Public Policy End term suggested answers
1. Public Policy is whatever the government chooses to do or even not to do. Define and
describe the characteristics of public policy in India. 15 marks (Easy)
Suggested Answer:
This question has two parts. First students are to explain the definition of public policy in
India (7 marks) and the characteristics of public policy in India (8 marks).
Definition of public policy: Public Policy meaning has changed over the years. It refers to the
actions of government and the intentions that determine those actions Public policy can be
usually well-defined as a system of laws, regulatory measures, courses of action, and funding
priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its
representatives. The creation of the policy sciences (the study of policy as a field) is closely
associated with the work of Harold Lasswell (writing in the 1950s). Public policy can be best
distinct as that these are the actions that the government takes to respond to a public problem.
It is a project which is designed by a state through public administration and government in
order to satisfy the basic or specific needs of the people of the society. It is whatever
government chooses to do or not to do (Thomas Dye). It is -“a set of inter-related decisions
taken by a political actor or group of actors concerning the selection of goals and the means
of achieving them within a specified situation where those decisions should, in principle, be
within the power of those actors to achieve” (Jenkins, 1978). The policy response concept
denotes what the agencies do in responding to environmental and structural stimuli. This
concept is subdivided into policy statements, policy actions, and policy results.
Characteristics of public policy: Public policy is supposed to be a combination of laws,
regulations, actions, policies and a lot of other factors concerning a given topic. Such public
policies of a nation are shaped over time by education, advocacy groups, influences of
lobbyists, and conflicting interests of special interest groups. Harold Lasswell argued that the
science of policy had three distinct characteristics that set it apart from other disciplines: it
would/should be multi-disciplinary, problem solving and normative. 1. multi-disciplinary:
policy sciences would break from the narrow study of political institutions and structures and
embrace the work and findings of fields such as sociology, economics, law and politics. 2
problem solving: policy science would adhere to a strict canon of relevance, orienting itself
towards the solution of real world problems and not engaging in purely academic and often
sterile debates. 3 normative: policy science should not be cloaked in the guise of “scientific
objectivity”, but should recognize the impossibility of separating goals and means, or values
and techniques, in the study of government actions.
2. [Link] said, “In political systems based on the principle of separation of powers
and authority, one of the most important questions which engaged the attention of the
framers of the Constitution was the nature of the Executive and its relation with the
legislature. Explain the importance and role of the Executive. What are the different types
of Executives? 15 marks (Moderate)
Suggested Answer:
Student is supposed to explain the following Different types of Executives ( 7
marks)and their functions ( 8 marks)
Different types of Executives
• Chief Executive(Temporary)
• Legislative (Temporary)
• Permanent
• Nominal/Titular and Real Executives: The difference between the nominal/titular and
real executives is made only in a parliamentary system of government. In it, the head of
state, the President or the Monarch, is the nominal executive and the Council of Ministers
headed by the Prime Minister is the real executive. All the powers are legally the powers
of the nominal executive but in practice these are exercised by the real executive. The
nominal executive is not responsible for its actions as these are performed in its name by
the real executive. The real executive is responsible for all the actions of the nominal
executive. The nominal executive is the ceremonial and dignified part of the executive,
whereas the real executive is its powerfulpart.
• Hereditary and Elected Executives: When the executive assumes office by the law of
hereditary succession, it is called the hereditary executive. When the executive is directly
or indirectly elected by the people for a fixed period or even for life, it is called the
elected executive. In Britain, Japan and Malaysia there are hereditary chief executives. In
India, USA, Germany and many other states there are elected chief executives.
• Single and Plural Executives: When all the executive powers are in the hands of a
single functionary/leader, it is called a single executive. In India, Britain, USA, Australia,
France and many other states there are single executives. In India, all the executive
powers are with the President of India. Likewise under the US Constitution, the executive
powers are with the President of the United States of America. When the executive
powers are vested with a group of persons or in a committee/council/commission and
these are collectively exercised by all the members of this commission/council, the
executive is called the Plural Executive. As for example, in Switzerlandall the executive
powers have been given to the Federal Council which consists of seven members. All the
members collectively exercise all the executive powers.
• Parliamentary and Presidential Executives: The distinction between the parliamentary
and presidential executives is made on the basis of relationship between the legislature
and executive. (i)A close relationship between legislature and executive and members of
the executive are also members of the legislature (ii) The members of political executive
is individually and collectively responsible before the legislature, (iii) The tenure of the
political executive is not fixed as it can be at any time removed by the legislature, and
(iv) The legislative can be dissolved by the executive.
Functions of Executives
1. Enforcement of Laws: enforce laws, implementation/maintain law and order in the state
(organises and maintains the police force).
2. Appointment-making Functions: All major appointments are made by the chief
executive ex: the President of India appoints the Chief Justice and other Judges of the
Supreme Court and High Courts. Ambassadors, Advocate General of India, Members of
Union Public Service Commission, Governors of States etc. The members of the civil service
on the recommendation of a service recruitment commission (UPSC holds competitive
examinations and recruits on merit.)
3. Treaty-making Functions: decide to which treaties are to be signed with which other
countries. negotiates the treaties in accordance with the procedure defined by international
law and also in accordance with the provisions the constitution of the state. Each treaty is
signed by a member of the executive and secure legislative approval for the treaties signed by
it.
4. Defence, War and Peace Functions: Defend and preserve the unity and integrity of the
country and protect it in the event of an external aggression or war. organise military for the
defence of the state. prepare for and fight the war, if it becomes necessary. negotiate and sign
peace settlement after every [Link] executive of the state is also the supreme commander
of the armed forces of the state and is the final judge of the nature of the threat to the security
of the country.
5. Foreign Policy-making and the Conduct of Foreign Relations: formulate the foreign
policy of the state and to conduct foreign relations. formulates the goals of national interest,
fixes the priorities and implements it for securing the defined goals of national interest.
appoints the ambassadors of the state to other states.
6. Policy-making: formulate short-term and long-term plans/ policies and implement these.
undertakes the task of policymaking and developmental planning. All actions of the state are
guided by definite policies and plans. the state carries out its objective of promoting the
welfare of its people.
7. Law-making: In a parliamentary system, the ministers are also members of the legislature
and they play a leading role in law-making. Most of the bills for legislation are introduced
and piloted by them in the legislature. Most of the time of the legislature is spent in passing
the governmental bills. The bills passed by the legislature become laws only after these are
signed by the Head of the State.
8. Financial Functions: It is the legislature which is the custodian of all finances. It has
the power to impose or reduce or eliminate a tax, proposes the levy of new taxes or
changes in tax structure and [Link] has the responsibility to prepare the budget.
decides the ways and means through which the money is to be collected and spent. It
collects and spends the money as sanctioned by the legislature. It formulates economic
policies and plans. It takes suitable measures for regulating the production and
distribution of goods, money supply, prices and exports and imports. It contracts foreign
loans, negotiates foreign aid and maintains the financial credibility of the state.
9. Some Semi-Judicial Functions: The appointment of judges by the executive is regarded
as the best method for ensuring the independence of judiciary. In almost all democratic
systems, the chief executive has the power to appoint judges. Further, he has the right to
grant pardon, reprieve and amnesty to criminals. Under the system of administrative
adjudication, the executive agencies have the power to hear and decide cases involving
particular fields of administrative activity.
10. Grant of Titles and Honours: Another important function of the executive is to grant titles
and honours to the people in recognition of their meritorious services to the nation. Such persons
who do commendable work in their respective spheres of activity—Art, Science, Literature etc.
are granted titles by the executive. It also grants titles to such defence personnel who show
exemplary courage and devotion to duty during war or peace. Even ordinary citizens are granted
honours in recognition of their meritorious work for the society. All decisions in this respect are
taken by the executive.
3. Governance is the set of rules and laws framed by the government that is to be
implemented through the representatives of the State. In this context, explain the concept
of Smart Governance. Also, explain how e-governance enables good governance in
service delivery 20 marks (Difficult)
Suggested Answer:
The answer is expected to enter around the following points:
In the 21st Century, democratic states have become a synonym with a welfare state. The
democratic government acts as a service provider. The government uses government
machinery to reach its citizens and provide necessary services in an efficient and
equitable manner. SMART captures the important attributes of Good Governance i.e.
Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive and Transparent government. Smart governance
is the process of utilizing modern technologies and ICT to create a collaborative,
communication-based, transparent, and sustainable environment for the citizens and
government.
„SMART‟ Governance:
▪Simple: Citizen expects a user-friendly government with the simplicity of laws,
rules, regulations, processes
▪Moral: A new system of governance based on moral values.
▪Accountability: It is the soul of a democratic government and the very
cornerstone of public administration.
▪Responsiveness It refers to the quality of being attentive to the needs of the
common man. A responsive administration shows urgency in responding to
different problems faced by the common man.
▪Transparency - Transparency brings some of the essential virtues into public life
such as equity, level playing field and the rule of law.
Features of Smart Governance
1. Use of Information and Communication Technology
2. E-Consultation
3. E-Data
Smart Governance Models:
1. Government to Citizen Model (G2C)
2. G2B or Government to Business Model
3. Government to Government (G2G)
4. Government to Employee (G2E)
„Smart‟ Governance to E-Governance
▪The government of India has set a vision to develop in India a SMART Government.
▪The new approach is to evolve a Citizen-Centric Design (CCD), especially for e-
Governance applications.
▪e-Governance can act as a trigger or a catalyst for progress in different spheres &
will reduce the digital divide.
▪Citizen Participation
▪Citizen's charter to e-Governance
▪Implementation of the Right to Information
▪E-democracy
E-Government Functions
▪ Citizen access to government information,
▪ Facilitating general compliance with a set of rules or regulations,
▪ Citizen access to personal benefits,
▪ Procurement including bidding, purchasing, and payment,
▪ Government to Government information and service integration and
Citizen Participation
Benefits of E-Governance:
1. Enhanced participation of citizens
2. Access to crucial information
3. Better democracy
4. Financial and social inclusion
5. Sustainable future
6. Involvement of the private sector
Service Delivery through E-governance:
1 Customer-centricity
2 Connected government
3 Build capacity
4 Deliver the promise
5 Innovate
Some e-governance initiatives in India:
A national e-governance plan has been created which provides the path to achieve smart
governance.
Initiatives to promote SMART Governance:
1. Prajavani (Andhra Pradesh): It's a unique public-private initiative that allows
citizens to connect to the government through Information Technology.
2. Jankari (Bihar): A phone-based RTI support system.
3. Online Land Records (Chhattisgarh): Digitization of land records in the state
4. e-city (Gujarat): A one-stop civic shop. It provides information about birth and
Death registration, building plan, utility services, primary health care, etc.
4. “The median voter is like a dictator.” Analyze this statement in detail in the context
of the Median Voter Theorem. Further, explain the Median Voter‟s Choice and
optimal solution. 15 marks (Moderate)
Majority Rule:
Majority rule is a decision rule that selects alternatives which have a majority, that is,
more than half the votes.
People often regard that majority rule procedure is a natural and optimal one for
making social choices.
Median Voter
The median voter is the voter whose vote has been instrumental in determining the
majority voting equilibrium.
The collective choice determined by majority voting is the preferred choice of the
median voter.
Identity of the Median Voter:
• The median voter is like a dictator whose personal preferred choice determines
the collective choice.
• In a large population, no one can be quite sure who the median voter is.
• The virtue of the median voter as dictator is also that the median voter, in general,
does not know that he/she is the median voter.
Median Voter‟s Choice and Optimal Solution
▪There is, in general, no necessary reason to expect the choice of the median voter to
result in efficient supply.
▪A median voter’s choice can exceed or be less than efficient supply.
Median Voter Theorem
The median voter theorem (Anthony Downs, 1957) states that “An Economic Theory of
Democracy,” is an attempt to explain why politicians on both ends of the spectrum tend
to gravitate towards the philosophical center.
Downs argued that politicians take political positions are far as possible near the center in
order to appeal to as many potential voters as possible. Under certain
constraints/assumptions, Black says, the median voter “wins,” and the outcome ends up
as a Nash equilibrium.
Essentially, the median voter theorem states that “a majority rule voting system will
select the outcome most preferred by the median voter”
In politics, few voters subscribe to the extreme right ideology or extreme left ideology.
Most of the voters are centrist i.e. those opposing political changes which would result in
a significant shift of society either strongly to the left or the right.
As the median voter determines the winner, winning of elections depends on how close
your manifesto is to aspirations of median voter i.e. centrist.
All parties to include aspirations of median voters in their manifesto.
Manifestos of all political parties look same
5. What is the principal-agent problem? How is the Principal-Agent problem manifested in
politics? 15 marks (Moderate)
Suggested Answer:
Principle agent problem in politics
A principal-agent problem is when there is a conflict of interest between the agent and the
principal, which typically occurs when the agent acts solely in his/her own interests. In a
principal-agent relationship, the principal is the party that legally appoints the agent to make
decisions and take actions on its behalf. This type of framework is used to model human
behavior and how it affects the finance body of knowledge.
PAP in Politics
Democratically elected forms of government are common in many First World countries. These
nations are often governed as republics or direct democracies that operate by allowing citizens to
choose their own government officials. These officials are agents of the people they represent.
The people, all principals by definition after electing their representatives, assume the officials
are making decisions that benefit the best interests of the nation. Perfect agents, having perfect
information about these best interests and being motivated to serve the principal, act to benefit
the principal even when the principal's interests are in conflict with their own. Members of the
public often assume their representatives in government will represent their ideal interests with
few problems. Whenever government officials act in their own private interests, they potentially
introduce conflict in their relationship with voters.
Representatives chosen to work in governmental organizations may have a vested interest in
acting contrary to voter interests.
6. Which are the different types of political parties operating in India? Explain the role of
political parties in Indian parliamentary democracy. 20 Marks (Difficult)
Suggested Answers:
This question has two parts. First students are to explain the different types of political parties
operating in India (10 marks) and the role of political parties in Indian parliamentary democracy
(10 marks).
Different types of political parties operating in India: The Indian political parties are categorized
into two main types: National level parties and state level parties. National parties are political
parties which, participate in different elections all over India. For example, Indian National
Congress, Bhartiya Janata Party, Bahujan Samaj Party, Samajwadi Party, Communist Party of
India, Communist Party of India (Marxist) and some other parties. State parties or regional
parties are political parties which, participate in different elections but only within one state. For
example, Shiv Sena participates only in Maharashtra, Telegu Desamin AndraPradesh, Akali Dal
in Punjab, Dravida Munnetra Kazagham (DMK) in Tamil Nadu and there are other such state
parties. There are some small communist parties who participate only within one state. Some
states have more than one state party. For example in Tamil Nadu another important state party
is All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazagham(AIADMK). Because of these long party names
many party names are abbreviated to their initials.
The role of political parties in Indian parliamentary democracy: A political party is an organized
group of people who have the same ideology, or who otherwise have the same political positions,
and who field candidates for elections, in an attempt to get them elected and thereby implement
the party's agenda. As with any other democracy, Indian political parties represent different
sections among the Indian society and regions, and their core values play a major role in the
politics of India. Through the electoral process, the people of India choose which representative
and which political party run the government. Political parties nominate candidates, rally their
supporters, participate in government, act as a "bonding agent" for their own officeholders, and
act as a watchdog over the other party.