Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)

History Department, MSU-GSC

CHAPTER 4 – WEEK 4 & 5

PRE-COLONIAL PHILIPPINES
Lessons 4.1 to 4.3

Objectives: At the end of the session, the students will be able to:
1. Describe the early trade patterns and its significance in the diffusion of
cultures in the Philippines.
2. Pinpoint, which among the pre-Hispanic Filipino traditions, still exists
at present.

Overview

The Filipinos already had a culture of their own before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers. The
culture is distinct from the neighboring countries. It is a combined result of the adaptation to the
environment, socialization among the inhabitants, and contact with other countries. The natives formed
their traditions, which were handed down through generations (De Viana 2011, 49).

In this chapter, the students will know about the pre-colonial culture of the Filipinos focus on their
social, cultural, political, and religious beliefs and practices. As expected, the student will analyze
selected readings written by Spanish missionaries and Spanish officials about their personal experience
with the early Filipinos they encountered.

Activity: Analyzing Images

Ask the students to look at the image closely. Write down what you see without making any
interpretation of what the picture is trying to say.

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

Analysis
Let the students reflect based on the image and answer the following question:

What questions do you have about this image that you would need to have answered before you can
begin to interpret it?

Historical Context of the Image:

In 1968, then-Mayor of Manila Antonio Villegas, commissioned Carlos “Botong” Francisco to paint the
history of Manila for Manila City Hall. The series of large-scale paintings was called Kasaysayan ng Maynila. The
paintings deteriorated over time, and no attempt was made to preserve these historical canvases until 2013 when
Mayor Amado Lim sent them to the National Museum for extensive restoration. In 2017, Mayor Joseph Estrada and
the Manila City Council signed an agreement with the National Museum to leave the paintings at the museum so they
may reach a larger audience in exchange for museum-grade reproductions to replace the originals. Kasaysayan ng
Maynila has later renamed Filipino Struggles in History and is now display at the Senate Hall of the National Museum.

The painting above was about a Datu of Maynilad, and his wife, surrounded by their retinue, is examining a
silk fabric being shown to them by a Chinese merchant. In the foreground (left), an Arab trader watches a native pour
what looks like indigo into a jar. (Maynila is derived from “may nila” which means there is nila. Nila is a Sanskrit word
for indigo). An Indian national in the background has drawn a crown around him while fishermen dive into the Pasig
River. Botong successfully portrays the abundant flow of commerce in the pre-colonial Philippines.
(Source: [Link]

For this chapter, the following will be the assigned reading materials, namely:

a. Rizal, Jose. “Chapter 8”, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas por el Doctor Antonio de Morga, obra
publicada en Mejico el año de 1609 nuevamente sacada a luz y anotada (Events of the Philippine
Islands of Dr. Antonio de Morga, published in Mexico in 1609), Manila: Jose Rizal National
Centennial Commission, p. 240-296.
b. Pictures from Boxer Codex. circa 1595
c. Blair, Emma, and Robertson, James, Eds. The Philippine Islands 55-Volumes, Cleveland, Ohio:
The A. H. Clark Company, 1903-1909.

Excerpts from:
 Relation of the Worship of the Tagalogs, Their Gods and Their Burials and Superstitions by Fr.
Juan de Plasencia, (Vol. VII).
 Relacion de las Islas Filipinas by Fr. Pedro Chirino, (Vol. XII)
 Labor Evangelica” OF the Government and Political Customs by Fr. Francisco Colin, S.J. (Vol.
XI).
 Relacion de las Islas Filipinas by Miguel de Loarca (Vol. V)

 Points to Remember: In analyzing the readings, analyze the author’s background/biography and his main
arguments, identify biases, and examine the evidence or materials used to present his work.

Abstraction
Lesson 4.1. Trade Patterns in the 10th to 16th century
As early as the 10th century, there were already traders from Ma-i (present-day Mindoro) who
came to Canton in China. Within the same period, P’utuan (present-day Butuan) and Sanmalan (present-
day Zamboanga) also took part in the trade. Butuan was reported to have sent three trade missions to
China from the 10th to 11th centuries. According to the Bureau of Maritime Trade in Fujian, China reported
other merchants from various Philippine islands: Ma-i; Baipuer (present-day Babuyan Islands); and
Sandao or Sanyu, a term used collectively to refer to the following areas: Jamayan (present-day
Calamian), Balaoyou (present-day Palawan), and Pulihuan (near present-day Manila). Trade continued

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

until the Yuan

Dynasty (13th to 14th centuries).

In the 13th to 14th century, the so-called eastern trade route, composed of Quanzhou, the Sulu
Zone, northern Borneo, Celebes, and the Moluccas prospered. During this time, ceramics from Fujian
were distributed in the Philippines and Borneo. Furthermore, archaeologists made a case that Chinese
traders established bases in Laguna, Mindoro, and Manila. Moreover, archaeological evidence related
that there were urban settlements of over 500 households in these regions, including Cebu.

Around the 9th to 12th century, Chinese texts highlighted the rise of Champa (present-day Vietnam)
as an important entrepot within the network. From there, routes were going to Mindoro and northern
Mindoro. These routes converge in the Sulu Zone.

In the 14th century, records claim that Butuan paid regular tributes to China. Yuan and
Song dynasty sources also indicated the existence of trade links between continental Southeast Asia,
northern Borneo, and the Philippines. It was assumed that once a ship went to Brunei, or arrived in the
Sulu Sea, it either continued its way into the Celebes Sea or its cargo was in part transferred to other
vessels sailing in that direction. Sulu existed as a trading zone through which the Moluccas was supplied
with goods such as Indian textiles or ivory from Champa. At the same time, China and Southeast Asia
received eastern Indonesian produce.

In the 15th century, Portuguese sources chronicled a trade route connecting Malacca, Borneo,
and the Philippines. Tomé Pires, a Portuguese conqueror, recounted that the Lucoes (present-day Luzon)
merchants have at least two of three Chinese junks and took their merchandise to Borneo and Malacca.
Gold brought by the Borneans to Malacca came from Luzon and the surrounding islands of the
Philippines. Together with other Filipinos, they
operated their network of trade routes, which can
be inferred from the 16th-century accounts by the
Spaniards. This trade network, commonly known
as the Brunei network, spread to the northern
Philippines in the late 15th to the early and mid-
16th century. Bruneian traders regularly visited
Manila at this time. A second network was
observed to be in Sulu, southern Mindanao, and
the Moluccas. There was a clear-cut division
between these two networks: there were no Brunei
traders reported in the Moluccas and no Sulu
merchants in Malacca.

Beginning in the 16th century, with

Southeast Asia participating in a new pattern of the
world trade involving Asia and Europe, the
Philippines participated in three of the seven major
trade routes during this time. The first moved from
east to west, with southern China as the center;
trade goods passed through the ports in the
northern Philippines, and along the Vietnam coast
and the Gulf of Thailand, down the east coast of
the Malay peninsula. In the second, ports extended
eastward to the Spice Islands, and the
Figure 11.
southwestern ports of Sulawesi were connected
northward along the south and east coast of
Borneo, to the island of Mindanao, and westward
to the ports of the east coast of Sumatra. The third, the backdoor passageway to the Spice Islands from
the China and Vietnam coastlines, was centered in the Sulu Sea region and included the Philippine
coasts of Luzon, Mindoro, Cebu, and Mindanao; the Brunei region of Borneo’s northern coast; the eastern

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

Indonesian archipelago’s Spice Islands; and south China’s ports (Historical Atlas of the Republic 2016,
15).

Lesson 4.2. Pre-Colonial Culture and Society

Before the coming of the Spaniards to colonize the archipelago, our Filipino ancestors had their
own culture and lifestyle, which included their customs, society, government and laws, writing and
language, literature, music, religion, superstitious beliefs, economy and arts, and sciences.

 Rizal, Jose. “Chapter 8”, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas por el Doctor Antonio de Morga, obra publicada en
Mejico el año de 1609 nuevamente sacada a luz y anotada (Events of the Philippine Islands of Dr. Antonio de
Morga, published in Mexico in 1609), Manila: Jose Rizal National Centennial Commission, p. 240-296. (Refer to
Compilation of Readings for full text of the article and biography of the author.)

Sourcing

Morga (1609) Rizal (1890)

 A first-hand account of the early Spanish colonial  In 1888, Rizal found the rare copy of the book while
venture in Asia, published in Mexico in 1609. he was in London at the British Museum’s reading
 It is based on Don Antonio de Morga’s personal room
experiences, or documentation from eyewitnesses  He hand-copied the whole 351 pages of the book and
of the events described. annotated every chapter.
 Don Antonio de Morga was a Spanish lawyer and  His friendship with Ferdinand Blumentritt inspired him
a government official during the 17th century. to do a new edition of Morga’s Sucesos
 To commemorate the ‘achievements of our fellow  In his preface, Rizal states that he did not
Spaniards in these days, in their discovery, change a single word in the text, save those
conquest, and conversion of the Philippine Islands required respelling in modern Spanish
and their varied adventures that have had at the orthography, or correct punctuation.
same time in the great heathen-kingdoms
surrounding these islands.”
 To give detailed information about the Philippines to
convince their conquest was beneficial to the
natives from 1493 to 1603.

Close Reading

 Las Islas Filipinas is the Spanish translation for “The Philippine Islands.” Sucesos means the
work of an honest observer, a versatile bureaucrat, who knew the workings of the administration
of the inside.
 The work consists of eight chapters. The first seven chapters of the Sucesos are a chronological
rehearsal, down to his Morga’s day, of the deeds in Asia of the Spaniards based in the
Philippines. Various themes run like threads through the story, mainly concern the political events
which occurred in the colony during the terms of the first eleven governors-general in the
Philippines, beginning with Miguel Lopez in 1565 to Pedro de Acuña who died in June 1606.
 The last chapter (Chapter 8) is a survey of the Spanish settlement and the customs and culture of
the Filipinos. This chapter is orderly and formalistic in structure. It deals first with the geographical
situation and names of the Islands, the climate and seasons, the peoples in different areas,
beginning with Luzon. He depicts native dress, before and after the coming of the Spaniards,
native customs, languages, habits, hygiene, food, and drink, etc. He describes the animals, plants,
and products of the different islands. Morga also discusses the different social classes among the
Filipinos whom he knew, details their arts, crafts, industries, this skill in metalwork, weaving,
agriculture, boatbuilding, their high rate of literacy, and ease in writing. There is an account of
Filipino methods of government, the legal system, marriage, and sexual customs, religious beliefs,
and burial practices. This section ends with a note on Islam in the Philippines.

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

Corroboration

Clothing, Ornamentation, and Gold Working

 Pictures from Boxer Codex. circa 1595. Refer to Compilation of Readings.

Written c. 1590, a manuscript which became known as the Boxer Codex, provides a present-day
Filipinos a detailed description of the way of life of the inhabitants of the Philippines during the 16th
century when the Spaniards colonized the Philippines. The book provided a visual depiction of the
appearance, not just the inhabitants of the Philippines, but also from China, Japan, the Moluccas,
Ladrones, Siam, and Java. The images are beautifully rendered and framed in a style that is reminiscent
of European art. But historians have concurred that the artist was either a Sangley (Chinese) or Indio
(Filipino)

Among the 75 illustrations, there are at least 15 pictures of the types of inhabitants in the
Philippines. Even before, the various regional differences of the Filipinos were apparent. The Visayans
had tattooed bodies (that is why they were called pintados). At the same time, the Zambal natives were
darker and had a hairstyle that involved shaving the forehead and front of the head but retaining loose
long hair at the back.

Even the class system practiced by the ethnic groups were portrayed in the Codex. The social
ranking was distinct from one place to another. Clothing discretely distinguished the differences.

Another thing that you would notice while looking at the illustrations is the abundance of the gold
jewelry worn by the Filipinos. As gold was plentiful, ancient Filipinos mastered gold working and created
splendid works of art that are exquisite demonstrations, not only of the skills. Meticulously crafted pre-
Hispanic gold objects of varying usage from ceremony to currency have been discovered across the
country. Of these discoveries, the most notable is the Surigao Treasures found in 1981.

Watch: Gintong Pamana [Link]

The gold pieces were wrought through sophisticated and complicated techniques, bearing the
deep-seated knowledge and unparalleled skill of the ancient panday-ginto (gold artisan). These artifacts
could be classified according to its origin, i.e., geographic areas where they were recovered, revealing not
only their widespread distribution but also the historical movements of the people, patterns of pre-colonial
interisland trade, and cultural exchange.

Religion and Superstitious Beliefs

 Relation of the Worship of the Tagalogs, Their Gods and Their Burials and Superstitions by Fr. Juan de
Plasencia, (Vol. VII). Refer to Compilation of Readings for full text of the article and biography of the author.

In this section, it focuses only on how Fr. Plasencia, a Franciscan missionary, described the manner
on how the Tagalogs worship. Vital points were the following:
 Simbahan was the name of their temple or a place of adoration.
 Pandot (worship) is being celebrated in the large house of the Dato.
 During this celebration, the whole barangay, or family, was united and joined in the
worship, which they call nag-aanitos.
 They also believed in a supreme God or deity. Among their many idols, there was one called
Bathala, whom they especially worshipped. The title seems to signify “all-powerful” or “maker of
all things.”
 They worshipped spirits which they believed dwell in objects like trees, mountains, rivers, etc.
They worshipped nature, the sun, the moon, and the stars (tala).

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

 Other Idols:
 The Pleiades (Seven little goats); Balatic (Greater Bear); Lic-ha (which were images
with different shapes); Dian Masalanta (who was the patron of lovers and generation;
Lacapati and Idianale (were the patrons of the cultivated lands and husbandry)
 They also believed to a Tigmamanuguin, a bird when singing in the tree, may bring either good
or bad omen.
 The offering sacrifice was done in front of the idol, which they anoint fragrant perfumes, such as
musk and civet, or gum of a storax tree and other odiferous woods. The manner of offering
sacrifice is done by an officiating priest, male or female, called Catalonan.
 They also practiced divination, to see whether the weapons were to be useful and lucky for their
possessor whenever occasion should offer.

Languages, System of Writing, Civilities

 Relacion de las Islas Filipinas by Fr. Pedro Chirino, (Vol. XII). Refer to Compilation of Readings for full text of
the article and biography of the author.

Early Spaniards who came to the Philippines saw that pre-Hispanic writings had been written on
barks of trees, leaves, or bamboos. These were in baybayin, our native syllabary, composed of three
vowels (a, e/I, o/u) and 14 consonants (b, d, g, h, k, l, m, n, ng, p, s, t, w, and y). Father Pedro Chirino
theorized that baybayin was written vertically from top to bottom, from left to right.

It is said that the Spaniards burned Filipino materials in baybayin, that’s why we do not know
much about our ancient writing. Also, of course, it is also the fact that these writings were made of
materials difficult to preserve. The Filipinos syllabary and the materials on which it was written, however,
continue to be used by Tagabanuas, Palawans, Hanunuos, and the Buids. Their continued use of the
baybayin gives us windows that it could have been in the past before Spanish colonization.

When Spaniards came, they used baybayin as a tool for their colonization. They studied the
writing system, including the various languages that used it. They even uttered the Christian
evangelization to the Filipinos in Tagalog. Thence, they produced the Doctrina Cristiana in 1593 authored
by Fr. Plasencia, the first book published in the Philippines. It used Spanish in the Roman alphabet, and
Tagalog in both Roman alphabets as well as baybayin.

Also, the early Filipinos had different languages and dialects. Of all the native languages, the
Tagalog was regarded by the early Spanish writers as the best.

Lastly, Fr. Chirino also related that our early Filipino ancestors were also described to be
courteous and polite. The women were also shown courtesy everywhere.

 Labor Evangelica” OF the Government and Political Customs by Fr. Francisco Colin, S.J. (Vol. XI).
Refer to Compilation of Readings for full text of the article and biography of the author.

Fr. Francisco Colin was also one of the prominent Jesuit missionary and historian of the early
colonial period. In his work Labor Evangelica, he discusses the customs and traditions of the
Philippines, Southeast Asia such as Sumatra and Moluccas.

In this section it focuses mainly on the government and political customs of the early Filipinos.
The essential points are the following:
 There were no kings or rulers worthy of mention throughout this archipelago. However, many
chiefs dominated others less power.
 Barangay is used to be their form of government. The name barangay is originated from
balangay, a Malay word for a sailboat. It may compose of about 30-100 families and is ruled by
either Datu or Maginoo.

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

 Their laws and policy which were not very barbarous consisted wholly of traditions and customs.
It may be written or not. Unwritten laws are spoken laws that are passed by word of mouth and
may be passed through generations. On the other hand, written laws are made by the Datu
together with the Council of Elders as his advisers.
 There are three kinds and classes of people:
 Nobles/Maginoo is the chieftain of the whole barangay and is the wealthiest person in
the community. The Datu has many powers. In times of peace, as Executive, Legislator,
and Chief Justice. In times of war, he is the Commander in Chief and enables treatise
and truce (sanduguan). The position may be inherited, either by a man or a woman (the
eldest child), or may be chosen by the community according to the following
characteristics (bravest, wealthiest, or the wisest).
 Freeman/Timawa was the intermediate class of men who had enough land, those who
rendered services to the rulers and do not work on fields.
 Dependents/Alipin were humans treated as property and forcing them to do their work
for their masters. Slavery may be due to the following: inherited status, captured by
enemies in war, those who cannot pay their debt, the punishment of the crime committed,
and being sold to become slaves.
 A dispute between datus or between residents of different barangay was sometimes settled by
arbitration. When the barangay court does not readily decide the case, a trial by ordeal was
resorted to.
 River Ordeal, when suspects plunge into the river with spears and who rises first, is
guilty.
 Boiling Water Ordeal, when suspects pick a stone in a pot of boiling water and he
whose arm or hand is burned the most is guilty.
 Candle Ordeal, when suspects are given lighted candles of the same sizes and the
owner of the candle that died out first is guilty.

 Relacion de las Islas Filipinas by Miguel de Loarca (Vol. V). Refer to Compilation of Readings for full text
of the article and biography of the author.

Miguel de Loarca was one of the first conquistadores to arrive in the Philippines. During his stay
in the Visayas, Loarca widely observed and studied the Visayan customs, tradition and, languages.

In his Relacion de las Islas Filipinas (1582), he described that in the island is made a slave or is
put to death for any crime which he commits even if it be theft, adultery, murder. For insulting any woman
of rank except that for each crime, there is an established penalty that they have to pay in jewels or gold.
If the culprit is unable to pay the fine, he will borrow the money and pledge himself to the man from whom
he borrows. As a result, he becomes a slave until he shall repay what was lent to him. After that, he is
free again, according to the crime committed.

He identified that there were three classes of slaves among the Visayans, particularly, the ayuey,
tumataban, and tumarampoc

Contextual Analysis

In the Filipino point of view, we can see that three discursive points can be discussed about the
readings. First, the issue about the authorship; second, the discourse of power in colonial writing and
lastly, the sense of binarism “West-Other” concept.

In the first issue, the authorships play a vital point in putting relevance to their texts—the authors,
Fr. Plasencia, Fr. Chirino, Fr. Colin and Governor-General Miguel de Loarca were not natives. However,
they were early foreign missionaries and officials to arrive in the Filipinas. They were tasked by the

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

Highest Authority, the King of Spain, to document the customs and traditions of the colonized natives
based on their observations and judgments. Notably, their initiatives to write these accounts were a usual
practice of the colonizers to enhance their superiority over the colonized and validity of their duties and
legacies, i.e., to civilize the uncivilized by introducing western culture and convert them to Christianity.
During the Spanish colonial era, the Spanish colonizers, spearheaded by missionaries, drew a wide
variety of texts ranging from travel narratives and accounts of the colony.

More so, the missionaries tried to avoid discussing conflicting reports about the natives through
their observation to obtain the truth. However, this truth is debatable. The texts were based on the two
focal points: the observer (missionaries and Spanish officials), with their background, subjectivities and
biases, and the observer’s subject (natives/Filipinos), seen as the “Other.” In a colonial situation, the
relationship between the colonized and colonizer, drifts in the opposite direction, the colonizer as the
dominant/superior, while the colonized as an inferior one. This Western-Other relationship is a
Eurocentric perspective view that the Westerners were at the center and looked toward the colonizers at
the periphery. Hence, the colonizers find their identity in a compelling situation as “dominating” versus the
inferior colonized as “Other.”

In Morga’s original version, his work serves as the first history of the Spanish Philippines to be
written by a layman, as opposed to the religious chroniclers. Despite the repetition, Chapter 8 is influenced
by the standard set of questions by the Spanish government when demanding information on the newly
discovered territories. Nevertheless, Morga, like many other colonists, did not go inland. He had relied on
other sources for his ethnographical and other data about the up-country areas and their inhabitants. Here
he would draw upon the reports coming into audiencia from friars working in the field as missionaries.

 On the other hand, Rizal began the task of writing the first Philippine history from the viewpoint of a
Filipino. It is the first history written by a colonized, not the colonizer.
 Why did he choose Morga over other Spanish chronicles?
 The original book was rare.
 Morga was a layman, not a religious chronicler.
 Rizal felt Morga be more “objective” that the religious writers whose accounts included many
stories, compared to religious chroniclers, was more sympathetic to the Indios.
 Morga was not only an eyewitness but a major actor in the events he narrates.
 Rizal’s objectives to annotate Morga’s Sucesos:
 The Early Filipino Pride - to awaken the consciousness of the Filipinos regarding their
glorious ways of the past
 History as a Propaganda Weapon - to correct what has been distorted about the Philippines
due to Spanish conquest
 Advanced Civilization - to prove that Filipinos are civilized even before the coming of the
Spaniards

Though to some extent, the works of early Spanish colonial writers showcased that our culture is a
significant reflection of our significant and complex history. The accounts revealed that the pre-Hispanic
culture of Filipinos is influenced by most of the people we have interacted with. A blend of the
Austronesian culture, with the influence of Chinese, Indian, Arabs, and other Asian cultures contribute to
the customs and traditions of the Filipinos.

Lesson 4.3. Coming of Islam

 Excerpts from The History of Sulu (1908) and Studies in Moro History, Law and Religion (1905) by Najeeb
Application/Assessment
Saleeby. Refer to Compilation of Readings for full text of the article and biography of the author.

The readings were excerpts from the works of Najeeb Saleeby, who authored several
authoritative books about the Muslims in Sulu and Mindanao during the early colonial era of the

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

Americans. Likewise, the work was an ethnographical account of the genealogy, history, geography of
Mindanao and Sulu, lifestyles, customs, and traditions among the Moros or Muslim inhabitants. Thence
his works were written for his fellow American colonists as a benchmark for their colonization campaign in
Mindanao and Sulu Islands.

The articles described the genealogical account of how the religion Islam was introduced to the
inhabitants in Sulu and Mindanao. These traditional accounts were known to be the beginning of
Islamization among the Tausug groups in Sulu and Maguindanao in Mindanao Island.

An in-depth discussion about the Islamization of Sulu and Mindanao will be discussed in another
mandated subject course, H003 – History of the Muslim Filipinos and Indigenous Peoples in Mindanao,
Sulu, and Palawan (MInSuPala).

Important Keywords

Important Keywords:
 Trade or commerce basically means exchange of goods, services or both. During prehistoric period,
this is the main facility for the people who bartered goods and services from each other when modern
money was not yet available.
 Pre-Hispanic Filipino culture refers to the complex political, economic and cultural culture, with
different influences from foreign traders who arrived in the islands, being practiced by the early Filipinos
prior to Spanish conquests.
 Annotation is a note or comment added to a text to provide explanation or criticism about a particular
part of a texts or accounts.

Assessment/Application

1. Answer Activity 4.

References

Blair, Emma, and Robertson, James, Eds. The Philippine Islands 55-Volumes, Cleveland, Ohio: The
A. H. Clark Company, 1903-1909.

Labor Evangelica” OF the Government and Political Customs by Fr. Francisco Colin, S.J. (Vol.
XI).
Relacion de las Islas Filipinas by Fr. Pedro Chirino, (Vol. XII)
Relacion de las Islas Filipinas by Miguel de Loarca (Vol. V)
Relation of the Worship of the Tagalogs, Their Gods and Their Burials and Superstitions by Fr.
Juan de Plasencia, (Vol. VII).

Boxer Codex. circa 1595

Gintong Pamana [Link]

Rizal, Jose. “Chapter 8”, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas por el Doctor Antonio de Morga, obra
publicada en Mejico el año de 1609 nuevamente sacada a luz y anotada (Events of the Philippine
Islands of Dr. Antonio de Morga, published in Mexico in 1609), Manila: Jose Rizal National Centennial
Commission, p. 240-296.

Saleeby, N. The History of Sulu (1908) and Studies in Moro History, Law and Religion (1905).

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

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