CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II

CHAPTER No. 4
WORK AND ENERGY
WORK DONE BY A CONSTANT FORCE:
Physical definition:
When a force is applied on a body then the product of the magnitude of displacement and
the component of the force in the direction of the displacement is known as work.
Mathematical definition: It is the product of force and displacement.
W  F .d
Symbol: It is represent by W.
Type of quantity: It is a scalar quantity
Explanation and mathematical form:
Let us consider an object which is being pulled by a
constant force at an angle  the direction of motion. The
force moves the object form position ‘A’ to position ‘B’
through a displacement ‘d’ as show in figure. We define
work done ‘W’ by force ‘F’ as the scalar production of F
and d Commented [C1]: Diagram

W  F .d
W  Fd cos 
Work done= [magnitude of component of force in the direction of displacement]
[magnitude of displacement]
Example of work:
Q: Can you tell how much work is being done as the pail when a person holding the pail
by the force F is moving forward?
Ans: If a person holding the pail in his hand walk along a level surface no work is done because
the force has component in direction of motion.
Since the angle between the force and the displacement is 90o, so work can be find as
W=Fd cos  As  =90o
W=Fd cos 90o cos 90o=0
W= Fd (0)
W=0
Hence the work done by the force acting on the pail is zero II,
Q. Can you tell how much work is being done on the wall?
Ans: When wall is pushed by a person as show in the figure means that displacement of wall is
zero. The value of work done can be calculated as follows’
W= Fd cos  As d=0
W= F (0) cos 
W= 0
Hence, work done by the man on the wall is zero.
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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II

Work done by a constant force from graph:

Significance of area under force displacement graph:
When a constant force acts through a distance ‘d’ the event can be plotted on a simple
graph. The distance is normally plotted along x-axis and the force along y-axis. In this case
as the force does not vary the graph will be a horizontal straight line
Case I:
When force F and displacement d are in the same direction.
By the definition
W= F.d
W  Fd cos  As   0
o

W  Fd cos 0o cos 0o  1
W = Fd (in Joule)
From figure
Shaded area under graph = Area of rectangle OPQR shaded area under graph = Length x
width
Shaded area under graph gives work done = F  d  II
Hence area under the graph gives work done by the constant force when F& d are in the
same direction.
Case II:
When force F and displacement d are not in the same direction and make an angle
 with each other.
Here graph is between Fcos  and d `
By definition: Commented [C2]: In diagram Change E to F

W  F.d
W  Fd cos 
From figure ………….. (iii)

Shaded area under graph = Area of rectangle OPQR.

Shaded area under graph = Length x Width
Hence,
Area under graph = work done by constant force when F&d makes angle θ with each other.
Characteristics of work:
(i) Work is a scalar quantity
If   90 work is done & it is said to positive work.
o
(ii)
If   90 , No work is done.
o
(iii)
If   90 , the work done is said to be negative.
o
(iv)

SI unit of work:
SI unit of work is Nm known as Joule (J) which is defined as follows:
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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II

Joule:
If a force of one Newton is applied on a body and it covers a distance of one meter in the
direction of force, then the work done is said to be one Joule.
Symbol:
It is represented by J.
Mathematical form:
1J  1N 1m
Special cases of work:
I. Positive work (Maximum Work)
Work done is maximum when force and displacement are along the same direction.
W  F.d
W  Fd cos  Here   0 Commented [C3]: Ad figer
o

W  Fd cos 0 Cos 0  1
o o

W = Fd (1)
W = –Fd
II. Negative Work:
Work done is negative when force and displacement are opposite to each other i.e.   180
o

W  F.d
W  Fd cos  Here   180 Commented [C4]: Ad figer
o

W  Fd cos180 o
Cos180  1 o

W = Fd (–1)
W = Fd
Example of Negative work:
I. If a body is lifted against gravity very slowly, the angle between force of gravity and
displacement is 180o.
W  F.d
W  Fd cos180o  W  Fd  1
W  Fd
Hence work will be negative.
II. Work done by fractional force and application of brakes is negative, because the
fractional force is always opposite to the direction of motion of a body.
III. Zero Work (Minimum Work):
Work done is Zero when the force and displacement are at right angle to each other i.e.
  90o
W  F.d Commented [C5]: Ad figer

W  Fd cos 90 o
90  0
o

W  Fd  0 

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
W=0
4.2 WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE:
Variable force:
Definition
A variable force is that force whose magnitude, direction or both change as it acts.
OR
Force which may vary during the process doing work
Examples:
(i) As a rocket moves away from the earth work is against the force of gravity, which
varies as the inverse square of the distance from the earth’s centre.
(ii) Similarly, the force exerted by a spring increases
with the amount of stretch.
Calculation of work done by a variable force:
Figure shows the path of a particle in the xy plane as it
moves from point ‘a’ to point ‘b’. The path has been
divided into ‘n’ short intervals’ of displacement d1 , d 2
…. d n and F1 , F2 …. Fn are forces acting during these
intervals.
During each small interval, the force is supposed to be approximately constant. So the work
done for the 1st interval can be written as
W1  F1. d  F1 Cos 1d1
And in the second interval.
W2  F2 . d 2  F2 Cos 2 d 2
Wn  Fn .d n  Fn Cos n d n
The total work done in moving the object can be calculated by adding all these terms.
Wtotal  W1  W2  ..........  Wn
Wtotal  F1 cos 1d1  F2 cos 2 d2  .....  Fn cos n d n
Writing it in sigma  form, where sigma stands for summation.
n
Wtotal   Fi cos i d i
i 1

Work done by a variable force graph:

We can examine this by plotting Fcos θ verses ‘d’ as shown in
figure. The displacement d has been subdivided into n equal
intervals. The value of Fcos θ at the beginning of each interval
is indicated in the figure.
Now the ith shaded rectangle has an area Fi cos i d 2 which is the work done during the
ith interval.
From figure
Area of shaded rectangle = length x width
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During the 1st interval = F1 cos 1di  W1 =work done during the interval.
= work done during 1st interval
Area of shaded rectangle during the ith interval = Fi cos i di  Wi
Area of shaded rectangle during the nth interval = Fn cos n d n  Wn
= work done during nth interval.
Thus the total work done by variable force is obtained by adding ail the above works
Wtotal  W1  W2  ...  Wi  ...  Wn
Wtotal  F1 cos 1d1  F2 cos 2 d 2  ...  Fi cos i di  ...  Fn cos n d n
n
Wtotal   Fi cos i d i  (A
i 1

If we subdivide the distance into a large number of intervals.

So that each d becomes very small, the work done given by
Eq (A) becomes more accurate. If we let each d to approach
zero, then we obtain an exact result for the work done, such as
n
Wtotal  lim  Fi cos i d i  (B
d 0
i 1

In this limit d approaches zero, the total area of the rectangles in figure approaches the
area between the Fcos  curve and d axis from ‘a’ to ‘b’ as shown shaded in figure (2).
Conclusion:
Thus, the work done by a variable force in moving a particle between two points is equal
to the area under the Fcos  verses ‘d’ curve b/w the two points a and b as shown in figure
(2).
4.3 Work done by Gravitational Field:
Gravitational Field:
Definition
The space around the earth in which its gravitational force acts on a body is called the
gravitational field.
Work done in gravitational field is independent of path followed by the body:
When an object is moved in the gravitational field, the work is done by the gravitational
force.
Positive work:
If displacement is in the direction of
gravitational force, the work is
positive.
Negative work:
If displacement is against the
gravitational force, the work is
negative.

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Let us consider an object of mass ‘m’ being displaced with constant velocity from point
‘A’ to ‘B’ along various paths in the presence of a gravitational force (figure 1). In this case
the gravitational force is equal to the weight mg of the object.
Path 1 (ADB):
The work done by the gravitational force along the path 1 (ADB) can be split into two parts.
Hence work done in displacing a body from A to B through path I is
WADB  WAD  WDB → (I
The work done WAD along AD is zero because the weight mg perpendicular to this path
i.e.   90o
WAD  F.d,  F.d1 cos90o  Fd1  0 
WAD  0
The work done WDB along DB is (–mgh) because the direction of mg is opposite to that of
the displacement i.e   180o
WDB  F.d 2  Fd 2 cos180o F  W  mg
WDB  mgh  1 cos180o  1
WDB  mgh d2  h
Putting the value of WDB in eq (1) we get
WADB  0    mgh 
WADB  mgh..............(A)
Path 2 (ACB):
The work done in displacing a body from A to B through path 2 is
WACB  WAC  WCB  (2
The work done along AC is  mgh  because the direction of mg is opposite to that of the
displacement    180o 

WAC  F.d1  Fd1 cos180o F  W  mg

WAC  mgh  1 d1  h
cos180o  1
WAC  mgh
The work done along CB is zero because the weight mg perpendicular to this path (i.e
  90o )
WCB  F.d 2  Fd 2 cos 90o
WCB  Fd 2  0  As Cos 90o  0
WCB  0
Putting the value of WAC and WCB in eq(2) we get
WACB  mgh  0
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WACB  mgh............(B)
Path: 3 (AB):
Let us consider path 3 i.e. a curved one, imagine the curved path to be broken down into a
series of horizontal and vertical steps as shown in the figure. Commented [C6]: AD IT FROM BOOK
There is no work done along the horizontal steps because mg is perpendicular to the
displacement for these steps. Work is done by the force of gravity only along the vertical
displacement.

WAB  F. y  F.y 2  .....  F. y n

WAB  Fy1 cos180o  Fy 2 cos180o  ....  Fy n cos180o
As F  mg and cos180o  1
WAB  mgy1  1  mgy 2  1  .....  Fy n  1
WAB  mgy1  mgy2  .....  mgyn
WAB   mg  y1  y 2  ......  y n 
As y1  y2  .....  yn  h
WAB  mgh............(C)
Conclusion:
We conclude from equation A, B and C that work done in the earth’s gravitational field is
independent of the path followed.
Work done in Gravitational Field along a closed
path is zero:
Closed Path:
A closed path is one in which starting and end points
are the same.
Q: Can you prove that the work done along a closed
path such as ADBA or ADBA in a gravitational field
is zero?
Ans: Consider the closed path ADBA as shown. Now total work Wtotal along the closed path is
equal to sum of work done from point A to D, point D to B and point B to A.
Wtotal  WAD  WDB  WBA As WBA  WAB
Wtotal  WAD  WDB  WAB WAD  0
Wtotal  0    mgh     mgh  WDB  mgh
Wtotal  mgh  mgh WAB  mgh
Wtotal  0
Conclusion:
Thus work done along a closed path in earth’s gravitational field is zero.
Conservative field & Conservative Force:
The field in which the work done by independent of the path followed OR
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Work done in a closed path be zero, is called a conservative field and the force exerted is
called conservative force.
Examples of conservative forces:
(i) Gravitational force
(ii) Elastic spring force
(iii) Electric force
Non-Conservative Field & Non-Conservative Forces:
The field in which the work done depends upon the path followed between two points is
called non-conservative field and the force acting this field is called non-conservative force.
Examples:
(i) Frictional force
(ii) Air resistance
(iii) Tension in a string
(iv) Normal forces
(v) Propulsion force of rocket
(vi) Propulsion force of a motor
The frictional force is a non-conservative force because if an object is moved over a rough
surface between two points along different paths, the work done against the frictional force
certainly depends on the path followed.
4.4 POWER:
Introduction:
In the definition of work, it is not clear whether the same amount of work is done in one
second or in one hour.
Definition
Power is the rate at which work is being done.
Mathematical Form:
If W is work done in time‘t’, then
P = W/t
Average Power:
If work W is done in a time interval t , then the average power Pav during the time
interval is defined as Pav  W / t .
Instantaneous power:
If work is expressed as a function of time, the instantaneous power instant is defined as
w
P= lim
t 0 t

Where W is the small amount of work done in short interval of time t , following the
instant t as t approaches to zero.
Power and Velocity
It is sometimes, convenient to express power in terms of a constant force F & velocity.
Consider a constant force F acting on an object moving at constant velocity ‘ v ’.
Example:
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When the propeller of a motor boat causes the water to exert a constant force F on the boat
it moves with a constant velocity v . The power delivered by the motor at any instant is,
then given by
w
P= lim
t 0 t

We know that W  F.d

Putting the value of W in the above equation
F.d
P  lim
t 0 t
d
P  [Link] d / t Since lim V
t 0 t  0 t
P  F.V
As power is scalar product, so it is a scalar quantity.
SI Unit of Power:
The SI unit of power is a watt.
Watt:
If one Joule work is done in one second, then power is one watt.
Mathematically 1Watt = 1J/1S
Unit of work in terms of power:
As p= w/t
p.t= w
w= pt
u=1wxs
sometimes’ for example, in the electrical measurement the unit of work is expressed as
watt= second. However a commercial unit of electrical energy is a kilowatt hour.
KILOWATT HOUR:
Definition
One kilowatt hour is the work done in one hour by agency whose power is one kilowatt.
To show that 1KWH = 3.6 M J
L.H.S = 1KWH
= 1KWx1H
= 1000Wx3600S
= 103x3600WS As W.S = J
= 3.600x103x103J 106 =1Mega (M)
= 3.6x106J
= 3.6MJ
Hence proved
ENERGY:
Definition
Energy of a body is its capacity to do work.
Types of energy:
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There are two basic forms of energy.
(i) Kinetic energy
(ii) potential energy
KINETIC ENERGY:
Definition
The kinetic energy is possessed by a body due to its motion.
Symbol: K.E
Mathematical from:
K.E = ½ mv2
Where m is the mass of the body moving with velocity.
POTENTIAL ENERGY:
Definition
The energy possessed by a body because of position in a force field is called potential
energy.
Symbol: P.E
Mathematical form:
The potential energy due to gravitational field near the surface of the earth at a height ‘h’
is as
P.E = mgh
This energy is also known as gravitation P.E where ‘m’ is the mass of the object.
G = gravitational acceleration
H = height of object form ground surface.
Zero reference for G.P.E:
The gravitation P.E is always determined relative to some arbitrary position which is
assigned the value of zero P.E.
(i) In the present case the reference level is the surface of the earth as position of zero P.E.
(ii) In some cases a point at infinity from the earth can also be chosen as zero reference
level.
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY:
Definition
The energy stored in a compressed spring is the potential energy possessed by the spring
due is to its compressed or stretched state. This form of energy is called the elastic potential
energy.
Work Energy Principle:
Statement: Work done on the body equals change in its Kinetic Energy.

Mathematical Derivation:
A body of mass ‘m’ is moving with velocity vi , a force F acting through a distance d which
increases the velocity to v f , then from second equation of motion.

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II

2ad  Vf 2  Vi 2
d  1/ 2a  Vf 2  Vi 2  → (I
From 2nd law of motion
F  ma → (II
Multiplying eq (I & (II we have

Fd  ma   Vf 2  Vi 2 
1
2a

Fd  m  Vf 2  Vi 2 
1
2
Fd  1/ 2mVf 2  1/ 2mVi 2
1 1
As W  Fd  K.E f
 mVf 2 &  K.E i  mVi 2
2 2
Work done =  K.E f   K.E i
Work done on a body = change in K.E of a body. This is known as work energy principle.
Other Forms of Work Energy Principle:
(i) If a body is raised up from the earth’s surface, the work done changes the
gravitational potential energy W   G.P.E f   G.P.E i Commented [C7]: Change in figer

(ii) If a spring is compressed, the work done on its equals the increase in its elastic
potential energy W   E.P.E f   E.P.E i
ABSOLUTE POTENTIAL ENERGY:
Definition
The absolute potential energy of an object at a certain
position is the work done by the gravitational force in
displacing the object from that position to infinity where
the force of gravity becomes zero.
Symbol:
It is represented by U.
Explanation:
The relation for the calculation of the work done by the
gravitational force or potential energy = mgh is true
only near the surface of the earth where the gravitational force is nearly constant. But if the
body is displaced through a large distance in the gravitational field then the gravitational
force will not remain constant. Since it varies inversely to the square of the distance.

Calculation of Absolute Potential Energy:

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ which is lifted from a point 1 to a far off point ‘N’ as shown
in figure.

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Now we divide this large distance into very small steps each of length r , so that the value
of the gravitational force remains constant for each small step. If r1 or r2 are the distances
of points 1 and 2 respectively, from the centre ‘o’ of the earth as shown in figure.
The work done during the first step i.e. displacing a body from point 1 to point 2 can be
calculated as below.
The distance the centre of this step and the centre of the earth will be
r r
r 1 2 → (I)
2
If r2  r1  r
r2  r1  r → (II)
Putting the value of r2 from eq (II) in eq (I), we have
r1  r1  r
r
2
2r1  r
r
2
2r1 r
r 
2 2
r  r1  r / 2 → (III)
Squaring on both sides
r 2   r1  r / 2 
2

r 2  r12  2r1.r / 2   r / 2 
2

As  r   r12 , so this term can be neglected as compared to r1 . Hence

2 2

r 2  r12  r1r As r  r2  r1
Substituting the value of r
r 2  r12  r1  r2  r1 
r 2  r12  r1r2  r12
r 2  r1r2 → (IV)
The gravitational force F at the centre of this step
Mm
FG 2 → (V)
r
Where m = mass of an object
M = mass of the earth
G = Gravitational constant
Putting the value of r 2 in Eq (V) we get
Mm
FG → (VI)
r1r2
As,
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The work done is W = F .d

W1 2  F. r → (VII)
Mm
W12 =G (r2 -r1 )
r1r2
r r 
W12  GMm  2 1 
 r1r2 
The negative sign indicates that the work has to be done on the body from point 1 to 2
because displacement is opposite to gravitational force.
 r r 
W12  GMm  2  1 
 1 2 1r2 
r r r
1 1
W1 2  GMm    → (IX)
 r1 r2 
Similarly the work done during the second step in which the body is displaced from point
2→3 is
1 1
W23  GMm    → (X)
 r2 r3 
And the work done in the last step
 1 1
WN 1 N  GMm    → (XI)
 n 1 n 
r r
Hence, the total work done in displacing a body from point 1 to N is calculated by adding
up the work done during all these steps.
Wtotal  W12  W23  ......  WN1N
 1 1   1 1 
Wtotal  GMm     GMm     +………………
 r1 r2   N 1 N  
r r
1 1 1 1 1 1
Wtotal  GMm      ........   
 r1 r2 r2 r3 rN 1 rN 
On simplification, we get
1 1 
Wtotal  GMm    → (XII)
 r1 rN 
If the point N is situated at an infinite distance from the earth, so rN  
1 1
Then  0
rN 

Hence
Mm
Wtotal  G → (XIII)
r1

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Therefore, the general expression for the gravitational potential energy of a body situated
at distance from the centre of earth is
GMm
U → (XIV)
r
This is also known as the absolute value of gravitational potential energy of a body at a
distance ‘r’ from the centre of the earth.
Conclusion:
GMm
As U 
r
(i) U is independent of g and hence this formula is useful for greater heights where
P.E=mgh not constant.
1
(ii) As U  , so as r increases,  also increases
r
ESCAPE VELOCITY:
Definition
The initial velocity of an object with which it goes out of the earth’s gravitational field, is
known as escape velocity.
Symbol:
Vesc.
Explanation:
It is our daily life experience that an object projected upward comes back to the ground
after rising to a certain height. This is due to the force of gravity acting downwards.
With increased initial velocity, the object rises to the greater height before coming back. If
we go on increasing the initial velocity of the object a stage comes when it will not return
to the ground, it will escape out of the influence of gravity.
Mathematical Form:
If a body of mass ‘m’ is thrown upward from surface of earth of mass ‘M’ and radius R to
a very large distance in space such that it goes out of earth’s gravitational field, then its
initial K.E should be equal to absolute P.E.
Initial K.E = Absolute P.E
1 Mm
mVesc 2  G
2 R
2GM
Vesc 2 
R
2GM
Vesc 2 
R
GM
As g  2 → (A)
R
gR 2  GM
Equation (A) becomes

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II

2gR 2
Vesc 
R
Vesc  2gR
Determination of Escape Velocity:
As Vesc  2gR
We know that g  9.8m / S6 2
R  6.4 106 m
Vesc  2  9.8  6.4 106
Vesc  11103 m / S As 103  1K
Vesc  11Km / S
4.6 INTER-CONVERSION OF POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ at rest, at a height ‘h’ above the surface of the earth as shown
in figure.
At the Position A:
At the position A, the body has P.E  mgh w.r.t the Earth
K.E  0 because body is at rest
We release the body and as it falls, we can examine how kinetic and potential energies
associated with it interchange.
Total energy at A = P.E + K.E
Total energy at A = mgh + 0
Total energy A – mgh → (I
At the Position B:
Let us calculate P.E and K.E at the position B when the body has fallen a distance ‘x’
ignoring air friction.
P.E = mg  h  x 
1
K.E t  mVB2
2
Velocity VB can be calculated by using 3rd equation of motion during free fall.
2aS  Vf 2  Vi 2 Commented [C8]: figer

Here Vi  0 Vf  VB {S  x & a g
2gx  VB2   0 
2

2gx  VB 2
VB2  2gx
1
As K.E  mVB2
2
2
Putting value of VB

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
1
K.E  m  2gx 
2
K.E  mgx
Total energy at B = P.E + K.E
Total energy at B = mg  h  x   mgx
Total energy at B = mgh – mgx + mgx
Total energy at B = mgh → (II)
At the Position C:
At position ‘C’ just before the body strikes the earth P.E = 0
1
& K.E  mVc 2
2
Where Vc can be found by using 3rd equation of motion 2aS  Vf 2  Vi 2
Here Vi  0 Vf  Vc a g Sh
2gh  Vc 2   0 
2

V2 2  2gh
2
As K.E = 1/ 2mVc
1
K.E  m  2gh 
2
K.E=mgh
Thus at point C, kinetic energy is equal to the original value of the potential energy of the
body at position A.
Total energy at C= P.E + K.E
Total energy at C = 0 + mgh
Total energy at C = mgh → (III)
Conclusion:
Equation (I), (II), (III) shows that total energy of a freely falling body during its motion
remains constant.
Actually when a body falls, its velocity increases, i.e. body is being accelerated under the
action of gravity. The increase in velocity result in the increase in its kinetic energy. On the
other hand as the body falls, its height decreases and hence its potential energy also
decreases. Thus we see that in figure
Lose in P.E= Gain in K.E
This result is true only when frictional force is not constant.
Effect of Air Resistance Frictional Force:
If we assume that a frictional force f is present during the downward motion, then a part of
P.E is used in doing work against friction equal to fh. The remaining P.E=mgh–fh is
converted into K.E
1
mgh  fh  mV2
2

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
1
mgh  mV2  fh
2
Thus, Loss in P.E = Gain in K.E + Work done against friction.
4.7 Conservation of Energy:
Statement:
Energy cannot be destroyed. It can be transformed from one kind into another, but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
Explanation:
The kinetic and potential energies are both different forms of the some basic quantity i.e.
mechanical energy. Total mechanical energy of a body is the sum of the kinetic energy and
potential energy. In our previous discussion of a falling body, potential energy may change
into kinetic energy and vice versa but the total energy remains constant.
Mathematically:
Total Energy = P.E + K.E = Constant
Examples of Energy Transformation:
We daily observe many energy transformations from one form to
another. Such as electrical & chemical energy are more easily
transferred than others such as heat. Ultimately all energy
transfers result in heating of the environment and energy is
wasted.
For example, the P.E of the falling object changes to K.E but on
striking the ground, the K.E changes into heat & sound. If it seems
in an energy transfer, that some energy has disappeared the lost
energy is often converted into heat. This appears to be the fate of
all available energies and is one reason why new sources of useful
energy have to be developed.
4.8 NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
Sources:
These are the energy sources not very common these days.
However, it is expected that these sources will contribute
substantially to the world energy demand of the future. Some of
these are introduced briefly here.
Energy from Tides (Water):
One very simple example of obtaining energy from gravitational field is the energy
obtained from tides. Gravitational force of moon gives rise to tides in the sea. The tides
raise the water in the sea roughly twice a day. If the water at the high tide is trapped in a
basin by constructing a dam, then it is possible to use this as a source of energy.
The dam is filled high tide and water is released in a controlled way at law tide to drive the
turbines. At the next high tide the dam is filled again and the rushing water also drive
turbine and generators electrically as shown systematically in the figure.
Energy from Waves:

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
The tidal movement and the winds blowing across the surface of the ocean produce strong
water waves. Their energy can be utilized to generate
electricity. A method of the harnessing wave energy is to use
large floats which move up and down with the waves.
One such device invented by professor salter’s is known as
salter’s duck. It consists of two parts.
(i) Duck float
(ii) Balance float
The wave energy makes duck float move relative to the
balance float. The relative motion of the duck float is then
used to run electricity generator.
Solar Energy:
The earth receives huge amount of energy directly from the sun each day.
Solar energy at normal incidence outside the earth’s atmosphere is about 1.4 KW / m 2
which is referred as solar constant.
While passing through the atmosphere, the total energy is reduced due to reflection
scattering and absorption by dust particles water vapours and other gases. On a clear day at
noon, the intensity of the solar energy reaching the earth’s surface is about 1KW / m 2 . This
energy can be used directly to heat water using large solar reflectors and thermal absorbers
or be converted to electricity.
Conversion of Sunlight into Electricity:
Indirect Method:
In one method the flat plate collectors are used for heating water. A typical collector is
shown in figure.
It has a blacked surface which absorbs energy directly from solar radiation. Cold water
passes over the surface and is heated upto about 70o C . Much higher temperature can be
achieved by concentrating solar radiation on to a small surface area by using huge reflector
(mirrors) or lenses to produce steam for running a turbine.

Conversion of Sunlight into Electricity:

Direct Method:
The other method is the direct conversion of
sunlight into electricity through the use of
semiconductor devices’ called solar cells also
known as photo voltaic cells.
Solar cells are thin wafers made from silicon.
Electrons in the silicon gain energy from sunlight to create a voltage. The voltage produced
by a single voltaic cell is very low. In order to get high voltage for practical use, a large
number of such cells are connected in series forming a solar cell panel.

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
For cloudy days or nights, electric energy can be stored during the sun liht in Nickel
cadmium batteries by connecting them to solar panels. These batteries can then provide
power to electrical appliances at nights or cloudy days.
Uses of Solar Cells:
I. Although the solar cells are expensive but last a long time.
II. They have low running cost.
III. Solar cells are used to power satellites having large, solar panels which are kept
facing the sun.
IV. They are used in remote ground based weather stations, and rain forest
communication systems.
V. Solar calculators and watches are also in use now a days.
Energy from Biomass:
Biomass is a potential source of renewable energy. This includes all the organic materials
such as crop, residue, natural vegetation, trees, animal dung and sewage. Biomass energy
or bio conversion refers to the use of this material as fuel or its conversion into fuels. There
are many methods used for the conversion of biomass into fuels. But the most common are:
I. Direct combustion
II. Fermentation
(i) Direct combustion:
Direct combustion method is usually applied to get energy form waste products commonly
known as solid waste. It will be discussed in the next section.
(ii) Fermentation:
Biofuel such as ethanol (alcohol) is a mentation of gasoline. Using
enzymes and by decomposition through bacterial action of biomass
called a disaster produced. Biogas which can be piped out to use
for cooking and heating
The waste material of the process is a good organic fertilizer. Thus,
production of biogas provides us energy source and also solves the
problem of organic waste disposal.
Energy from waste products:
Waste products like wood waste, crop, residue and particularly municipal solid waste can
be used to get energy by direction combustion. It is probably the most commonly used
conversion process in which waste material is burnt in a confined container. Heat produced
in this way directly utilized in the boiler to produce steam that can run turbine generator.
Geo thermal energy:
This is a heat energy extracted from inside the earth in the form of hot water or by the
following processes.
1. Radioactive decay:
The energy, heating the rocks, is constantly being released by the decay of radioactive
elements.
2. Residual heat of the earth:

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
At some place hot igneous rocks, usually within 10 km of the
earth surface, are in a molten and partly molten state. They
conduct heat energy from the earth interior which is still very
hot. The temperature of these rocks is about 200°C or more.
3. Compression of material:
The compression of material deep inside the earth also causes,
generation of heat energy in some place where beneath the
ground is in contact with hot rocks and is raised to high
temperature and pressure. It comes to the surface as hot springs,
geyser’s or steam vents. The steam can be directed to turn
turbines of electric generators. Where water is not present and
hot rocks are water is not very deep, the water is pumped down
through them which returns as stream. The steam then can be
used to derive turbines or for direct heating.
Geyser:
An interesting phenomenon of geothermal energy is a geyser. It
is a hot spring that discharges stream and hot water, intermittently releasing an explosive
column into the air, most geysers’ erupt at irregular interval. They usually occur in volcanic
regions. Extraction of geo-thermal heat energy often occurs’ closer to geyser sight. This
extraction seriously disturbs geyser system by reducing heat flow and aquifer pressure.
Aquifer is a layer of rock holding water that allows water to predate through it with
pressure.
Q 4.1: WHAT SORT OF ENERGY IS IN THE FOLLOWING
a. Compressed spring
b. Water in a high dam.
c. A moving car.
Ans:
a. In a compressed spring, energy stored is elastic P.E.
b. When water is stored in a high dam then the energy stored in water is gravitational P.E
due to its height w.r.t the Earth.
c. When a car moves, it has K.E.

Q 4.2: A girl drops a cup from a certain height which break into pieces. What energy changes
are involved?
Ans: A cup thrown from certain height losses its gravitational potential energy and gain its K.E.
when it strikes the ground then it converts into
(i) Sound energy.
(ii) K.E of moving pieces.
(iii) Heat energy dissipated against friction.

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
Q 4.3: A boy uses a catapult to thrown a stone which accidentally smashes a greenhouse
window. List the possible energy changes.
Ans: When a stone is thrown by using a catapult then first elastic P.E of catapult is converted
into K.E, of stone, when the stone strikes the window, its K.E is converted into sound, heat
and K.E of pieces of due to work done in breaking into pieces.

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II

NUMERICALS PROBLEMS
Q 4.1: A man pushes a Lawn mower with a 40N force directed at an angle of 20 o downward
from the horizontal. Find the work done by the man as he cuts a strip of grass 20m
Long.
Given data
Applied force = F – 40N
Angle =  = 20o
Length of strip of grass = d = 20m
To find:
W=?
Solution:
W  Fd
W = Fd cos 
W=40x20xCos20o
W = 40x20x0.93
W = 751.68J
W = 7.5 x 102J
Q 4.2: A rain drop (m=3.35 x 10–5Kg) falls vertically at a constant speed under the influence
of the forces of gravity and friction. In falling through room, how much work is done
by (a) gravity and (b) friction
Given data:
Mass of rain drop = m  3.35x10  5kg
Height h = 100m
g  9.5m / s2
To find: Work done by gravity = Wg  ?
Work done by friction = Wf  ?
Calculations:
a. Work done by gravity – Wg = mgh
Wg  3.35x10 5 x9.8x100
Wg  3283x10 5
Wg  0.03283x105 x10 5
Wg  0.03283J
b. As the rain drop is falling with uniform velocity so work done by
Workdone by gravity = workdone by friction
Wg  Wf
Wf  0.03283J
Negative sign shows opposite direction.

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
Q 4.3: Ten bricks, each 6.0cm thick and mass 1.5kg. Lie flat on a table. How much work is
required to stack them one on the top of another.
Given data:
Mass of each brick = m = 1.5kg
6
Height of each brick = h = 6cm = cm  0.06m
100
Number of brick = n = 10
g = 9.8 m / s 2
To find:
Work done required to stack them on the top of another = W = ?
Calculations:
No work, will be done on the first brick lying flat on the table. When we place other brick
on it one by one, work is done in the form of P.E, according to their height.
Hence we must add all these potential energies to get the total work done in terms of P.E.
Thus
Total work done is
W = 0  1mgh  2mgh  3mgh  4mgh  5mgh  6mgh  7mgh  8mgh  9mgh
W = 45mgh
W = 45x1.5x9.8x.06
W = 40J
Q 4.4: A car of mass 800kg travelling 54Km/h is brought to the rest in 60 meters. Find the
average retarding force on the car. What has happened to original Kinetic energy has
happened to original kinetic energy.
Given data
Mass of car = m = 800kg
54x1000
Initial velocity = Vi  54Km / h   15m / s
60x60
Final velocity = Vf  0
Distance covered = d = 60m
To find:
I. Average retarding force = F = ?
What has happened to original K.E = ?
Calculations:
According to work energy principle
1 1
Fd = mVf 2  mVf 2
2 2
1

Fd  m Vf 2  Vi 2
2

1

F  60  x400  0   15
2
2

2

F  60   400  0  225 
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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
60F   400  225 

F
 400  225  90000
60 60
F = -1500N
Negative sign shows that it is retarding force.
II. As the velocity of the car is decreasing, so its Kinetic energy also decreases and
becomes zero due to frictional force.
Q 4.5: A 1000kg automobile at the top of an incline 10 meter high and 100m long is released
and rolls down the hill. What is the speed at the bottom of the incline if the average
retarding force due to friction is 480 N.
Given data
Mass of automobile = m = 1000kg
Height of incline = h = 10m
Length of incline = S = 100m
Average retarding force = f = 480N
To find:
Final speed of automobile at bottom = V = ?
Calculations:
1
mgh  fd  mv2
2
1
10009.810   480100  x500V2
2
98000  48000  500V 2
5000  500V 2
5000
V2  100
500
V 2  100
V 2  100
V  10m / s
Q 4.6: 100m3 of water is pumped from a reservoir into a tank, 10m higher than the
reservoir in 20 minutes. If elensity of water is 100 kg/ m 3 , find
a. The increase in P.E
b. The power delivered by the pump
Given data:
Volume of water = V  100m3
Height of the tank = h = 10m
Time taken = t = 20 mins = 20x60=1200S
Density of water = P = 1000 kg / m3
To find:
a. Increase in P.E=mgh = ?
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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
b. Power delivered by pump = P = ?
Calculations:
mass
a. Density =  mass = volume x Density
volume
m  Vx
m  100x1000
m  100000Kg
Increase in P.E = mgh
Increase in P.E = 100000x9.8x10
Increase in P.E = 9.8x 10 6 J
work
Power =
time
P.E 9.8x106
P P
t 1200
P = 8166.6watt As IK = 103
P = 8.1666 x 103 watt
P = 8.2 Kw
Q 4.7: A force (thrust) of 400N is required to overcome road friction and air resistance in
propelling an automobile at 80Km/h. what power (KW) must the engine develop.
Given data:
Force (thrust) = F = 400N
Velocity of engine = V = 80Km/h
80x1000
V  22.22m / s
60x60
As force & velocity are in the some direction, so   0o
To find:
Power = P = ?
P = F.V
P  FVcos 
P   400  22.22   cos 0o 
P   400  22.22 1
P  8880watt
P  8.88x103 watt
P = 8.9KW
Q 4.8: How large a force is required to accelerate an electron  m  9.1x1031 Kg  from rest to

a speed of 2x107 m / s through a distance.

Given Data:
Mass of an electron = m  9.1x1031 Kg

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
Initial velocity = Vi  0
Final velocity = Vf  2x107 m / s
5
Distance = d = 5cm =  0.05m
100
To find:

Force required = F = ?
Calculations: According to work energy principle
1 1
W  mVf 2  mvi 2
2 2
1 1
Fd  mVf 2  m  0 
2

2 2
1
Fd  mVf 2
2
1
 
2
Fx0.05  x9.1x1031 x 2x107
2
1
Fx0.05  x9.1x10314x1014
2
Fx0.05  18.2x103114
Fx0.05  18.2x1017
18.2
F 1017
0.05
F  364 1017 N
F  3.64 102 1017 N
F  3.64 10217
F  3.64 1015 N
Q 4.9: A diver weighing 750N dives from a board 10m above the surface of a pool of water.
Use the conservation of mechanical energy to find his speed at a point 5m above the
water surface, neglecting air friction.
Given Data:
Weight of the diver W = mg = 750N
Total height = h1  10m
Height above the board = h 2  5m
To find:
Speed of diver at h 2  V  ?
Calculations:
Gain of K.E = loss of P.E
1
mV2  mg  h1  h 2 
2

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
V 2  2g  h1  h 2 
V 2  2  9.8 10  5 
V 2  19.6  5 
V 2  98
V 2  98
V  9.9m / s
Q 4.10: A child starts from rest of the top of a slide of height 4.0m. (a) What is his speed at
the bottom if the slide is friction less? (b) If he reaches bottom, with a speed of 6m/s,
what percentage of his total energy at the top of the slide is lost as a result of friction?
Given Data:
Initial velocity = Vi  0
Height = h = 4m
To find: (a) If velocity at bottom is V=6m/s speed of child at the bottom of slide is
frictionless = V = ?
(b) %age of total energy lost = ?
Calculations:
a. Speed of child = V = ?
For frictionless system
Gain of K.E = loss of P.E
1 2
mv  mgh
2
V2  2gh
V2  2gh
V  2  9.8  4
V  78.4
V=8.8m/s
b. %age of total energy lost = ?
In the presence of friction
V' = 6m/s
As V = 8.8m/s
1 1
Loss of energy = mv2  mV '2
2 2
1 1
// = m 8.8  m  6 
2 2
// //
2 2
1 1
// // // = m  77.4  m  36
2 2
// // // = 38.72m 18m
Loss of energy =  20.72m  J

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
loss of energy
% loss of energy = 100
totalenergy
20.72
%E= 100
38.72
% E = 53.5%
% E = 54%

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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following is a non-conservative force?

(a) Gravitational force (b) Electric force (c) Frictional force (d) Elastic spring force
2. Absolute potential energy of an object at infinite height w-r-t earth is
(a) Negative (b) Zero (c) Virtual (d) Minimum
3. 1 KWh is equal to
(a) 0.36MJ (b) 3.6MJ (c) 36MJ (d) 360MJ
4. As we move up a body above the surface of earth, the change in potential energy will
be
(a) Negative (b) Positive (c) Zero (d) Infinity
5. A field will be conservative when work done
(a) By centripetal force is zero
(b) By frictional force is negative
(c) By force perpendicular to displacement is zero
(d) In a closed path is zero
6. The original source of tidal energy is
(a) Moon (b) Earth (c) Sun (d) Sea
7. Kilowatt hour is the unit of
(a) Power (b) Work (c) Force (d) Momentum
8. Power is equal to the product of force and
(a) Displacement (b) Acceleration (c) Velocity (d) Position vector
9. kWm-2 is the unit of
(a) Power (b) Intensity (c) Energy (d) Energy per unit
area
10. If the force is perpendicular to the motion of a body. Them work done is
(a) Maximum (b) Minimum (c) Zero (d) Infinity
11. The force which cannot do work on a body to which it acts
(a) Elastic force (b) Frictional force (c) Centripetal force (d) Gravitational force
12. The dimensions of power are
(a) [ML2T-1] (b) [ML2T-2] (c) [ML2T-3] (d) [ML2T0]
13. The value of solar constant is
(a) 1.4 kWm-2 (b) 1.0 kWm-2 (c) 4.1 kWm-2 (d) 0.1 kWm-2
14. Which of the following pairs have same dimensions?
(a) Work and power (b) Work and torque
(c) Momentum and energy (d) Power and pressure
15. Work done is maximum when the angle between force and displacement is
(a) 0o (b) 45o (c) 90o (d) 180o
16. A soar cell converts light energy into
(a) Heat energy (b) Chemical energy (c) Atomic energy (d) Electric energy
17. Which one is renewable source of energy?
(a) Coal (b) Natural gas (c) Sunlight (d) Uranium
18. Which one is conservative force?
(a) Electric force (b) Tension in string
(c) Repulsive force in motor (d) Normal force
19. Work is negative when angle b/w “F” & “d” is
(a) 0o (b) 45o (c) 90o (d) 180o
20. Which one of the followings is a scalar?
(a) Energy (b) Force (c) Torque (d) Displacement
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CONCEPT’S PHYSICS Inter PART-II
21. Nm is equals as
(a) Pascal (b) Newton (c) Henry (d) Joule
22. The work done by the body will be negative if
(a) =0o (b) =90o (c) >90o (d) <90o

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