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CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

For assessment of yarn characteristics, mostly standard methods

were used. For some of the characteristics special tests were employed.

3.2 MATERIALS

3.2.1 Fibres Used

Details of the cotton fibres used are given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Properties of fiber used in 16s Ne (36.91 tex), 20s Ne

(29.53 tex), 24s Ne (24.60 tex) mixing

Value
[Link]. Fiber Parameter
Count 16s, 20 s, 24s
1. Cotton used Shankar 4 Cotton
2. 50% Span length (mm) 12.56
3. 2.5% Span length (mm) 25.76
4. Uniformity ratio 48.8
5. Strength (g/tex) 18.5
6. Elongation (%) 6.1
7. Micronaire 3.95
8. Short fiber index 8.44
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3.3 METHODS

3.3.1 Yarn Production

Figure 3.1 shows the process flow chart for rotor spinning.

Cotton fibres

Blow Room

Carding

Draw Frame – 1

Draw Frame – 2

Rotor spinning

Without nozzle With nozzle

Figure 3.1 Process flow chart of rotor spinning

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The air-jet nozzle which was optimized was used in Rotor Spinning.
Yarns of 16s (36.91 Tex), 20s (29.50 Tex) and 24 s (24.60 Tex) were spun with
and without the air-jet nozzle according to the experimental design indicated
in Table 3.2. Figure 3.2 gives the process flow chart.

Table 3.2 Details of yarn produced

Count /Tex Rotor yarn Air jet Rotor

16/36.91 X X
20/29.53 X X
24/24.60 X X

BLOW ROOM  MBO 1

MBO 2

MONO CYLINDER

AXIFLOW CLEANER

ERM CLEANER

SCUTCHER

CARDING  TRUMAC DK 780 CARD

DRAWFRAME  LAXMI RIETER DO/2S

RSB 851 DRAW FRAME

OE SPINNING  RIETER BT 903

Figure 3.2 Process flow chart of rotor spinning

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The major process variables employed in different machines in rotor

spinning are as follows in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Processing parameters

Machine Details 100% Cotton

Blow Room
Make Lakshmi Rieter
MBO beater (disc) speed 600 rpm
Mono cylinder speed 290 rpm
ERM beater speed 550 rpm
Kirschner beater I speed 850 rpm
Fan I speed 1350 rpm
Kirschner beater II speed 750 rpm
Fan II speed 1270 rpm
Scutcher Shell roller speed 10 rpm
Lap weight (gms/m) 364
Lap length (m) 41.20
Lap weight (kg) 15
Lap hank 0.001483
Card
Make Trumac DK 780 Card
Cylinder speed 310 rpm
Doffer speed 24 rpm
Licker in speed 740 rpm
Flats speed (inches/min) 8
Hank of the sliver (Ne) 0.12
Waste (%) 6.5
Draft 94.40
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Table 3.3 (Continued)

Machine Details 100% Cotton

Draw frame
Make Lakshmi Rieter DO/2S
Delivery speed m/min 250
No. of Doublings 8
No. of passages 2
Delivery hank (Ne) 0.14
Break draft 1.73
Total draft 8
Rotor Spinning
Make Rieter BT 903
Rotor speed 91,200 rpm
Feeding speed 0.55 mpm
Opening roller speed 8,500 rpm
Rotor diameter (mm) 33
Rotor type RA6DE1
Twist per Metre 997
Delivery Speed 91.4 mpm
Draft 167

3.4 DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT

The experiments were designed to study

i) The effect of using air jet nozzles in rotor spinning to optimize

the nozzle dimensions

ii) The structure and properties of rotor jet spun yarns

iii) The effect of gauge length on the tensile properties of rotor jet
spun yarns.
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Rotor jet yarns with linear density of 29.53 tex was produced using
cotton fibres using 20 nozzles details of which are given in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4 Anatomy of the nozzles

Diameter (d) Length (l)

Parameters Orifices (o) Rows (n)
(mm) (mm)
1 2.0 45 4 1
2 2.0 45 4 2
3 2.0 45 4 3
4 2.0 45 4 4
5 2.0 45 6 1
6 2.0 45 6 2
7 2.0 45 6 3
8 2.0 45 6 4
9 2.0 45 8 1
10 2.0 45 8 2
11 2.0 45 8 3
12 2.0 45 8 4
13 2.5 45 4 2
14 3.0 45 4 2
15 3.5 45 4 2
16 4 45 4 2
17 2.0 30 4 2
18 2.0 35 4 2
19 2.0 40 4 2
20 2.0 50 4 2

3.5 OPTIMIZATION OF NOZZLE PARAMETERS

20 Ne (29.5 tex) rotor jet spun cotton yarns were produced from
Shanker 4 cotton using 20 different types of nozzles.
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A total of 80 yarns samples were produced by approximately

altering the design features such as nozzle length, bore diameter, number of
decks and number of orifices. These yarns were tested for (i) tenacity and
(ii) hairiness at 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3 pressure bar.

3.5.1 Treatment of Yarns

The yarns were subjected to the following treatments by following

the practices followed in the industry. These treated yarns were used for
wicking tests.

i) Scouring
ii) Bleaching
iii) Mercerising

All the yarns were tested for

i) Tenacity
ii) Elongation
iii) Hairiness
iv) Evenness and imperfections
v) Packing fraction.
vi) Swelling index
vii) Abrasion resistance
viii) Wickability of yarns and
ix) Low stress mechanical properties of yarns.
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3.6 YARN TEST METHODS

This section deals with the various testing methods employed to

study the properties of yarn.

3.6.1 Tenacity

All tensile measurements and other properties such as evenness and

imperfections were carried out on using Uster Tensojet and Uster evenness
Tester (UT- 4). Hairiness was measured by Premier iQ Quali Center Tester. In
this instrument, the length of the projected fibres equal to or longer than 3mm
and above was measured. A length of 1000m (1Km) was used for assessing
the hairiness of yarns.

3.6.2 Evenness Tests

The evenness measurements were carried out on the Uster evenness

Tester. This is based on the capacitance principle. The measurements were
carried out under standard atmospheric conditions, i.e., a relative humidity of
65+ 2% and a temperature of 25oC + 2 oC. The samples were left overnight in
this environment to be fully conditioned. They were also measured for
imperfections.

3.6.3 Flexural Rigidity

Flexural rigidity was determined by the loop test based on Carlene’s

(1950) method. The mean of five tests was taken. In this method, the yarn is
made in the form of a loop, and it is distorted by adding a rider (Figure 3.3)
Morton and Hearle. (1997) Flexural rigidity is calculated from the following
formula

Flexural rigidity (mg.cm2) = kWL2  cos θ / tan θ (3.1)

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where k is a constant the value of which is around 0.0047

W = applied load in grams
L = circumferential length of in distorted ring in cm
θ = 493d/L
d = deflection of lower end of the ring under action of
applied load.

Figure 3.3 Flexural rigidity by loop ring method

Yarn loops were prepared with the help of a circular glass tube of
known diameter and by putting the reef knot for joining both ends of yarn.
The tube of mounted horizontally on a stand and a strip of black paper was
introduced into the tube so as to provide an opaque background for better
visibility of loop. The glass tube surface was covered with thin cellophane
sheet wrapped around the glass tube to allow convenient withdrawal of the
loops. This way the circular loops were obtained. A special care was taken to
keep the same tension while putting the reef knot for preparing the yarn loops.
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For avoiding the effects of bulk it was desired to keep the knot at 45o with the
vertical in each test. 30 readings were taken for each sample and the mean
was considered. Flexural rigidity was calculated as per the given
formula (3.1).

3.6.4 Tensile and Compression Properties

Kawabata tensile cum shear tester and compression - tester were

used for measuring yarn tensile and compression properties. The parameters
obtained for tensile properties are LT, WT and RT.

For compression tests, a single yarn was placed on the bottom of the
plate of the instrument and a plunger of 2 cm 2 were used to compress the
sample at a constant rate. The following parameters which represent
compression properties, namely LC, WC and RC were obtained.

Parameters of tensile and compression are given in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5 Parameters of tensile and compaction

Parameters Description Unit

Tensile LT - Linearity of load extension curve -
WT - Tensile energy J/m2
RT - Tensile resilience %
LC - Linearity of compression
Lateral thickness curve -
compression WC - Compressional energy J/m2
RC - Compressional resilience %
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3.6.5 Standardisation of Number of Test for Sample

The number of tests to get minimum CV% in the estimate of

compression of a single yarn was decided by conducting 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
tests each time. Table 3.6 shows the levels of CV% for different number of
test.

Table 3.6 Varying number of tests for compressional energy of yarns

[Link] Number of tests (N) Coefficient of variation

(CV%)
1 5 4.2
2 10 3.68
3 15 3.64
4 20 3.6
5 25 3.4
6 30 3.1

It is clear from the above that coefficient of variation more or less

stabilizes at N = 10 and afterwards the improvement in CV is relatively less
with higher number of readings.

Hence 15 tests per sample were carried out for assessing the
compression of yarns.

3.6.6 Twist Liveliness

This was determined by an instrument which was designed by

Krishnakumar (2005). This works on the principle that when two ends of a
certain length of yarns are brought towards each other. After a certain
distance, the first loop starts forming due to the residual torque present in it.
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The distance between the yarn clamps at the moment of formation of the first
loop by the yarn is taken as a measure to express twist liveliness in the yarn.

3.6.7 Swelling Index

Swelling index was determined by using Carra et al (1982) method.

A 15 cm length of yarn was fixed at one end and to the other end a weight of
0.5 g was attached; this was lowered into a 100 ml graduated beaker filled
with a swelling agent (NaOH) and the number of revolutions made by the
specimen for 3 min was counted. Another sample of the same yarn with the
same weight was lowered into a beaker containing water. Its corresponding
number of revolutions made by the yarn specimen at the same time was
measured. Swelling index was obtained from the following formula.

Number of revolutions in test liquid

Swelling index  (3.2)
Number of revolutions in water

The mean of 10 tests was considered.

3.6.8 Fibre Migration

In order to investigate fibre migration, dyed cotton fibres were

blended with undyed fibres. This fibres accounted for 0.5% of weight of
undyed fibres and served as tracer fibres during the structural analysis of rotor
jet spun yarns. After opening and carding, the materials were subjected to two
passages of drawing, and then taken to the rotor spinner for spinning. Rotor
yarn and the air-jet yarn are taken for investigation.

A small proportion i.e. 0.5% by weight of above fibres were dyed

and used as tracer fibres, which were introduced in the carding stage with the
remaining un-dyed material. The yarn counts 16s Ne (36.91 tex),
20 s Ne (29.53 tex), 24 s Ne (24.60 tex) were selected for the study. The tracer
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fibre incorporated sliver was used in rotors to produce rotor jet yarn by nozzle
in the machine. For the production of equivalent count rotor yarn, the same
heads with out nozzle attachment were used.

The standard tracer-fibre technique was used for the study .The yarn
thus produced using tracer fibres is immersed in liquid medium (Methyl
Salicylate) having substantially the same refractive index as that of cotton
fibres concerned. Some times the white fibres may not be dissolved optically.
It is because; the refractive index of white fibres and methyl salicylate is
different. So benzaldehyde was mixed with methyl salicylate to match the
refractive index of white fibres and the solution.

The yarn was examined under a microscope; the un-coloured fibres

disappeared from view leaving the path of each tracer-coloured fibre to be
clearly visible. The tracer was seen against the faint background of yarn body
as the wavy line representing the projection in one plane of helix. The present
study was confined to the use of projection microscope.

[Link] Configuration of tracer fibre

Parameters such as mean fibre position (Y), RMS deviation (D),

migration intensity (I), equivalent migration frequency defined by Hearle
(1965) and migration factor defined by You (Huh et al 2000) were used for
characterising migration behaviour of the tracer fibre under microscope.

[Link] Mean fibre position

The mean fibre position represents overall tendency of a fibre to be

near the surface (or) near the centre of yarn and is calculated from

Y 
1
z
YdZ 
Y (3.3)
z 
0
n
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where R = Yarn radius

Z = Length along yarn

n = Number of observation

2
 r
where Y   
R

r = helix radius

[Link] Amplitude of migration

The magnitude of deviations from mean position is represented by

Root Mean Square Deviation (D)

[Link] RMS deviation

½ ½
1 z
2
   (Y  Y) 2 
D    (Y  Y) dz     (3.4)
z 0   n 

[Link] Rate of migration (migration intensity)

This is rate of change of radial position. For this mean migration

intensity is used:

2 ½ 2 ½
z
1  dY     dY  
I      dz       (3.5)
 z 0  dZ     dZ  
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The modified form the above formula is

2 ½
  Y1  Y2  
   
I    L1   (3.6)
 n 
 
 

when L1 was the distance between adjacent indications Y1 and Y2.

[Link] Equivalent migration frequency

I
(3.7)
4D 3

For a ideal migration cycle constructed from calculated value of I and D

[Link] Migration factor

Migration factor is derived as:

MF = RMS deviation × migration intensity (Huh et al 2002) (3.8)

[Link] Measurements

 Measurements a, b, c and d were made at successive peak and

trough of a tracer fibre image.

 Diameter of yarn in scale units is c-a.

 Off set of trough / peak from yarn axis given by

(a  c)
b 
2

 Distance between adjacent trough / peak is ‘d’.

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 In order to avoid effects due to change in yarn diameter radial

position of fibres is given by a ratio.

ac
r  b
 2 
 (3.9)
R ac
 
 2 

 Plot of r/R against length along yarn shows cylindrical envelope

of varying radius around which fibres is following a helical
path.

3.6.9 Packing Fraction

Packing fraction was calculated from the following formula

Packing fraction = Volume of fibre / volume of yarn

= Vf / Vy (3.10)

l
Vf  (where f is the density of fibres)
f

105  d 2
Vy  (cc / g) (3.11)
4Tex

where d2 is the yarn diameter in cm.

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Therefore packing fraction = 

Tex  4
= (3.12)
105 f d 2

3.7 ABRASION RESISTANCE

Yarn abrasion resistance was measured by using SITRA-MAG yarn

abrasion tester. In this, a cylinder, which has an oscillating motion, is covered
with the standard emery paper. The yarn specimens held under constant
tensions by weights are pressed against the cylinder under constant pressure
until they break. At the end of every abrading cycle, the cylinder turns slightly
so as to present a clean abrasive surface. The number of strokes required to
break for each yarn is recorded.

A computerized control unit takes care of the complete working of

the tester, once the yarn samples are mounted. It records the number of cycles
required to rupture the yarn individually, and those records can be used for
future applications.

The comparison between the results obtained on different types of

yarns is simplified by the calculation of a “Relative Resistance Index” (RRI)
as given by the following formula:

Mean Resistance (Cycles) x Pretension (cN/tex)

RRI =
(Total Count (Tex)) 1/2
(3.13)
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3.8 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED

The statistical analysis used was linear regression analysis and

prediction of yarn strength by using Weibull distribution. Among the two
parameters, Weibull distribution, it was found that the scale parameter
matched the experimental values.