Motion

In physics, motion is the phenomenon in

which an object changes its position over
time. Motion is mathematically described
in terms of displacement, distance,
velocity, acceleration, speed, and time. The
motion of a body is observed by attaching
a frame of reference to an observer and
measuring the change in position of the
body relative to that frame with change in
time. The branch of physics describing the
motion of objects without reference to its
cause is kinematics; the branch studying
forces and their effect on motion is
dynamics.

Motion involves a change in position

If an object is not changing relatively to a

given frame of reference, the object is said
to be at rest, motionless, immobile,
stationary, or to have a constant or time-
invariant position with reference to its
surroundings. As there is no absolute
frame of reference, absolute motion
cannot be determined.[1] Thus, everything
in the universe can be considered to be in
motion.[2]:20–21

Motion applies to various physical

systems: to objects, bodies, matter
particles, matter fields, radiation, radiation
fields, radiation particles, curvature and
space-time. One can also speak of motion
of images, shapes and boundaries. So, the
term motion, in general, signifies a
continuous change in the positions or
configuration of a physical system in
space. For example, one can talk about
motion of a wave or about motion of a
quantum particle, where the configuration
consists of probabilities of occupying
specific positions.

The main quantity that measures the

motion of a body is momentum. An
object's momentum increases with the
object's mass and with its velocity. The
total momentum of all objects in an
isolated system (one not affected by
external forces) does not change with
time, as described by the law of
conservation of momentum. An object's
motion, and thus its momentum, cannot
change unless a force acts on the body.

Laws of motion
In physics, motion of massive bodies is
described through two related sets of laws
of mechanics. Motions of all large-scale
and familiar objects in the universe (such
as cars, projectiles, planets, cells, and
humans) are described by classical
mechanics, whereas the motion of very
small atomic and sub-atomic objects is
described by quantum mechanics.
Historically, Newton and Euler formulated
three laws of classical mechanics:
First In an inertial reference frame, an object either remains at rest or continues to move at
law: a constant velocity, unless acted upon by a net force.

In an inertial reference frame, the vector sum of the forces F on an object is equal to
the mass m of that object multiplied by the acceleration a of the object: F = ma.
Second
law: If the resultant force F acting on a body or an object is not equals to zero, the body will
have an acceleration a which is in the same direction as the resultant.

Third When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously
law: exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body.

Classical mechanics …

Classical mechanics is used for describing

the motion of macroscopic objects, from
projectiles to parts of machinery, as well
as astronomical objects, such as
spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. It
produces very accurate results within
these domains, and is one of the oldest
and largest in science, engineering, and
technology.
Classical mechanics is fundamentally
based on Newton's laws of motion. These
laws describe the relationship between the
forces acting on a body and the motion of
that body. They were first compiled by Sir
Isaac Newton in his work Philosophiæ
Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first
published on July 5, 1687. Newton's three
laws are:

1. A body either is at rest or moves with

constant velocity, until and unless an
outer force is applied to it.
2. An object will travel in one direction
forever or until an outer force
changes its direction.
 3. Whenever one body exerts a force F
onto a second body, (in some cases,
which is standing still) the second
body exerts the force −F on the first
body. F and −F are equal in
magnitude and opposite in sense. So,
the body which exerts F will go
backwards.[3] Newton's 3rd law of
motion is summarised by the
statement: "For every action, there is
an equal but opposite reaction".

Newton's three laws of motion were the

first to accurately provide a mathematical
model for understanding orbiting bodies in
outer space. This explanation unified the
motion of celestial bodies and motion of
objects on earth.

Uniform Motion:

When an object moves with a constant

speed at a particular direction at regular
intervals of time it is known as the uniform
motion. For example: a bike moving in a
straight line with a constant speed.

Equations of Uniform Motion:

If = final and initial velocity, = time, and

= displacement, then:
Relativistic mechanics …

Modern kinematics developed with study

of electromagnetism and refers all
velocities v to their ratio to speed of light c.
Velocity is then interpreted as rapidity, the
hyperbolic angle φ for which the
hyperbolic tangent function tanh φ = v/c.
Acceleration, the change of velocity, then
changes rapidity according to Lorentz
transformations. This part of mechanics is
special relativity. Efforts to incorporate
gravity into relativistic mechanics were
made by W. K. Clifford and Albert Einstein.
The development used differential
geometry to describe a curved universe
with gravity; the study is called general
relativity.

Quantum mechanics …

Quantum mechanics is a set of principles

describing physical reality at the atomic
level of matter (molecules and atoms) and
the subatomic particles (electrons,
protons, neutrons, and even smaller
elementary particles such as quarks).
These descriptions include the
simultaneous wave-like and particle-like
behavior of both matter and radiation
energy as described in the wave–particle
duality.[4]
In classical mechanics, accurate
measurements and predictions of the
state of objects can be calculated, such as
location and velocity. In quantum
mechanics, due to the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle, the complete state of
a subatomic particle, such as its location
and velocity, cannot be simultaneously
determined.

In addition to describing the motion of

atomic level phenomena, quantum
mechanics is useful in understanding
some large-scale phenomenon such as
superfluidity, superconductivity, and
biological systems, including the function
of smell receptors and the structures of
protein.

List of "imperceptible"
human motions
Humans, like all known things in the
universe, are in constant motion;[2]:8–9
however, aside from obvious movements
of the various external body parts and
locomotion, humans are in motion in a
variety of ways which are more difficult to
perceive. Many of these "imperceptible
motions" are only perceivable with the help
of special tools and careful observation.
The larger scales of imperceptible motions
are difficult for humans to perceive for two
reasons: Newton's laws of motion
(particularly the third) which prevents the
feeling of motion on a mass to which the
observer is connected, and the lack of an
obvious frame of reference which would
allow individuals to easily see that they are
moving.[5] The smaller scales of these
motions are too small to be detected
conventionally with human senses.

Universe …

Spacetime (the fabric of the universe) is

expanding meaning everything in the
universe is stretching like a rubber band.
This motion is the most obscure as it is
not physical motion as such, but rather a
change in the very nature of the universe.
The primary source of verification of this
expansion was provided by Edwin Hubble
who demonstrated that all galaxies and
distant astronomical objects were moving
away from Earth, known as Hubble's law,
predicted by a universal expansion.[6]

Galaxy …

The Milky Way Galaxy is moving through

space and many astronomers believe the
velocity of this motion to be approximately
600 kilometres per second
(1,340,000 mph) relative to the observed
locations of other nearby galaxies.
Another reference frame is provided by the
Cosmic microwave background. This
frame of reference indicates that the Milky
Way is moving at around 582 kilometres
per second (1,300,000 mph).[7]

Sun and solar system …

The Milky Way is rotating around its dense

galactic center, thus the sun is moving in a
circle within the galaxy's gravity. Away
from the central bulge, or outer rim, the
typical stellar velocity is between 210 and
240 kilometres per second (470,000 and
540,000 mph).[8] All planets and their
moons move with the sun. Thus, the solar
system is moving.

Earth …

The Earth is rotating or spinning around its

axis. This is evidenced by day and night, at
the equator the earth has an eastward
velocity of 0.4651 kilometres per second
(1,040 mph).[9] The Earth is also orbiting
around the Sun in an orbital revolution. A
complete orbit around the sun takes one
year, or about 365 days; it averages a
speed of about 30 kilometres per second
(67,000 mph).[10]
Continents …

The Theory of Plate tectonics tells us that

the continents are drifting on convection
currents within the mantle causing them to
move across the surface of the planet at
the slow speed of approximately 2.54
centimetres (1 in) per year.[11][12] However,
the velocities of plates range widely. The
fastest-moving plates are the oceanic
plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at
a rate of 75 millimetres (3.0 in) per year[13]
and the Pacific Plate moving 52–69
millimetres (2.0–2.7 in) per year. At the
other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is
the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical
rate of about 21 millimetres (0.83 in) per
year.

Internal body …

The human heart is constantly contracting

to move blood throughout the body.
Through larger veins and arteries in the
body, blood has been found to travel at
approximately 0.33 m/s. Though
considerable variation exists, and peak
flows in the venae cavae have been found
between 0.1 and 0.45 metres per second
(0.33 and 1.48 ft/s).[14] additionally, the
smooth muscles of hollow internal organs
are moving. The most familiar would be
the occurrence of peristalsis which is
where digested food is forced throughout
the digestive tract. Though different foods
travel through the body at different rates,
an average speed through the human
small intestine is 3.48 kilometres per hour
(2.16 mph).[15] The human lymphatic
system is also constantly causing
movements of excess fluids, lipids, and
immune system related products around
the body. The lymph fluid has been found
to move through a lymph capillary of the
skin at approximately 0.0000097 m/s.[16]

Cells …
The cells of the human body have many
structures which move throughout them.
Cytoplasmic streaming is a way which
cells move molecular substances
throughout the cytoplasm,[17] various
motor proteins work as molecular motors
within a cell and move along the surface
of various cellular substrates such as
microtubules, and motor proteins are
typically powered by the hydrolysis of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and convert
chemical energy into mechanical work.[18]
Vesicles propelled by motor proteins have
been found to have a velocity of
approximately 0.00000152 m/s.[19]
Particles …

According to the laws of thermodynamics,

all particles of matter are in constant
random motion as long as the temperature
is above absolute zero. Thus the
molecules and atoms which make up the
human body are vibrating, colliding, and
moving. This motion can be detected as
temperature; higher temperatures, which
represent greater kinetic energy in the
particles, feel warm to humans who sense
the thermal energy transferring from the
object being touched to their nerves.
Similarly, when lower temperature objects
are touched, the senses perceive the
transfer of heat away from the body as
feeling cold.[20]

Subatomic particles …

Within each atom, electrons exist in a

region around the nucleus. This region is
called the electron cloud. According to
Bohr's model of the atom, electrons have a
high velocity, and the larger the nucleus
they are orbiting the faster they would
need to move. If electrons 'move' about the
electron cloud in strict paths the same way
planets orbit the sun, then electrons would
be required to do so at speeds which far
exceed the speed of light. However, there
is no reason that one must confine one's
self to this strict conceptualization, that
electrons move in paths the same way
macroscopic objects do. Rather one can
conceptualize electrons to be 'particles'
that capriciously exist within the bounds of
the electron cloud.[21] Inside the atomic
nucleus, the protons and neutrons are also
probably moving around due to the
electrical repulsion of the protons and the
presence of angular momentum of both
particles.[22]

Light
Light moves at a speed of
299,792,458 m/s, or 299,792.458
kilometres per second (186,282.397 mi/s),
in a vacuum. The speed of light in vacuum
(or c) is also the speed of all massless
particles and associated fields in a
vacuum, and it is the upper limit on the
speed at which energy, matter, information
or causation can travel. The speed of light
in vacuum is thus the upper limit for speed
for all physical systems.

In addition, the speed of light is an

invariant quantity: it has the same value,
irrespective of the position or speed of the
observer. This property makes the speed
of light c a natural measurement unit for
speed and fundamental constant of
nature.

Types of motion
Simple harmonic motion – (e.g., that of
a pendulum).
Linear motion – motion which follows a
straight linear path, and whose
displacement is exactly the same as its
trajectory. [Also known as rectilinear
motion
Reciprocal motion
Brownian motion (i.e. the random
movement of particles)
Circular motion (e.g. the orbits of
planets)
Rotatory motion – a motion about a
fixed point. (e.g. Ferris wheel).
Curvilinear motion – It is defined as the
motion along a curved path that may be
planar or in three dimensions.
Rotational motion
Rolling motion – (as of the wheel of a
bicycle)
Oscillatory – (swinging from side to
side)
Vibratory motion
Combination (or simultaneous) motions
– Combination of two or more above
 listed motions
Projectile motion – uniform horizontal
motion + vertical accelerated motion

Fundamental motions
Linear motion
Circular motion
Oscillation
Wave
Momentum
Relative motion
Fundamental motions

See also
Kinematics
 Simple machines
Kinematic chain
Power
Machine
Motion (geometry)
Motion capture
Displacement
Translatory motion

References
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Chu Liu; Robert Irion (2000). One
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4. Feynman, Richard P. (Richard Phillips),
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