Power Electronics Spark

New Simulation Challenges

Om Nayak, Surya Santoso, Paul Buchanan

© IMAGESTATE
he computer simulation of power systems has pre- processor-based controls and the associated advances in

T sented many challenges and opportunities over the

years. Fortunately,
the general nature of
power electronic devices over the past 10 years, the
nature of modern power
systems has significantly
power systems remained changed. This article dis-
Energy utilities are realizing that with
relatively the same for a cusses some of the
long period of time. This the appropriate tools they can train and changes that have taken
allowed power system sustain engineers who can maintain a place in power systems
engineers to improve and explores some of
modeling techniques great insight into system dynamics the inherent require-
progressively and to ments for simulation
apply computer hardware and software technology to technologies in order to keep up with this rapidly chang-
design study tools that met the analysis requirements. ing environment. Industrial examples of how power sys-
The models were based on fundamental frequency tem simulation has been applied by end-users to meet the
responses. However, with the wide-spread use of micro- advancing requirements is provided.

O. Nayak is with Nayak Corp., Princeton, New Jersey, USA. S. Santoso is with
Changing Landscape
Electrotek Concepts, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA. P. Buchanan is with Manito- In the early 1990s, the tools that previously had been
ba HVDC Research Centre, Winnipeg, Canada. appropriate for transmission system simulation and

ISSN 0895-0156/02/$17.00©2002 IEEE October 2002 37

 instantaneous system response over time.
The instantaneous response, which is
often referred to as the electromagnetic
transient response, can provide detailed
information about the system under study,
such as the maximum over-voltage, har-
monic distortions, and voltage sags. It can
also accurately show the control system
behavior.
Electromagnetic transient simulation
tools are not new. They have been in use
for over 30 years. However, these tools
were mainly used by utilities to study
power surge phenomena or electro-
mechanical system interaction. This was
largely due to the highly numeric-intensive
nature of the algorithms, as well as basic
limitations in the simulation software. The
end-user required a detailed understanding
of the electrical system components and
Figure 1. Power system simulation workspace with interactive controls often required special engineering skills.
and plots It is not surprising that these studies tra-
ditionally have been conducted only when
analysis were simply no longer adequate for new fast-act- they are absolutely necessary. This is usually after a
ing devices, such as static var compensators (SVC), stat- problem has already occurred in the system rather than
ic synchrounous compensators (STATCOM), via a proactive preengineering design study. In other
high-voltage direct-current (HVdc) systems, unified words, it is the nature or cost of the problem that dic-
power flow controllers (UPFC), and other modern power tates whether reactive action in the form of power sys-
electronic-based devices and their controls. Generation tem analysis is taken. This is not the ideal scenario under
systems began to react much faster given this introduc- which to better understand the power system.
tion of faster digital controls into the system. The impact Fortunately, things are changing. Energy utilities are
of the extended spectrum of harmonics as a result of the realizing that with the appropriate tools, they can train
fast reaction digital control systems was a phenomenon and sustain engineers who can maintain a great insight
that suddenly could not be ignored. Analysis could no into system dynamics. These persons no longer have
longer be restricted to fundamental frequency response. to be simulation study experts, but rather engineers
Added to this, the emergence of unconventional distrib- and technologists with expertise in their area of
uted generation systems, such as wind power, solar responsibility and who require modern software tools
power, fuel-cells, and microturbines, presented new to facilitate their work. They use the simulation tools
complexities to the behavior of power systems. as facilitators to accurate system modeling and system
And, if this were not enough to complicate things, optimization.
with this introduction of distributed generation systems Energy utilities will find it a necessity to perform tran-
and faster controls, we now face much more sensitive sient studies to understand events, such as the impact
industrial loads (large computer data centers, high-preci- on the system of capacitor switching, arc furnace flicker,
sion manufacturing systems), all of which require a high or to understand the impact of increased transmission
degree of power quality. As energy utilities know all too capacity on existing transmission lines, coordinate con-
well, the consumption patterns of these sensitive indus- trols, and set relays. Manufacturers of electrical equip-
trial loads also are prone to introducing harmonics and ment will need to perform transient studies in order to
voltage sags into the power grid. Thus, the modern ener- design components, such as power electronic controls
gy distribution environment is facing service and power and digital relays, optimally.
quality challenges on many fronts. The bottom line is that power system simulation and
analysis is becoming more important than ever before. A
Why Analyze the System? better understanding of systems prior to their manufac-
Power systems are studied either to analyze their ture leads to optimally designed devices, and an analysis
steady-state behavior or transient (time domain) behav- of the impact of the introduction of new devices prior to
ior. Transient analysis is conducted in order to analyze their installation into the electrical network results in
system stability at the power frequency or to analyze optimized power systems and fewer surprises.

38 IEEE Computer Applications in Power

What Is Needed in
Simulation Tools? Long-Term
To address the challenges of the mod-
ern electric power transmission and gen- Mid-Term
Steady State
eration environment, relevant
simulation technology is a must. Power Flow
From a general perspective, the two
most important aspects of any power sys- Electromechanical Stability
tem simulation toolset are the accuracy of
Electromechanical Transients
the simulation and the ease-of-use of the
tools. More specific critical requirements
Switching Transients
of simulation tools are: Electromagnetics
■ Accuracy: accurate system solutions,
Steep Front
particularly where power electronic
devices are involved 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 Seconds
■ Intuitive user interface: a user interface
and navigation system geared towards Electromagnetic and Traveling Wave Analysis Fundamental Frequency Analysis
efficient power system analysis provid-
ing immediate visual feedback (Figure 1) Figure 2. Types of simulation tools versus analysis time duration
■ Size and duration: the ability to model
large systems and for a longer period of time than in Selection of Simulation Tools
the past A power system simulation tool must be carefully select-
■ Component library: a comprehensive library of ed to study a given problem.
power system components, including all modern Figure 2 displays different types of simulation tools for
power system devices and controls. analyzing power flow, stability, or system transients and
It is the responsibility of power system simulation their applicability in terms of the various dynamics to be
developers to provide tools that can add a valuable studied. What this chart indicates is that you must select
extension to end-user capability. The tools must incorpo- the appropriate tool for the task at hand. If you want to
rate the ability to simulate the basic electrical elements analyze power electronic switching transients, for exam-
of a power system, such as generators, transformers, ple, you will apply a toolset that supports full time-
transmission lines, power electronics, diodes, thyristors, domain analysis.
gate turn-off thyristors (GTO), as well as complex control Today, electromagnetic transient applications must
and protection systems. The simulation tools must be be able to simulate larger systems than in the past and
intuitive, they must be accurate, and they must be open, for longer time durations (minutes versus seconds). This
providing support for existing end-user data formats. is now feasible given advances in computer technology
and extensions to the software.
Simulating Power Electronics and Controls
The simulation of power electronics and control systems State of the Art in Solution Techniques
places very high demands on the precision of the simula- Computers are, of course, digital devices and must
tion techniques. This is likely the most significant issue approximate a continuous response with a series of dis-
that simulation software
developers have faced in
terms of creating relevant
tools for the modern electric
Simulation tools must be intuitive, they must be
power system environment. accurate, and they must be open, providing support
For example, high-frequency for existing end-user data formats
pulse width modulation
(PWM) signals require great
precision in the numerical calculation of the switching continuous calculation steps (often referred to as time
instant. If the switching times are not determined accu- steps). As a result, various numerical stability and math-
rately, serious errors can be introduced into the simula- ematical limitation problems can occur in simulation
tion. But, in this search for accuracy, it is not generally depending on the solution techniques used.
practical for simulation tools to enforce a small time Numerical accuracy is of particular importance in the
increment (in the order of 1 µs) in order to achieve simulation of power electronic devices for which ele-
switching accuracy. This just makes for an unacceptably ments constantly change state (turn on and off). The
slow simulation. switching times of these devices most often will fall

October 2002 39
 50µs (Interpolated)
three-phase insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
50µs (Not Interpolated) based converter bridge feeding an RLC load. The results
1 obtained from simulation when the interpolation algo-
rithm is not applied show uncharacteristic harmonics
Magnitude (A)

that should not be present. The use of interpolation with

PSCAD in determining the exact switching times allows
the simulation to run at high speed and does not intro-
duce inaccurate results.

0
Chatter Removal
Fund. 5th 7th 11th 13th 17th 19th Chatter is a time-step to time-step symmetrical oscilla-
Harmonic tion phenomenon inherent in the trapezoidal integration
method used in the Dommel algorithm for transient sim-
Figure 3. Typical harmonic spectrum of current from ulation of electrical networks (H. Dommel from his clas-
three-phase IGBT-based converter bridge feeding an
sic April 1969 IEEE paper published in IEEE Transactions
RLC load
on Power Apparatus and Systems). This is a common base
between time steps, and, due to the discrete nature of algorithm used in transient simulation.
computation, the actual switching times will not be rep- Chatter is generally introduced in simulation by the
resented accurately. If not corrected, this phenomenon closing of a switch in a branch containing inductors. It
can lead to the inclusion of (among many other things) does not matter, in this case, if the switching occurs
uncharacteristic harmonics and error-compounding and, between time steps or at a natural current zero. Figure 4
if series inductance is present, spurious voltage spikes in illustrates the presence of voltage chatter due to a natur-
the simulation results. al turn-off of a series thyristor/inductor branch circuit.
A good way to measure the power of any particular Chatter does not represent any true electrical net-
simulation software package is to gauge how well these work behavior and leads to inaccurate results. A modern
numerical issues are addressed, alongside the require- simulation algorithm must recognize and correct this
ment for simulation accuracy and speed. phenomenon.
When chatter is detected or when a switching event
Interpolation takes place, a chatter removal algorithm is invoked. The
One method to remove the effects of inter-time-step user generally has the option to enable or disable the
switching is to decrease the time step itself. This, howev- chatter algorithms; however, it is best to keep them
er, is not that practical, as it can greatly reduce simula- enabled for all circuits, as there is an undetectable per-
tion speed. formance impact.
It is possible to apply an interpolation algorithm to
determine the exact instant of the switching event. This Zero-Impedance Elements
has proven to be much faster and more accurate than Zero-impedance circuit elements have traditionally
the alternative of reducing the time step. The use of the caused problems in simulation algorithms. Examples of
interpolation algorithm allows simulators, such as the zero-impedance branches are infinite voltage sources,
PSCAD power system simulation toolset, to simulate any ideal short circuits, and an ideal switch that is in a
switching event accurately, while still allowing the use of closed state.
a larger/faster time step. Standard electromagnetic transient solution algo-
Figure 3 shows the current harmonic spectrum of a rithms using what is termed a nodal admittance matrix
require every branch to possess finite impedance. A
V
zero-impedance branch would yield an infinite admit-
L tance and could lead to severe numerical problems.
Natural
Turn-Off Confidence in the Solution
The complexities introduced by power electronics switch-
ing elements require advanced simulation algorithms. A
great amount of research and development has continued
over the past few years to maintain simulation accuracy
1 2 3 t
and to optimize transient simulation software as it applies
to modern power electronics based systems. For utilities
to apply simulation tools to develop a better understand-
Chatter
ing of the nature of their power systems, the tools must be
Figure 4. Voltage chatter practical and easy to learn. At the same time, there must

40 IEEE Computer Applications in Power

be confidence that the simulation tool
developers have provided tools that do
not need to be second-guessed.

0.001
With an accurate foundation, end- 1 3
users then need the flexibility to create G1 G3
Inverter Ifilter
and customize their own models as well
VLs Filter
as to access libraries of existing models

0.001
and components. And, especially for VGs
the analysis of power systems involving 2 4
control systems, the simulation toolset G2 G4
must provide the flexibility to integrate
controls, including controls modeled
with other software packages. Figure 5. PQ-VR inverter bridge consists of four IGBTs and corresponding
harmonic filters
Industrial Examples device is commonly known as a sag protector, dynamic
To provide an accurate picture of how simulation voltage restorer, or power quality voltage restorer.
software can be applied successfully, one must look Electrotek Concepts recently applied electromagnetic
to industrial examples. transient simulation software to model accurately the
operation of a 3.2 MVA SMES power quality voltage
Power Quality restorer (PQ-VR) developed by American Superconduc-
Power quality (PQ) problems generally appear in the tor Corporation, prior to its installation in a semiconduc-
form of voltage sags, transients, and harmonics. Among tor manufacturing facility (IBM’s Bromont, Quebec,
these problems, voltage sags are the most common PQ Canada, PowerPC manufacturing facility).
disturbance. They are typically caused by a fault on the The semiconductor manufacturing facility is supplied
power system. The voltage sag occurs over a significant from a 49 kV system via two 49/13.8 kV transformers.
area while the fault is actually on the system. As soon as The facility houses both sensitive and conventional
the fault is cleared by a protective device, voltage loads. The downtime and loss of production associated
returns to normal on most parts of the system, except with voltage sag disturbances are huge and, thus, the pri-
the specific line or section that is actually faulted. The mary reason to install a sag protector device. For eco-
typical duration for a transmission system fault is about nomic reasons, the PQ-VR is intended to protect only the
six cycles. Distribution system faults can have signifi- most sensitive and critical equipment.
cantly longer durations, depending on the protection A key component of the system is an inverter bridge
philosophy employed. The voltage magnitude during the consisting of four IGBTs, which turn on and off according
fault will depend on the distance from the fault, the type to commands generated by a PWM controller. A simpli-
of fault, and the system characteristics. fied inverter bridge is shown in Figure 5. The switching
Over the years, many solutions have been proposed scheme is performed by comparing the grid voltage with
to mitigate voltage sags. In principle, these solutions can its expected voltage on an instantaneous waveform basis.
be divided into two approaches: Simulation plays a crucial role in the successful com-
■ Redesign the sensitive equipment such that it does mercial deployment of this type of device. The perfor-
not trip out during a voltage sag event mance of the PQ-VR in mitigating voltage sags can be
■ Maintain the sup-
ply voltage at a Voltage at Grid and Load Sides
nominal level, i.e., VT1A VT2A
one per-unit rms at +12
all times. +8
In this power sys-
Voltage (kV)

+4
tem simulation exam-
ple, we focus on the +0
second approach: a -4
device-based super-
conducting magnetic -8
energy storage -12
0.1 0.1333 0.1667 0.2 0.2333 0.2667 0.3
(SMES) technology
Time (s)
designed to maintain
load voltage at one Figure 6. PQ-VR in carryover mode; the load voltage is maintained at 1.0 per unit when the grid
per-unit rms. This voltage experiences voltage sags (VT1A is the source supply; VT2A is the output of the PQ-VR)

October 2002 41
accurately verified through simulation prior to its indus- tions) voltage operating levels of 3.3 and 6 kV. The ship
trial installation. As a sample test case, a voltage sag can grounding system is usually of the unearthed type.
be simulated with software by applying a transmission Recent developments in power semiconductor and
fault that causes a voltage sag of 60% at the 13.8 kV level. power electronics technology and their application in
The sag duration is set at six cycles. The voltages at the drive and control systems have enabled integrated full
grid and load sides are shown in Figure 6. It can be seen electric propulsion (IFEP) of ships. The term electric
in Figure 6 that the PQ-VR can boost the load voltage ship now generally refers to a ship with a full electric
back up to its nominal level; thus, the deployed dynamic propulsion system. The advent of ac electric propul-
voltage restorer would successfully handle this scenario. sion in ships has introduced a whole new set of com-
In this situation, the software toolset made it possible plexities on shipboard:
to accurately model the operation of the dynamic voltage ■ The main propulsion system comprises at least one
restoration device and resulted in an optimal implemen- huge power motor driving the ship propeller. New
tation. Specifically, the power simulation software was electric motor types (permanent magnet synchronous
used to evaluate the PQ-VR design parameters, control motors, advanced induction motors, multiphase
algorithms, performance in mitigating voltage sags, and motors of radial, axial, or transverse flux motors)
to characterize its harmonic distortion during the idling have been constructed in an attempt to achieve high-
and carryover mode. The actual switching schemes and er efficiency and reliability indices. The propulsion
controls were realistically and accurately represented. motors are fed by power converters, which are
The protection system and the interaction between the responsible for the ship speed control in conjunction
PQ devices and the distribution systems, including the with their associated controllers. Speed control is
protected loads, were also accurately modeled. achieved mainly either by vector flux control or direct
With the new software tools and a basic personal com- torque control.
puter, such complex systems can be modeled, and we can ■ The auxiliary propulsion system (also called
be confident in the results due to the accuracy of the solu- dynamic positioning system, DPS) consisting of
tion algorithm. The power electronic switching (such as side propellers, bow and stern thrusters, assisting
the IGBTs in this example) is performed at the exact time the ship maneuvers. The DPS is usually driven by
instant; thus, there is no delay in performing a switching ac induction motors supplied via PWM controllers.
action, the results are accurate, and the simulation is fast. ■ According to the electric ship concept, every major or
minor system onboard the ship, propulsion being the
Electric Propulsion predominant one, will eventually be electrified and
PSCAD and other transient simulation applications have served by a rather large-scale electric system (of sev-
historically been used by energy utilities for system plan- eral tens of MW) with multiple redundancies in com-
ning and power quality applications. However, there are ponents and circuits.
many other emerging applications for transient simula- The emergence of electric propulsion in ships has
tion. With the trend toward the use of electric and made accurate simulation and modeling a must. Tran-
hybrid-electric vehicles, electric ships, and the expan- sient simulation analysis is used to perform studies
sion of rapid transit systems based on electric power, involving the modeling of electromagnetic and other
power system simulation programs will need to adapt to switching transients on shipboard electric energy sys-
specifically address these mini power systems. tems comprising both ac and dc subsystems.
The electric power grid of a ship can be regarded as a The systems that require modeling are the same as in
small-scale, autonomous, industrial type compact any modern power system. The systems contain a high
power system. A ship’s electric energy system consists degree of power electronic switching components and
of a generator set and a distribution cabling system require an understanding of the impact of all system mod-
serving the loads. ules on the operation of the shipboard electric system.
In the case of an ac conventional ship power system, The broad areas of study include propulsion, switch-
there are at least two main ac generators driven by ing transients, and power quality investigations.
diesel engines, gas turbines, or the main propulsion ■ Propulsion: Main or auxiliary propulsion motor start-
engine. Electric power is often supplied via substations up and steady-state operation in conjunction with
to all electric loads consisting of: their power electronic converters (cyclo-converters,
■ Conventional auxiliary systems (lighting, motors dri- synchro-converters, and PWM inverters)
ving rotating machinery), similar to an industrial plant ■ Switching transients: Overvoltages and overcurrents
■ Main and auxiliary ship propulsion systems. due to making or breaking circuit breakers (e.g., trans-
Typical shipboard electrical networks can operate at former electrification, cable disconnection, fault clear-
50/60 Hz, while warship applications often require 400 Hz ances, load shedding etc.)
systems. Increased electric power demands in ships have ■ Power quality: Investigation of power quality problems
led to the introduction of medium (high in ship installa- introduced by the extensive use of power electronics in

42 IEEE Computer Applications in Power

 With the new software tools and a basic PC, complex
systems can be modeled, and we can be confident in the
results due to the accuracy of the solution algorithm

propulsion drives, pulsed loads (e.g., weaponry in war- transmission or a flexible ac transmission system
ships), and navigation instruments (e.g., radar). The (FACTS) solution must be found.
harmonic distortion in both current and voltage wave- The initial indication of dynamic performance can be
forms provokes increased reactive losses, but also evaluated with a stability study. If this study demonstrat-
electromagnetic interference (EMI) problems. ed a problem, a more detailed analysis is needed to find
The requirement for power system simulation is a the best solution for dynamic voltage control. The detail
necessity on such a critical self-contained entity as a required in the simulation must include:
ship. The same tools that have played a role in the opti- ■ Wind turbine characteristics, particularly its speed
mization of our electric power utility grids will play a sig- control and protection system
nificant role in research and deployment of advanced ■ Detailed generator, such as an induction or synchro-
shipboard electric power and propulsion systems. nous generator including the power electronics that
might be applied, such as for a doubly wound induc-
Dynamic Study of Wind Turbines tion generator
Another area that is garnering much attention and ■ Strategy for ac voltage control.
promise is wind energy. As a renewable energy source, The study must demonstrate that ac voltages are
wind turbines are gaining popularity for the reasons that, retained within desirable limits and that transient over-
as a generator of green power, they are relatively low in voltages are properly coordinated to protect the equip-
capital cost and can be brought into service relatively ment. If further investment is needed to achieve
quickly. It is not surprising then that investors are look- acceptable operation, its form should be determined.
ing at large wind farms with power ratings of the order of That would include:
hundreds of MW, and, in some cases, studies are investi- ■ Wind turbine and generator type
gating capacities of thousands of MW. ■ Additional transmission facilities required
When large wind farms are being considered, they ■ Power electronic solutions (FACTS or dc transmission)
would be physically located where the normal wind ■ Impact of wind turbine protection
velocities are high enough to produce the energy needed ■ Control strategy and controls.
for profitability. However, these windy locations are not Electromagnetic simulation with modern tools is criti-
usually near any sizable load center
where the energy is in demand.
Thus, any existing grid system
transmission in the location of the
wind farm is not likely to be ade-
quate for the full load power level
generated.
The first step in the study is to
show that, under steady-state condi-
tions with adequate switched shunt
capacitor compensation, full load
power generated by the wind farm
can be connected satisfactorily to
the grid transmission. But that is
not enough. It must be determined
that, during dynamic conditions fol-
AES2000

lowing a fault, the ac transmission

voltage is retained within accept-
able limits. If not, either additional Figure 7. All-Electric Ship (AES) research

October 2002 43
cal, particularly when dynamic electric vehicles, and other up-
voltage control and the perfor- and-coming areas.
mance of the wind farm is an In order to optimize solutions,
important aspect. PSCAD has more efficient methods of deter-
recently been used in coopera- mining optimal system design
tion with the Danish energy utili- and operating conditions must
ty, ELTRA, where the Horns Rev be mathematically integrated
160 MW off shore wind farm is into simulation tools. These
now under construction. Of con- methods could apply optimiza-
cern was the performance of the tion algorithms to move more
new wind turbine design with a quickly to an optimal condition.
double wound induction genera- To make efficient use of the
tor and how it performs dynami- vast amount of data that is avail-
cally in a system setting. A able, simulation systems must
detailed model of the turbine and support open data formats, such
generator with its power elec- as relational databases. Simula-
tronics, controls, and protection tion toolsets are modernizing,
was developed in software. Stud- and the learning curve to use
ies were undertaken to confirm these tools is lessening. The

D.A. WOODFORD, ELECTRANIX CORP.

the insulation coordination for requirement to model complex
the undersea cable, and to coor- electrical systems is only going
dinate its protection strategy, to increase.
such as preventing self-excitation
of the induction generator. Tak- Acknowledgments
ing this further, the simulation The authors acknowledge the insight and
model became the basis to build contributions of the following individuals:
Dennis Woodford, president, Electranix
and test the equivalent model for Corp., for his contribution on wind energy
Figure 8. Large wind turbine in Denmark
inclusion in a stability program. modeling ([Link]
The future Laeso Syd offshore John M. Prousalidis, Marine Engineering
wind farm in northern Denmark is now being modeled to Laboratory, Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering Department,
National Technical University of Athens, Greece ([Link]
determine whether the transmission to ELTRA’s main
[Link]); Charles Neumeyer, Princeton University Plasma Physics
grid should be accomplished with ac or dc transmission. Laboratory, for his insight into ultra-high-voltage dc simulation require-
ments; Bharat Bhargava, Southern California Edison, for his helpful
Keep Pace with Change information from the energy utility perspective; John Nordstrom and
One type of simulation technology is not a fit for all Randy Wachal, researchers with the Manitoba HVDC Research Centre,
Winnipeg, Canada; Takashi Aihara of Hitachi, Power & Industrial Sys-
analysis. Engineers need to recognize what tools fit the
tems, Japan, for his information on industrial requirements for simula-
requirements of their studies. tion technologies.
Modern power system simulation packages will need
to consist of various simulation modules all sharing the For Further Reading
same graphical design and visualization environment. K. Søbrink, P.L. Sorensen, E. Joncquel, and D. Woodford, “Feasibility
These power system simulation modules must include study regarding integration of the læsø syd 160 mw wind farm using VSC
algorithms for the analysis of power flow, fault analysis, transmission.” Available [Link]
A.M. Gole, S.A. Woodford, J.E. Nordstrom, and G.D. Irwin, “A fully
harmonic analysis, and stability analysis, as well as tran-
interpolated controls library for electromagnetic transients simulation
sient analysis. of power electronic systems,” in Proc. 2001 Int. Conf. Power Syst. Tran-
If simulation tools are going to be applicable to the sients, Rio de Janeiro, Jun. 2001, p. 681.
modeling of new systems, such as power components on A.M. Gole, G.D. Irwin, and D.A. Woodford, “Precision simulation of
ships, for example, mathematical models for new types of PWM controllers,” Manitoba HVDC Research Centre, 1999. Available
[Link]
propulsion motors and their associated power electronic
converters will have to be developed. In some cases, the
controllers will require new flexible programming mod- Biographies
ules to be integrated into the component libraries. Con- Om Nayak received a Ph.D. degree and is president of Nayak Corpora-
tinuing with ships as an example, there will be nonlinear tion, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
Surya Santoso received a Ph.D. degree and is a senior power quality
loads (pulsed loads and navigation systems) operating at
engineer at Electrotek Concepts, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA.
various voltage and frequency levels that could be added Paul Buchanan is a power engineer at Manitoba HVDC Research
to the simulation model libraries. The same holds for the Centre, Winnipeg, Canada, and is involved in the development and
requirements of wind energy systems (wind turbines), application of PSCAD power system simulation software.

44 IEEE Computer Applications in Power