Channels, Modulation and
Demodulation
EEE/ETE422
Saif Ahmed (SfA)
Angle Modulation
The other type of modulation in continuous-wave modulation is
the Angle Modulation. Angle Modulation is the process in which the
frequency or the phase of the carrier varies according to the message
signal. This is further divided into frequency and phase modulation.
• Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the
carrier signal linearly with the message signal.
• Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier
signal linearly with the message signal.
Frequency Modulation
• In amplitude modulation, the
amplitude of the carrier varies. But
in Frequency Modulation (FM), the
frequency of the carrier signal
varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
• The amplitude and the phase of
the carrier signal remains constant
whereas the frequency of the
carrier changes. This can be better
understood by observing the
following figures.
Frequency Modulation
• The frequency of the modulated wave remains constant as the carrier
wave frequency when the message signal is at zero. The frequency
increases when the message signal reaches its maximum amplitude.
• Which means, with the increase in amplitude of the modulating or
message signal, the carrier frequency increases. Likewise, with the
decrease in the amplitude of the modulating signal, the frequency
also decreases.
Mathematical Representation
Let the carrier frequency be fc
The frequency at maximum amplitude of the message signal = fc + Δf
The frequency at minimum amplitude of the message signal = fc − Δf
The difference between FM modulated frequency and normal
frequency is termed as Frequency Deviation and is denoted by Δf.
The deviation of the frequency of the carrier signal from high to low or
low to high can be termed as the Carrier Swing.
Carrier Swing = 2 × frequency deviation = 2 × Δf
Equation for FM WAVE
• The equation for FM wave is −
𝑆 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos[𝑊𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 ]
Where,
• Ac = the amplitude of the carrier
• wc = angular frequency of the carrier = 2πfc
• m(t) = message signal
• FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM.
FM deviation ratio
One of the issues with the modulation index is that it will
vary according to the instantaneous values of deviation
and modulating frequency.
On typical audio transmissions, both the frequency
deviation and modulating frequency will vary. The
frequency deviation will vary according to the level of the
audio at that moment. Also the modulating frequency will
vary as normal audio consists of a variety of frequencies,
which vary to give the speech or music, etc.
For many applications it is more useful to have a figure for
the maximum permissible values.
Accordingly the FM deviation ratio can be defined as: the
ratio of the maximum carrier frequency deviation to the
highest audio modulating frequency.
Wideband FM
• Wideband FM is typical used for signals where the FM modulation
index is above about 0.5. For these signals the sidebands beyond the
first two terms are not insignificant. Broadcast FM stations use wide-
band FM which enables them to transmit high quality audio, as well
as other facilities like stereo, and other facilities like RDS, etc.
• The wide bandwidth of wide band FM is enables high quality
broadcast transmissions to be made, combining a wide frequency
response with low noise levels. Once the signal is sufficiently strong,
the audio signal to noise ratio is very good.
Narrowband FM
• Narrow band FM, NBFM, is used for signals where the deviation is small
enough that the terms in the Bessel function is small and the main
sidebands are those appearing at ± modulation frequency. The sidebands
further out are negligible.
• For NBFM, the FM modulation index must be less than 0.5, although a
figure of 0.2 is often used. For NBFM the audio or data bandwidth is small,
but this is acceptable for this type of communication.
• NBFM is ideal for the low cost radio communication systems, especially
those that use small walkie talkies because it can be implemented with a
minimum of amount of circuitry, most of which is low cost. Although digital
technology is becoming much cheaper, narrow band FM is still very cost
effective.
Phase Modulation
• In frequency modulation, the frequency
of the carrier varies. But in Phase
Modulation (PM), the phase of the
carrier signal varies in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
• The amplitude and the frequency of the
carrier signal remains constant whereas
the phase of the carrier changes. This
can be better understood by observing
the following figures.
Relation between PM and FM
The change in phase, changes the
frequency of the modulated wave.
The frequency of the wave also
changes the phase of the wave.
Though they are related, their
relationship is not linear. Phase
modulation is an indirect method of
producing FM. The amount of
frequency shift, produced by a phase
modulator increases with the
modulating frequency. An audio
equalizer is employed to compensate
this.
Recall: Sampling
• The process of converting continuous time signals
into equivalent discrete time signals, can be termed
as Sampling. A certain instant of data is continually
sampled in the sampling process.
• The following figure indicates a continuous-time
signal x(t) and a sampled signal xs(t). When x(t) is
multiplied by a periodic impulse train, the sampled
signal xs(t) is obtained.
• A sampling signal is a periodic train of pulses,
having unit amplitude, sampled at equal intervals
of time Ts, which is called as the Sampling time.
This data is transmitted at the time instants Ts and
the carrier signal is transmitted at the remaining
time.
Sampling Rate
• To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples should be
fixed. That gap can be termed as the sampling period Ts.
• Sampling Frequency = 1/ Sampling Time
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
• Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is an analog
modulating scheme in which the amplitude of
the pulse carrier varies proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
• The pulse amplitude modulated signal, will follow
the amplitude of the original signal, as the signal
traces out the path of the whole wave. In natural
PAM, a signal sampled at the Nyquist rate is
reconstructed, by passing it through an
efficient Low Pass Frequency (LPF) with exact
cutoff frequency
• The following figures explain the Pulse Amplitude
Modulation.
• Though the PAM signal is passed through an LPF,
it cannot recover the signal without distortion.
Hence to avoid this noise, flat-top sampling is
done as shown in the following figure.
Flat Top Sampling
• Flat-top sampling is the process
in which sampled signal can be
represented in pulses for which
the amplitude of the signal
cannot be changed with respect
to the analog signal, to be
sampled. The tops of amplitude
remain flat. This process
simplifies the circuit design.
Pulse Width Modulation
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) or Pulse Duration
Modulation (PDM) or Pulse Time Modulation
(PTM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the
duration or width or time of the pulse carrier varies
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
message signal.
There are three variations of PWM. They are −
a) The leading edge of the pulse being constant, the
trailing edge varies according to the message
signal.
b) The trailing edge of the pulse being constant, the
leading edge varies according to the message
signal.
c) The center of the pulse being constant, the leading
edge and the trailing edge varies according to the
message signal.
Pulse Position Modulation
• Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) is an
analog modulating scheme in which the
amplitude and width of the pulses are kept
constant, while the position of each pulse,
with reference to the position of a reference
pulse varies according to the instantaneous
sampled value of the message signal.
• The transmitter has to send synchronizing
pulses (or simply sync pulses) to keep the
transmitter and receiver in synchronism.
These sync pulses help maintain the position
of the pulses. The following figures explain
the Pulse Position Modulation.
Pulse modulation
Advantage
• As the amplitude and width are constant, the power handled is also constant.
Disadvantage
• The synchronization between transmitter and receiver is a must.