
averaging about 0.5 mSv, that may be received by family members of patients who have
received 131I treatment. We can see from Table 7 that these figures are less than the natural
radiation exposure.

Figure 12: Nuclear Fuel Cycle. (Source: International Atomic Energy Agency,
<URL=[Link]

23
3-) Other artificial sources of exposure:

• Radioisotope production and use: Artificial radioisotopes are widely used in

research, medicine and technology. The main isotope that is used in diagnosis is
Molybdenum-99 (99Mo) and for therapy it is Iodine-131 (131I). These isotopes can
be produced as by products from the Uranium fission, which happens in nuclear
reactors. The patients that are treated, subjected to the exposure and sometimes the
waste from hospitals can be the source of the radiation. In the paper
[Krawczyk2013], the study had been done in Spanish hospitals had shown the
necessity of the radioactive storage tanks to prevent the accumulation of the
radionuclides in the environment. The storage tanks are necessary to control liquid
effluents from hospitals, especially from nuclear medicine departments.

• Research reactors: These type of reactors are used for producing isotopes, testing
nuclear fuels and for investigations in neutron physics, biology and medicine.

• Accidents: Accidents can be regarded as artificial sources with highest exposure

level potentials. The most devastating nuclear accidents are related to reactor
accidents. Accidents like, Fukushima Daiichi in 2011, Chernobyl in 1986, and
Three Mile Island in 1979 can be listed as major incidents. Authors in
[Hirsch2005] gave extensive review of the reactor hazards. According to the report
mainly there are two causes for the reactor hazards. Cooling system failures due to
electrical or mechanical reasons and natural reasons, especially flooding as most
of the reactors are built near lakes or by the sea cost. Three Mile Island and
Chernobyl disasters were due to cooling system failures. In the case of Fukushima
Daiichi disaster main cause was 15m high Tsunami wave again disabling cooling
system. In most accidents the high temperature can damage the containment
building (Figure 2) from the inside, breaking it apart. Once the containment
building breaks the ionizing radiation can be damaging to the environment. For
example Cs from the soil [Ishizaki2014] and Radioiodine [Lebel2016] from the
atmosphere dispersed in the Fukushima accident. The effect of the ionizing

24
 radiation not only spread through time but also through the space. A study done by
131
[Kritidis2012] had shown the effects I, 134Cs and 137Cs dispersion from Japan up
to Greece.

II.2. Radiation Doses and Effects of Nuclear Pollution

In this chapter various standard level radiation dose limits will be introduced
along with their effects on human body. The short term and long term effects of the
radiation will be discussed.

The ionizing effect of the radiation on the tissues is the main hazardous
function of it. Through ionization, molecular, atomic bonds can be broken. Tissue cells
can be damaged or killed if the absorbed energy from the exposure is high enough. This
hazardous effect depends on several parameters associated to the intake of the exposure.
They are basically, duration and the dose of the exposure, amount of energy absorbed by
the tissue and the type of the tissue under the exposure. The example doses from different
types of sources are listed in Table 8 and in Table 9. It can be seen from the Table 8 that
the highest exposure source is the reactor accidents. On the other hand their effect can be
regarded geographically limited to certain area.

Source or mode Typical dose (mSv)

10 hour airplane flight 0.03
Chest x-ray 0.05
Annual cosmic radiation at sea level 0.4
Annual dose to nuclear worker 1
Annual dose from natural background 2.4
CT scan 10
Chernobyl recovery workers in 1986 150

Table 8: The doses received by persons from artificial sources of radiation. (Source: UNSCEAR,
<URL=[Link]

25
 Source or mode Typical dose (µSv/h)
External dose rate from natural background 0.06-0.2
Dose rate from natural background (total) 0.3-1.5
During an airplane flight 3
During a 10 second chest X-ray 20 000
During a 20 second CT scan 800 000

Table 9: Typical hourly doses experienced. (Source: UNSCEAR.

<URL=[Link]

In Figure 13 percentages of the different source are given to show the

comparative distribution for the annual dose received by human beings. It should be
noted that the highest percentage of the exposure comes from natural sources. Nuclear
industry represents the fallout from the past nuclear testing and the contamination that
comes from electricity generation from reactors.

Figure 13: Sources of ionizing radiation. (Source: World Nuclear Association. <URL=[Link]
[Link]/getmedia/a603d653-d71f-4154-ac73-e1ea2538b28d/[Link]>)

In Tables 10 and 11 effect of different dose levels on different organisms is

summarized. Table 10 summarizes effects of different dose levels on the human health,

26
where as Table 11 lists lethal dose levels for different organisms. Genetic effects on
human health should also be considered, which can be classified as unpredictable effect
of the radiation. In the case of body cells cancer and other types of diseases and organ
failures can be observed. But in the case of gene and chromosome alterations, the effect
can be hereditary and long term, effecting future generations.

Indicative dose
Effects on human health (including unborn child)
range (mSv)
Up to 10 No direct evidence of human health effects
No early effects; increased incidence of certain cancers in exposed
10 - 1000
populations at higher doses
Radiation sickness (risk of death); increased incidence of certain
1000 - 10000
cancers in exposed populations
Above 10000 Fatal always

Table 10: Indicative dose ranges and their effects on human health. (Source: UNCSEAR.
<URL=[Link]

Indicative dose
Mortality
range (Sv)
1 - 10 Mammals and birds
10 - 100 Crustaceans, reptiles amphibians, fish, higher plants
100 - 1000 Molluscs
1000 - 10000 Protozoa, bacteria, moss, lichen, algae, insects

Table 11: Approximate lethal doses of radiation for plants and animals. (Source: UNCSEAR.
<URL=[Link]

27
 CONCLUSION

Compared to air and water pollution problems situation is better in the case of
nuclear pollution, if the amount of pollution is considered. Yet the hazard that comes
from nuclear pollution and the persistence of the contamination is greater when all things
are equal. It is in the nature of radioactive elements that they are rich in possibilities and
also rich in hazardous ways. Except the nuclear reactor accidents and medical treatment,
the highest radiation exposure comes from the natural sources which can not be
controlled easily. Through precautionary efforts and regular measurements certain degree
of protection can be provided for natural radiation sources. But in the case of reactors,
redundancies (backup safety systems) should not be avoided for safety. Energy
production from nuclear sources can be regarded as the cleanest when emissions are
considered. Further research is needed to find more efficient and environmentally less
polluting sustainable ways to utilize radioactivity and ionizing radiation. Although
controversial discussions are still going on the issue of “fast breeder” type reactors, the
technology is a promising way for the sustainable use of nuclear power [Hannum2005].

28
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Books and Reports

[Bodansky2004] BODANSKY D., Nuclear Energy: Principles, practices, and prospects,

Springer-Verlag, 20042.
This book contains good chapters on the nuclear energy and also has nice
sections on the use of nuclear energy. There are also explanations on the
nature of radioactivity.
[Botkin2011] BOTKIN D. B. – KELLER E. A., Environmental Science, Earth as a living
planet, John Wiley & Sons, 20118.
Basics of nuclear energy, nuclear radiation types, effects of the nuclear
waste on the environment along with the advantages and the disadvantages
of the nuclear power are given in the book, especially in chapter 17.
[Davis2008] DAVIS M. L. – CORNWELL D. A., Introduction to Environmental
Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 20084.
Especially chapter 11 is dedicated to ionizing radiation, its nature, and its
biological effects. There is also discussion on the radioactive waste and its
management.

[Davis2004] DAVIS M. L. – MASTEN S. J., Principles of Environmental Engineering

and Science, McGraw-Hill, 2004.
Chapter 16 of that book is on Ionizing Radiation. The chapter extensively
narrates the basics of the radiation and its effects along with the issues related
to radioactive waste.

[Hirsch2005] HIRSCH H., et al., Nuclear reactor hazards. Ongoing dangers of

operating nuclear technology in the 21st century, 2005.
Extensive report about reactor hazards prepared for Greenpeace
International.
[Lee2011] LEE J. C. – MCCORMICK N. J., Risk and Safety Analysis of Nuclear Systems,
John Wiley & Sons, 2011.
In the book there are details on the structure of the nuclear systems. As the
book dedicated to risk analysis, there are sections that explain possible
hazardous cases for the nuclear reactors. Some case studies are given in which
major nuclear power plant accidents are analyzed.

29
[Murray1981] MURRAY L. R., Understanding Radioactive Waste, Pacific Northwest
Laboratory, 1981.
Initially written as a report but later became a textbook. Contains extensive
information on Radioactive Waste..

[Murray-Holbert2015] MURRAY L. R. – HOLBERT K. E., Nuclear Energy: An

Introduction to the Concepts, Systems, and Applications of Nuclear
Processes, Elsevier, 20157.
Extensive book on the nature of nuclear energy. Good chapters on the nature
of radiation, on the effect of radiation. There is even discussion on the nuclear
weapons.

[Podgorsak2006] PODGORŠAK E. B., Radiation physics for medical physicists,

Springer 2006.
The book provides detailed information on the nature of radiation and its
interactions with the matter. It can be nice reference book for learning about
the nature of the radiation.

[Rangacharyulu2014] RANGACHARYULU C., Physics of Nuclear Radiations: Concepts,

Techniques and Applications, CRC Press, 2014.
Another book dedicated on the nature and uses of the nuclear radiation. It can
be used as a reference book for details about the nature of the nuclear
radiation.

[UNSCEAR2000B] UNSCEAR, 2000 Report Vol. I Sources and Effects of Ionizing

Radiation, Annex B: Exposures from natural radiation sources, 2000.
This the annex B of the Report to the General Assembly prepared by the
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. The
report contains valuable information and statistical data on the natural
radiation.

[UNSCEAR2000C] UNSCEAR, 2000 Report Vol. I Sources and Effects of Ionizing

Radiation, Annex C: Exposures from man-made sources of radiation, 2000.
This the annex C of the Report to the General Assembly prepared by the
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. The
report contains valuable information and statistical data on the man-made
radiation.

30
[Wasserman1982] WASSERMAN H. – SOLOMON N., Killing our own, Delta Book,
1982.
The book is on the devastating effects of the nuclear weapons and contains
nice appendices on the effects of the radiation.

2. Articles

[Adaman2009] ADAMANTIADES A., – KESSIDES I., «Nuclear power for sustainable

development: Current status and future prospects», in Energy Policy, 37,
(2009) 5149-5166.
The paper discusses the issues related to the use of nuclear power, including
the effect of nuclear power plants on the environment.

[Cohen1983] COHEN B. L., «Breeder Reactors: A renewable energy source», in

American Journal of Physics, 51, 1 (1983) 75-76.
This paper explain breeder reactors as renewable energy sources.

[Hannum2005] HANNUM W. H., et al., «Smarter Use of Nuclear Waste», in Scientific

American, December (2005) 84-91.
The article discusses the prospects of the sustainable energy from new types
of reactors and.

[Hirschberg2014] HIRSCHBERG, S., et al., «Health Effects of Technologies for Power

Generation: Contributions from Normal Operation, Severe Accidents and
Terrorist Threat», in Probabilistic Safety Assessment and Management
(PSAM 12) Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 22–27 June 2014.
This conference paper provides interesting statistical data for the health
impacts of the electricity generation from different energy sources.

[Ishizaki2014] ISHIZAKI A., et al., «Concentration of Cs in plants and water resulting

from radioactive pollution», in Nuclear Instruments and Methods in
Physics Research B, 318, (2014) 105-108.
The paper explains the negative effects of consuming plants that are
cultivated in soils contaminated by radioactive cesium. In this sense
providing information on a specific type of nuclear pollution which was the
side effect of the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011.

31
[Jonsson2013] JONSSON L., et al., «Various consequences regarding hypothetical
dispersion of airborne radioactivity in a city center», in Journal of
Environmental Radioactivity, 116, (2013) 99-113.
The paper investigated various ways that airborne radioactivity can disperse
in urban areas. The effect of the radioactivity on the health is studied. The
paper showed how that type of nuclear pollution can be dangerous through
inhalation and through skin dose.

[Krawczyk2013] KRAWCZYK E., et al., «Discharges of nuclear medicine radioisotopes

in Spanish hospitals», in Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 116,
(2013) 93-98.
In this paper the discussion is on the need for storage tanks in the nuclear
medicine departments of the hospitals. Researchers of the paper have
provided data to confirm their proposal. The paper indicates another form of
nuclear contamination type that has to be considered important.

[Kritidis2012] KRITIDIS P., et al., «Radioactive pollution in Athens, Greece due to the
Fukushima nuclear accident», in Journal of Environmental Radioactivity,
114, (2012) 100-104.
Another paper on the side-effects of the Fukushima nuclear disaster in
2011. Although Greece was far away from Japan, the paper provides
scientific data on the far reaching effects of the nuclear disaster.

[Lebel2016] LEBEL L. S., et al., «Radioiodine in the atmosphere after the Fukushima
Dai-ichi nuclear accident», in Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 151,
(2016) 82-93.
Yet another paper on the side-effects of the Fukushima nuclear disaster in
2011. This time paper discussed the release of the radioiodine ( 131I) gas into
the atmosphere, giving us information about another type of nuclear
pollution mechanism.

[Markandya2007] MARKANDYA A. – WILKINSON P., «Electricity generation and

health», in The Lancet, volume 370, issue 9591, 15-21 September (2007)
979-990.
The paper discusses the cost of electricity generation and presents various
measures for the different sources of the electric energy.

[McCombie2016] MCCOMBIE, C., – JEFFERSON, M., «Renewable and nuclear

electricity: Comparison of environmental impacts», in Energy Policy
(2016), [Link] (Article in press)
This paper is included as it contains the most recent discussions with the

32
 most recent evaluation tools to provide necessary background in assessing
the environmental impacts of the different energy sources.

[Shrader2011] SHRADER-FRECHETTE, K., «Climate Change, Nuclear Economics, and

Conflicts of Interest», in Science and Engineering Ethics, 17, 1 (2011) 75-
107.
An extensive study over the discussion on the economics of the nuclear
power plants. The author assessed 30 prominent publications on the
economics of the nuclear power plants and classified their shortcomings.

[Yablokov2013] YABLOKOV A., «A Review and Critical Analysis of the “Effective

Dose of Radiation” Concept», in Journal of Health & Pollution, 3, 5 (2013)
13-28.
The author in this paper, criticized the existing standard of the “effective
dose” concept, which is the measure of cancer risk due to the exposure to
radiation. He also discussed effects of the low-radiation on the genetics
systems.

33

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