Heat sources

NPTEL Online course on

Analysis and modeling of welding

G. Phanikumar
Dept. of MME, IIT Madras
Joining
ARC /
BEAM

MELT POOL

WELD

Y
X
Z
Figure courtesy: Internet
Workpiece Motion
Cladding / Weld overlay
ARC /
BEAM POWDER /
FILLER

MELT POOL

CLAD/DEPOSIT

Y
X
Z
Workpiece Motion
Figure courtesy: Internet
Boundary conditions
Gaussian heat flux
Q  ( x  x0 )  ( y  y0 ) 
2 2
q  2 exp  
r  r 2


Convective loss

hT  T 
Radiative loss
T T
4

4

Physical processes
• Heat transfer
• Fluid flow
• Mass transfer
-decouple-
• Phase transformations
• Stress effects
Heat transfer
• Heat gain from welding source • Heating of base metal
• Heat grain from leading heat source • Melting
• Heat loss from external heat sinks • Possible vaporization
• Heat loss by convective mode
• Solidification
• Heat loss by radiation
• Cooling to ambient temperature
• Heat loss by conduction in the base
metal
• Enhanced heat extraction through
water cooled backing setup
• Formation of compounds through
exothermic reaction
Heat sources
• Arc
• Plasma
• Electrons
• Lasers (Nd:YAG, CO2, Excimer, Diode)
• Infrared sources (Image Furnace)
+
• Filler (powder / wire)
Characteristics of a heat source
• Nature of distribution : surface or volumetric
• Power distribution : spatial variation
• Absorption efficiency : dependency on material, temperature etc.
• Temporal changes : pulsing effects
• Traverse rate : velocity of heat source
• Path : raster or arc oscillation
Heat source efficiency
𝑄
𝜂=
𝑄nominal

Q is the amount of heat transferred to the base material.

Qnominal is known from the welding process.
Eg., Voltage * Current for arc welding processes, Power setting for Laser welding etc.

η is often less than 1 → not all heat is received by the base material.
Laser absorption efficiency
• Metallic surfaces are like mirrors
• Absorption depends on:
• Metal
• Wavelength of laser
• Temperature
• Phase
• Surface condition : oxides, coatings
• Surface structure

Ref: Laser Heating of Metals by A. M. Prokhorov et al., Adam Hilger (1990) ISBN: 075030040X
Typical heat source efficiencies
Process Typical efficiency Reasons
Laser Beam Welding <0.1 High reflectivity of metals
Plasma Arc Welding 0.5 – 0.7 Heat loss to water cooled constriction nozzle
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (DCEN) 0.6 – 0.8 Both work function and kinetic energy are released
to the work piece
Shielded Metal Arc Welding 0.7 – 0.9 Heat transferred to electrode reaches the work
piece back via the droplets
Gas Metal Arc Welding 0.7 – 0.9 Heat transferred to electrode reaches the work
piece back via the droplets
Submerged Arc Welding 0.75 – 0.9 Arc is covered by flux which prevents heat loss
Electron Beam Welding 0.8 – 0.95 Keyhole acts as a black body

Ref: Welding Metallurgy, 2nd Edition by Sindo Kou

Effect of electrode tip angle
• Blunt tip → diameter of arc decreases → power density increases
• Weld aspect (depth/width) ratio increases with increasing conical tip
angle of the electrode
 Gaussian heat source

3𝑄 𝑟2
𝑞 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2 exp −3 2
𝜋𝑟0 𝑟0

𝑟 2 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 2 + 𝑦 − 𝑦0 − 𝑣𝑡 2

𝑣 Velocity of torch along y

(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) Initial location of the torch

𝑄 = 𝜂𝑉𝐼
Influence of shielding gases
• Thermal conductivity of the shielding gas
• Flow rate
• Geometric constriction for flow
• Height of nozzle from workpiece
• Angle of nozzle
• Gas curtain
WELD
POOL
Combining heat sources
• Apart from the welding torch / beam, there are other sources / sinks
too.
• Heat sinks or sources could be trailing or leading the weld torch /
beam
• Leading heat source: preheat, hybrid process
• Trailing heat sink: distortion control
• Heat sinks are same as heat sources – except for the sign
• Heat removal processes are treated separately
Combining heat sources : A leading heat source

Sum of two Gaussian profiles with different origins and strengths

Combining heat sources : A trailing heat sink

Sum of two Gaussian profiles with different origins

and strengths (one positive and the other negative)
Modes of welding
Conduction Mode Keyhole Mode

Shallow and wide pools Narrow and deep pools

Low heat source intensity processes Full depth penetration
Single pass welds of thick plates
High heat source intensity processes
Cylindrical heat source

9𝑄0 3(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 ) 𝑧
𝑄 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = exp − 1+
𝜋ℎ𝑟02 𝑟02 ℎ

Heat source get slightly narrower with increasing depth

3D conic volume heat source
9𝑄0 3(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) ℎ2
𝑄 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 2 exp −
𝜋ℎ𝑟0 𝑟02 (ℎ2 −𝑧 2 )
h is effective beam penetration depth
Gaussian Rod

𝑄 𝑟2 To account
𝑄 𝑟, 𝑧 = 2 exp − 2 𝑢(𝑧)
𝜋𝑟0 𝑑 𝑟0 for deep
penetration
d is the maximum keyhole depth weld

𝑢 𝑧 = 1 for 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑑 else 𝑢 𝑧 = 0

Ref: R. Mueller in Proceedings of the ICALEO 94, pg. 509 (1994)

 Internal heat source
To account
for deep 2𝛽𝑄 𝑟2
𝑄 𝑟, 𝑧 = 2 exp −2 2 − 𝛽𝑧
penetration 𝜋𝑟0 𝑟0
weld

Combining Gaussian heat source and internal absorption by Beer-Lambert’s Law

Ref: N. Sonti and M.F. Amateau, Numerical Heat Transfer A, 16:351 (1989)
 Rotary Gaussian heat source -z

9𝑄0 3𝑓𝑠 𝑟 2 y
𝑄 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 2 exp 2
𝜋ℎ𝑟0 𝑟0 log 𝑧 ℎ

Ref: H. Wang et al., Journal of Physics D : Applied Physics, 39:4722 (2006)

 Double ellipsoidal heat source

Ref: Goldak J. et al., Metallurgical Transactions B, 15B 299-305 (1984)

Figure Courtesy: Kala Shirish R., Ph.D. Thesis, IIT Madras (2013)
 Double ellipsoidal heat source

Front half: 6 3𝑄 𝑥2 𝜉2 𝑧2 v = Velocity of Torch

𝑄𝑓 𝑥, 𝜉, 𝑧 = exp −3 2 − 3 2 − 3 2 τ = Lag factor
𝐴𝑓 𝐵𝐶𝜋 𝜋 𝐴𝑓 𝐵 𝐶

Rear half: Two quarters (one

front and one rear)
6 3𝑄 𝑥2 𝜉2 𝑧2
𝑄𝑟 𝑥, 𝜉, 𝑧 = exp −3 2 − 3 2 − 3 2 make for the heat
𝐴𝑟 𝐵𝐶𝜋 𝜋 𝐴𝑟 𝐵 𝐶 source

𝑄 = 𝜂𝑉𝐼 𝜉 = 𝑦 − 𝑣(𝜏 − 𝑡) 4+ parameters !

 Nail head heat source

Superposition 𝑟2
𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜂𝐼0 exp −2 2 Gaussian
of a line and 𝑟0
point sources
can describe a 𝑃𝑧 = 𝜆 𝑇𝑣 − 𝑇0 𝑓(𝑃𝑒) Empirical Form
keyhole
𝑣𝑟
𝑃𝑒 = Peclet Number
𝛼

Ref: Kazemi and Goldak, Computational Materials Science, 44:841-849 (2009)

Summary of heat sources
Profile Number of parameters Comments
Gaussian 1 Radius
Cylindrical, 3D Conic body 2 Radius, Depth
Gaussian Rod
Internal Heat Source 2 Radius, Absorption
Coefficient
Rotary Gaussian 3 Radius, Depth, fs
Double Ellipsoid 4+ Af, Ar, B, C
Nail head ? Radius, Pz(Pe)
Characterization of laser source
• Heat: Spatial distribution (TEM00, TEM01*, Top-hat etc.,) and
Temporal distribution (continuous, pulsed)
• Momentum: (buoyancy, Marangoni)
• Mass: (surface flux, distributed flux, redistribution)
TEM modes
• Transverse electro magnetic modes / Laser modes
• Rectangular:
• A distribution TEMmn has m and n minima along x- and y- directions
• Analytical expressions given by Hermite Polynomials
• Cylindrical:
• A distribution TEMpl has p minima and l modes
• Analytical expressions given by Laguerre Polynomials
• TEM00 is Gaussian for both the geometries
• TEM01* is doughnut shaped distribution
 TEMpl
Modes

Cylindrical
Geometry

Ref: Wikipedia, public domain

Doughnut heat source
Top hat heat source

You can add a

doughnut heat
source to a
Gaussian Heat
Source to give an
approximately a
Top Hat heat
source
TEMmn
Modes

Rectangular
Geometry

Ref: Wikipedia, public domain

 Pulsing

constant
𝐼𝑝
∆𝑡𝑝 ∆𝑡𝑏 Flat pulsed
𝐼𝑏

∆𝑡𝑝 ∆𝑡7
∆𝑡𝑏 Shaped & pulsed
∆𝑡3 ∆𝑡5

time
Raster or Oscillations
Linear Path

Raster Path

Oscillatory Path

Averaged Source
Benchmarking heat sources
• Separate out what is used for calibration and what is used for
validation or prediction
• Eg., typically fusion zone shape is used for calibration and thermal
profiles away from fusion zone are used for validation and prediction
• Ability to closely match the fusion zone shape is also part of validating
the heat source form
• Peak temperatures to be realistic and validated
• Trends for small changes in heat source parameters to be verified
Methods to validate thermal profiles
• Thermocouple measurements
• Two colour IR pyrometers
• IR Thermography
Thermocouple measurements
Position(s)

Contact
Electric Connections

Thermocouple thickness
Acquisition Speed
Signal Conditioner

Actual image of GTAW + Thermocouple DAQ facility at

Materials Joining Laboratory, Dept. of MME, IIT Madras
IR Thermography

Ref: Snapshop from IR Thermography Video of a friction surface deposit

Ph.D. Thesis, H. Khalid Rafi, IIT Madras (2011)
Methods to validate thermal profiles
• Thermocouple measurements – high speed data acquisition at a location
inside the sample. Multiple thermocouples possible.
• Two colour IR pyrometers – high speed data acquisition at a location on the
surface of the sample.
• IR visualization for surface temperature distribution. Frame rate often less
than thermocouple measurements. Array of data available at each time
step.
• Microstructure can be used as a marker to verify the zones (FZ, PMZ, HAZ)

• Calibration of Thermocouples and IR sensors

Points to take care
• Integral of heat source
distribution over the top surface
of workpiece should match total
input actually given
• Fine grid points inside the heat
source to capture it well
• Small time steps to avoid
missing phase change
Summary
• Heat source is to be modelled as close to actual process as possible
• Number of parameters, their sensitivity to the intensity
• Integral to be calibrated to equal unity

• You get only as much as you put in !

End of Lesson on Heat Sources