SOILS
The soil of a place owes its characteristics to such things as the parent rock
material, climate, topography, and decaying plants and animals. Hundreds of
different types of soil result from the interaction of these elements. Any
particular soil is unique because of its mix of properties (such as color and
texture) and composition (including organic content and the action of soil
colloids).
Colloids are small soil particles. Their properties and influences on soil are
complex and often important. Soil acidity (or alkalinity), for example, is a
result of the alteration and integration of soil colloids. Acid soils are
characteristic of cold, moist climates; alkaline soils typically are found in dry
areas. Most soils of the major agricultural zones of the eastern United States
are moderately to strongly acidic. Lime must be added periodically to
neutralize that acidity before these soils can be used to produce most row
crops.
Color is perhaps the most obvious soil property. A dark color usually
indicates an abundance of organic materials, and red, the presence of iron
compounds. Generally, however, color is a result of the soil-forming
processes. For example, the pale-gray soil of the northern needleleaf forest
results from the leaching of organic matter and minerals from the soil's
surface layer.
Soil texture, which determines a soil's ability to retain and transmit water,
refers to the proportion of particles of different size in the soil. Sand is the
coarsest measure of soil texture, silt is intermediate, and clay is the finest.
Soils called "loams" contain substantial proportions of each of the three
particle grades and are considered best. They are fine enough to hold
moisture yet are not so fine that they cannot easily take up water.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture has developed a soil classification
system that indicates the most important soil types for an area of the
country. Aridisols, found mostly in the Southwest, gain their name from arid.
These soils of dry climates are low in organic content and have little
agricultural value. Spodosols generally develop in cool, moist climates,
although they are found in northern Florida. They are quite acidic and low in
nutrients, and are of agricultural value only for acid-loving crops. Tundra
soils, which also have little agricultural value, are associated with a cold,
moist climate such as Alaska. The soil is shallow, frequently water saturated,
and with a subsurface of perennially frozen ground. Highland soils, found in
West Virginia, Utah, and Alaska, are little developed and agriculturally
worthless.
Mollisols are grassland soils of the semiarid and subhumid climates of the
Central, North Central, and Pacific Northwest sections of the country. They
are thick dark brown to black and have a loose texture and high-nutrient
content. They are among the most naturally fertile soils in the world and
produce most of America's cereals.
Alfisols are second only to mollisols in agricultural value. They are soils of
the mid-latitude forest and the forest-grassland boundaries. They are very
much "middle" soils in a climatic sense. They are located in areas moist
enough to allow for the accumulation of clay particles but not so moist as to
create a heavily leached or weathered soil.
Alfisols are divided into three categories, each with its own characteristic
climatic association. Udalfs are soils of the deciduous forests of the Middle
West. Somewhat acidic, they are nevertheless highly productive when lime
is used to reduce the acidity. Ustalfs, found in warmer areas with a strong
seasonal variation in precipitation, are most common in Texas and
Oklahoma. They are highly productive if irrigated. Xeralfs are soils of cool,
moist winters and hot, dry summers. Found in central and southern
California, they too are highly productive.
Ultisols represent the ultimate stage of weathering and soil formation in the
United States. They develop in areas with abundant precipitation and a long
frost-free period, such as the South. Particle size is small, and much of the
soluble material and clay has been carried downward. These soils can be
productive, but high acidity, leaching, and erosion are often problems.
Entisols are recent soils, too young to show the modifying effects of their
surroundings. They are widely scattered and of many types, from the Sand
Hills of Nebraska to the alluvial floodplains of the Mississippi River Valley.
The agricultural potential of entisols varies, but the alluvial floodplain soils,
drawn from the rich upper layers of upstream soils, are among America's
most productive.