Demonstrating data voice transmission using

Free Space Optical Communication

Author: George Appiah Sarfo

20/08/2014
 LIST OF TABLES
1.0 Comparison between RS232, RS423, RS422 and RS485……………………..…………….21

1.1 Pin functions of microcontroller (audio circuit)…………………………….……………….49

1.2 Experimental results at various distances (audio circuit)……………………………………68

1.3 Experimental results for data transmission………………………………………….……….69

1.4 Cost Analysis………………………………………………………………………………...71

LIST OF FIGURES

1.0 Demonstrating data/voice transmission using FSOC……………………………..…………5

2.0 GaAsP LED Emission………………………………………………………………...…….14

2.1 Spontaneous and Stimulated emission of Laser………………………………..………..…..15

2.2 Excitation of electrons to produce Laser beam…………………………………………..….16

2.3 RS 232/MAX 232 Connection…………………………………………………………..…..19

2.4 DTE port as on the back of a PC Com Port - EIA-574 RS-232/V.24 pin out on a DB-9 pin

used for Asynchronous Data………………………………………………………………..……19

2.5 Internal structure of MAX 232.…………………………………………………………..….22

2.6 phototransistor……………………………………………………………………………....24

2.7silicon pin photodiode response curve…………………………………………………..…...25

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2.8 InGaAs pin photodiode response curve…………………….……..…………………..…….27

2.9 Loss versus Visibility……………………………………….……………………………….35

2.10 Digital Data Transmission through Free Space Optical LASER Indian Institute Of Science

Education & Research, Kolkata…………………………………………….……………………36

2.11 Designing A Free-Space Optical/Wireless Link by Jai P. Agrawal, Omer Farook and C.R.

Sekhar … ………………………………………………………………..………………………38

2.12 Overview diagram of RONJA system……………………………………………………...39

2.13 Picture to demonstrate free space link on an optical workbench………………..………….40

2.14 Voice Block Diagram………………………………………………………………………41

2.15 Data Communication Block Diagram……………………………………………………..41

3.0 Audio transmitter circuit……………………………………………………………………45

3.1 Connection diagram of LMC66OAIN………………………………………………………46

3.2 Microcontroller unit block diagram…………………………………………………………48

3.3 Microcontroller Pin layout…………………………………………………………………..49

3.4 Audio transmitter circuit…………………………………………………………………….52

3.5 Audio receiver circuit……………………………………………………………………….54

3.6 The data circuit………………………………………………………………………………55

3.7 Data communication software terminal……………………………………………………..58

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3.8 Construction of circuit………………………………………………………………………60

4.0 Testing of audio circuits…………………………………………………………………….61

4.1 Testing of data circuit……………………………………………………………………….62

4.2 Portion of simulated audio circuit…………………………………………………………..63

4.3 Frequency response curve…………………………………………………………………..64

4.4 Simulated portion of receiver circuit………………………………………………………..64

4.5 Frequency response…………………………………………………………………………65

4.6 Transient analysis curve at an input of 5 KHz………………………………………………66

4.7 Transient analysis curve at an input of 8KHz……………………………………………….67

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................... 1

1.0 OVERVIEW.................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM ........................................................................................ 3

1.3 OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................. 4

1.3.1 Review previous work done by past students on the demonstration of FSOC. ........ 4

1.3.2 Design and construct an improved test circuit to implement FSOC. ........................ 4

1.3.3 Demonstrate data and voice communication using FSOC. ...................................... 5

1.3.4 Do a cost analysis of the project ............................................................................... 6

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION ........................................................................................... 6

1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 7

1.5.1 DESIGN OF IMPROVED CIRCUIT ....................................................................... 7

1.5.2 SIMULATION OF TEST CIRCUIT AND THEORETICAL RESULTS ............... 8

1.5.3 REVIEW OF PROTOCOLS..................................................................................... 8

1.5.4 BUILDING OF TEST CIRCUIT.............................................................................. 8

1.5.5 TESTING OF TEST CIRCUIT ................................................................................ 9

1.5.6 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ................................................................................... 9

1.6 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 10

2.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 10

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2.1 FSOC THEORY ............................................................................................................. 12

2.1.0 Components of an FSOC link ................................................................................. 12

2.2 OPTICAL TRANSMITTERS ........................................................................................ 13

2.2.0 The Light Emitters .................................................................................................. 13

2.2.1 GaAs IR LED .......................................................................................................... 13

2.2.2 GaAlAs IR LED ...................................................................................................... 14

2.2.3 GaAsP Visible Red LEDs ....................................................................................... 14

2.2.4 LASERS .................................................................................................................. 15

2.2.5 Solid State Semiconductor Lasers GaAs (Hetrojunction) Lasers ........................... 16

2.3 INTERFACING STANDARDS .................................................................................... 17

2.3.0 RS232 Standard ...................................................................................................... 17

2.3.1 EIA-485/ RS485 Standard ...................................................................................... 19

2.3.2 MAX 232 Standard ................................................................................................. 22

2.4 OPTICAL RECEIVERS ............................................................................................... 23

2.4.0 Light detectors ........................................................................................................ 23

2.4.1 Types of Light Detectors ........................................................................................ 23

2.4.2 Photo transistor ....................................................................................................... 23

2.4.3 The silicon pin photodiode...................................................................................... 24

2.4.4 InGaAs PIN Diode .................................................................................................. 26

2.4.5 Avalanche Photodiode ............................................................................................ 27

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 2.4.6 Optical Heterodyning .............................................................................................. 28

2.5 TYPICAL PIN DIODE SPECIFICATIONS ................................................................. 29

2.5.1 Package ................................................................................................................... 29

2.5.2 Active Area ............................................................................................................. 30

2.5.3 Response Time ........................................................................................................ 30

2.5.4 Capacitance ............................................................................................................. 31

2.5.5 Dark Current ........................................................................................................... 32

2.5.6 Noise Figure ............................................................................................................ 32

2.6 LINK BUDGET ANALYSIS ........................................................................................ 33

2.7 REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORKDONE ..................................................................... 36

2.8 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 41

CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 43

3.0 PROPOSED CIRCUIT .................................................................................................. 43

3.0.1 Transmitter Specifications ...................................................................................... 43

3.0.2 Channel ................................................................................................................... 43

3.0.3 Receiver Specifications ........................................................................................... 43

3.0.4 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION............................................................................... 45

3.1 AUDIO CIRCUIT .......................................................................................................... 45

3.2 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................. 51

3.21 THE AUDIO SYSTEM .............................................................................................. 51

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 3.22 Audio Transmitter Circuit .......................................................................................... 52

3.23 AUDIO RECEIVER CIRCUIT .................................................................................. 53

3.3 THE DATA SYSTEM ................................................................................................... 54

3.4.2 The Receiver Circuit ................................................................................................... 56

3.4.3 Software .................................................................................................................. 57

3.4.4 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION............................................................................... 58

3.5 CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUIT .................................................................................. 59

CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 61

4.0 TESTING ....................................................................................................................... 61

4.0.1 AUDIO CIRCUIT ................................................................................................... 61

4.0.2 DATA CIRCUIT .................................................................................................... 62

4.1 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ........................................................................................ 63

4.1.1 Simulated Results and Analysis .............................................................................. 63

4.2 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ....................................................................................... 68

4.2.0 Audio circuit ........................................................................................................... 68

4.2.1 Analysis................................................................................................................... 69

4.2.2 Data circuit .............................................................................................................. 69

CHAPTER FIVE…………………………………………..……………………………….……71

5.0 COST ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................... 71

5.1 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 72

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 5.2 RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................. 73

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 74

APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................... 77

SOURCE CODE ........................................................................................................................... 77

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 OVERVIEW

The idea of laser beam free-space communications is not new. Proof-of-principle demonstrators

dates back to the early 60.s. However, high bandwidths could not be achieved because

modulation of gas lasers was inherently slow. In 1947 the first transistor was invented and since

then semiconductor industry kept on improving dramatically. In 1962 lasing in semiconductors

was observed [1] and in the next decades edge emitting lasers were developed which could be

modulated very fast. Also optical

fibres emerged during the 70.s and 80.s [2] and low-loss fibres combined with semiconductor

lasers proved to be a practical medium for long distance communications. So free-space laser

links remained only a small niche application. Today, atmospheric optical data communication

is undergoing a revival [3] because of economic reasons. It was realised that free-space links

could fill in new niche markets such as short-haul metropolitan area networks. For these types

of networks, of course fibres could do the job, but only at the expense of considerable time and

money to dig up the streets and lay new cables.

Free-Space Optics (FSO) is a technology that enables the optical transmission of data, voice and

video communications though the air. It is a wireless optical network, based on use of free space

(the atmosphere) as transmission medium and low power lasers as light sources. A clear line of

sight is needed between communicating FSO systems [4]. FSOC can also be described as a

telecommunication technology that uses light propagating in free space to transmit data between

two points. Fiber optics communication is the latest telecommunications technology in Ghana.

Fiber optics provides an excellent solution for high bandwidth, low error requirements and can

serve as the backbone for the internet infrastructure. Most of the recent trenching to lay fiber has

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been to improve the metro core (backbone).Until recently the communications industry

envisioned the main market for FSO systems to be within the campus/enterprise market

segment. Enterprise customers seeking high bandwidth connectivity without laying optical fiber

were interested in the ultra-high bandwidth capabilities of this technology to interconnect

campus buildings within a LAN network. This technology is associated with fiber-like

capabilities with reduced capital expenditure and cost savings. FSO technology provides an

inexpensive and quick access to customers in need of a high-speed connection by taking

advantage of the license free nature of the FSO spectrum.

Optical wireless communication has emerged as a viable technology for next generation indoor

and outdoor broadband wireless applications. Applications rangefrom short-range wireless

communication links providing network access to portablecomputers, to last- mile links

bridging gaps between end users and existing fiber opticcommunications backbones, and even

laser communications in outer-space [Link] optical wireless communication is also called

wireless infrared communication, while outdoor optical wireless communication is

commonly knownas free space optical (FSO) communication FSOC provides a promising

solution for supporting high data rates. Moreover, the tight spatial confinement of a FSOC laser

beam provides significant degrees of robustness and secured data transmission play important

roles in military communications.

FSOC has become the best solution to the "last mile connectivity bottleneck" problem in

acquiring maximum bandwidth. This will help solve the problem of large users of FSOC which

in the future will be recommended to the microwave system. FSOC alleviates cost so far as

fibre optics are concerned, the cost of fibre is eliminated since space is “free” to use and from

the economists point of view, space will undoubtedly be required as a medium rather than a

medium that attracts cost (fibre).

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1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Theoretically, free space optical communications has been proved to be viable. Optical

communication is a third year course taught at the department of telecommunications

engineering with practical demonstration only on fibre optics. However, there is no practical

demonstration of free space optical communication (FSOC) in KNUST. Moreover, the previous

project on the design and construction of a system to demonstrate FSOC had some drawbacks,

hence the need for a further study into the design and construction of a system to demonstrate

FSOC.

1.2 PROJECT JUSTIFICATION

In designing a system that can demonstrate free space optical communication, we would be able

to review and improve upon the previous work done by past students and in effect solve the

problem of the „last mile bottleneck‟.

This project will also help give practical application and demonstration to telecommunication

students of KNUST in the aspect of study of optical communications.

The relevance of this project apart from solving the last mile bottleneck problem will allow fast

and easy access to networks be it LAN, MAN or WAN. In this era, fibre optics is dominating

but with a cost that the inhabitants in the “last mile” cannot bear, the free space optical

communication apart from its speed and ease of access will alleviate the cost of the project

“FIBRE TO THE HOME”. Which we believe will become “FIBRE-FREE NETWORK TO

THE HOME”. The relevance of this project (technology) does not lie just in its cost and ease of

access but also in the ease in its deployment.

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Network providers will also benefit from its speed and cost effectiveness and hence will make

information and networking so simple and easy to access.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 Review previous work done by past students on the demonstration of FSOC.

An intensive review of previous work done by students to access weaknesses and

strengths improve upon their work and circuitry. Troubleshooting existing project for

errors and correcting them to enhance its operation. The review process will clearly

identify areas of weaknesses, strengths and as much as possible improve upon each area.

1.3.2 Design and construct an improved test circuit to implement FSOC.

We will build a circuit that will interface with a computer and transmit voice from a

microphone and data from the computer from one end to the other using laser in line of

sight as the channel. The design and construction of an improved test circuit to

demonstrate FSOC is very vital. In this project a clear design of the circuit, the location

and components is required to show the technical areas and components that make up

the demonstration of FSOC. The construction of the circuit will integrate the best

components and devices with their correct specifications to ensure their correct

operation. The design will be basically a transmitter, channel (FREE SPACE), and a

receiver that purposefully will transmit optical pulses, through space and be received

and deciphered at the receiver. Each block (transmitter, channel and receiver) will be

constructed to operate in sync; the channel is free space which actually exists.

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1.3.3 Demonstrate data and voice communication using FSOC.

For our purposes data refers to text and voice refers to acoustics or phonetics from the

human vocal cord. The data will be sent by a computer and the voice by a microphone.

The demonstration of data transmission requires interfacing the receiver circuit to the PC

and the voice transmission will be by an input microphone. Data transmission from the

PC will be modulated by the laser module and demodulated at the receiver by the

receiver‟s laser module and then converted into the original data which will be received

by the PC at the receiver‟s end. Voice will be input by the microphone and the electrical

signals modulated with the laser to be transmitted. At the output the voice will be

received by the speaker and perceived.

5
1.3.4 Do a cost analysis of the project

A cost analysis of the project will be done.

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION

This project is limited to the free space optical communication (FSOC) technology and is

demonstrated under laboratory conditions. The optimal performance of FSOC is within the

terahertz frequency range.

Currently available Free Space Optics (FSO) hardware [5] can be classified into two categories

depending on the operating wavelength – systems that operate near 800 nm and those that

operate near 1550 nm. There are compelling reasons for selecting 1550 nm Free Space Optics

(FSO) systems due to laser eye safety, reduced solar background radiation, and compatibility

with existing technology infrastructure.

Laser beams with wavelengths in the range of 400 to 1400 nm emit light that passes through the

cornea and lens and is focused onto a tiny spot on the retina while wavelengths above 1400 nm

are absorbed by the cornea and lens, and do not focus onto the retina. It is possible to design

eye-safe laser transmitters at both the 800 nm and 1550 nm wavelengths but the allowable safe

laser power is about fifty times higher at 1550 nm. This factor of fifty is important as it provides

up to 17 dB additional margin, allowing the system to propagate over longer distances, through

heavier attenuation, and to support higher data rates. The demonstration therefore, will be

between two points approximately 10 metres.

6
For the feasibility of the demonstration of the test circuit under laboratory conditions, we

require a clear line of sight to establish contact between the transmitter and the receiver for the

voice and data transmission. A minor obstruction to the line of sight can be caused by particles

present in the laboratory atmosphere. This can result in particle interference and absorb the

photons transmitted by the laser. The interference of the particles can therefore reduce the

strength of the link and hence affect transmission. Also, objects coming into the line of sight can

block transmission and prevent completely the transmission of the laser signal, thus preventing

voice/data communication.

It will therefore be precautious to ensure the environment is devoid of particles and other

objects that may interfere in the establishment of a clear line of sight between the transmitter

and receiver.

1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Our research will be built upon previous work, this will be reviewed and appropriate

information will be gathered. A fair understanding and a good knowledge base will be

developed from the previous work. Further research will be conducted into the project

and an improved report will be delivered. Our research will be conducted in the

following manner.

1.5.1 DESIGN OF IMPROVED CIRCUIT

The laser transceiver circuit previously used will be analysed and an improved schematic will

be designed to achieve the same purpose of the demonstration of FSOC. We will build our

circuit to incorporate the necessary components (microphone, laser module and earpiece,

7
photodetectors) whose absence, malfunction or quality caused the drawbacks in the previous

circuit.

1.5.2 SIMULATION OF TEST CIRCUIT AND THEORETICAL RESULTS

The designed circuit will be simulated using an electronic simulator to ensure it works

accurately before we go ahead to build the test circuit. The theoretical Results obtained (signal

levels, path loss and laser strength) will be measured and signal at output checked to ensure

their levels are perceivable.

1.5.3 REVIEW OF PROTOCOLS

Regulations regarding the transmission of light in free space in offing will be reviewed. Our

sources will include IEEE, NCA, FCC; existing network protocols that can use FSOC in its

operation will be reviewed as well.

1.5.4 BUILDING OF TEST CIRCUIT

A step by step approach will be used to accurately build the test circuit. Components will be

tested to ensure each one works and is of good quality before being used. Breadboards will be

used initially. If it works to satisfaction, the components will be soldered carefully onto a PCB

to complete the test circuit.

8
1.5.5 TESTING OF TEST CIRCUIT

The test circuit after being built will be tested at the laboratory to ensure signals at the input are

received at the output accurately.

1.5.6 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Results obtained after testing the circuit will be collected and analyzed using analytical tools

(e.g. graphs, etc).

1.6 CONCLUSION

FSOC is a technology by which data/voice is transmitted from a transmitter using light

technology and received by a receiver at line of sight using free space as the channel.

The whole idea is to ensure communication through space is viable and cheaper. This project

demonstrates this idea at the laboratory. In summary, the free space optical communication

requires a transmitter to transmit voice/data with laser and a medium (free space) to transmit the

data/voice to the receiver, which recovers the original data/voice transmitted.

9
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 INTRODUCTION

The desire to establish a network that can provide high speed has evolved over the years, from

copper wire, through optical fibre and now free space (wireless). The copper wire technology

provides a high reliability and full availability of resources to the end user. However despite

these very important advantages, it is labour intensive, has low speed and requires a series of

permissions for its deployment. Fibre optic technology which has evolved over the years has

been realized to pose no foreseeable limit in speed, has a high reliability, full availability and

enables a large link span. But the laying of fiber requires the digging of trenches in the ground,

which involves huge expenses and considerable time, energy and efforts in acquiring permits

from the municipal assemblies. However once fibre has been laid, it cannot be re-deployed

easily. Hence an off-network customer (directly tied to the Capital expenditure Cap-ex), who

relocates or uses a different network leads to waste of resources and loss of Cap-ex. Free space

optical technology as the name implies uses the free space for communication with copper wire

or fibre optic cable being replaced by an infrared laser beam.

It can also be defined as a wireless communication that uses optical radiation to communicate

between two points through unguided channels with the types being either indoors or outdoors

[6].

An initial hurdle faced by early means of laser communication was the enormous heat generated

by pumped laser action. However, in the late 1960‟s, semiconductor laser was developed and

ever since, the possibilities for laser communication have grown. Though developed for

carriers, new laser technologies are finding a place in private networks [8] [9]. Recent

breakthroughs in wireless technology and the need for a wireless extension of the Internet have

10
increased the demand for faster, higher bandwidth wireless access networks [10] [11]. The two

wireless options nowadays are either radio or optical networks. Radio frequency has been the

primary medium of communication for a long period of time. However, in this day and age, the

RF spectrum has become congested and may no longer be sufficient for broadband high-speed

applications [12] [13]. In addition to this radio communication requires the leasing of

frequencies in order to be legally permitted to use them. On the other hand, optical

communication is the key to supply the ever-increasing demand for higher bandwidth, without

the associated hassles or interference experienced with radio communication.

The emergence of Free Space Optics (FSO), coupled with lower equipment costs, has changed

FSO from a "last resort" to a medium of choice. Today, FSO solutions are cheaper to deploy

and maintain than wireline solutions with their high cable-laying costs and the possibility of

cable damage. They can also be deployed far quicker, giving operators a key competitive

advantage. The problem of economics, availability and radio congestion has left operators

looking for an alternative solution. Optical wireless can complement radio not complete it [6]

[14] [15].

Free Space Optics (FSO) refers to the use of low-power, narrow laser beams to transmit voice,

video and data between two buildings. It is a wireless broadband technology, which requires

clear line-of-sight (LOS) between a pair of communicating FSO transceivers. This technology

offers greater deployment flexibility as well as the capabilities to transmit up to gigabits of data

over the air.

Entrepreneurs and technologists who know of this are borrowing many of the technologies

initially designed for fiber-optics systems and applying them to what is now called Free Space

Optical (FSO) communication [16].

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2.1 FSOC THEORY

Since the invention of radio more and more of the electro-magnetic frequency spectrum has

been gobbled up for business, the military, entertainment broadcasting and telephone

communications leading to the airwaves are becoming severely overcrowded. Enterprises using

this are frustrated by all the restrictions and regulations governing the transmission of

information by radio. There is simply little room left in the radio frequency spectrum to add

more information transmitting channels. For this reason, many companies and individuals are

looking toward light as a way to provide the needed room for communications expansion. By

using modulated light as a carrier instead of radio, an almost limitless, and so far non

commercialized spectrum becomes available.

2.1.0 Components of an FSOC link

An FSOC link consists of an optical transmitter, an optical receiver and free space as the

communicating channel. The "free-space" technique used in this form of communication

requires only a clear line-of-sight path between the transmitter and the distant receiver to form

an information link. No cables need to be buried, no complex network of switches and

amplifiers are needed and no right-of-way agreements need to be made with landowners. Also,

like fiber optic communications, there should be a light source, in this case laser. An optical

through-the-air technique has a very large information handling capacity. Its effective operation

can however be affected in bad weather conditions as stated in preceding chapters. However, if

the distances are not too great (less than 5 miles), systems can be designed with sufficient power

to punch through most weather conditions.

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2.2 OPTICAL TRANSMITTERS

The communications system used will depend much more on the type of light source used than

on the light detector. The light source used is based on the type of information to be transmitted

and the distance to cover to reach the optical receiver. In all cases the light source mustbe

modulated (usually turned on and off or varied in intensity) to transmit information. The

modulation rate determines the maximum rate of information that can be transmitted.

2.2.0 The Light Emitters

2.2.1 GaAs IR LED

These devices are older and less efficient than GaAlAs devices [16]. The useful forms of this

device have smaller emitting surfaces than GaAlAs LED's, permitting narrow divergence angles

with small lenses. Also, the small emitting areas make them very useful for fiber optic

applications. Some commercial devices have miniature lenses cemented directly to the

semiconductor chip to produce a small exiting light angle (divergence angle). The most

important feature of the GaAs LED is its speed. They are generally 10 times faster than GaAlAs

LED's but many only produce 1/6 as much light. They are often picked when medium speed

transmission over short distances is required. Their price is typically a little more than the

GaAlAs LED's, even though they use an older technology.

13
2.2.2 GaAlAs IR LED

GaAlAs (gallium, aluminum arsenic) infrared LEDs are the most widely use modulated IR light

sources. They have moderate electrical to optical efficiencies, (at low currents 4%), and produce

light that matches the common silicon PIN detector response curve (900nm). The position of the

actual LED chip within the package will determine the divergence (spreading out) of the exiting

[Link] are a good choice for short and medium distance control links and general

communications applications.

2.2.3 GaAsP Visible Red LEDs

This type of LED is not as efficient as the infrared devices. It uses visible red LEDs. Since their

light is a visible red color, an automatic 2:1 penalty is paid when the devices are used with a

standard silicon detector that has a weaker response to red light. The visible red LEDs are

generally faster (up to 2 million pulses per second) than IR components and can therefore be

used for medium speed applications. Also their light being visible, they are much easier to align

than invisible IR devices, especially when the devices are used with lenses.

Fig.2.0 GaAsP LED Emission

14
2.2.4 LASERS

A laser generates light, either visible or infrared, through [17] a process known as

stimulated emission. To understand stimulated emission, understanding two basic concepts is

necessary. The first is absorption which occurs when an atom absorbs energy or photons. The

second is emission which occurs when an atom emits photons. Emission occurs when an atom is

in an excited or high energy state and returns to a stable or ground state when this occurs

naturally it is called spontaneous emission because no outside trigger is required. Stimulated

emission occurs when an already excited atom is bombarded by yet another photon causing it to

release that photon along with the photon which previously excited it. Photons are particles, or

more properly quanta, of light and a light beam is made up of what can be thought of as a

stream of photons.

Figure 2.1 Spontaneous and Stimulated emission of Laser

A basic laser uses a mirrored chamber or cavity to reflect light waves so they reinforce each

other. An excitable substance is contained within the cavity and determines the wavelength of

the resulting laser beam. Through a process called pumping, energy is introduced to the cavity

exciting the atoms within and causing a population inversion. A population inversion is when

there are more excited atoms than grounded atoms which then lead to stimulated emission. The

released photons oscillate back and forth between the mirrors of the cavity, building energy and

15
causing other atoms to release more photons. One of the mirrors allows some of the released

photons to escape the cavity resulting in a laser beam emitting from one end of the cavity.

Figure 2.2 Excitation of electrons to produce Laser beam

An infrared laser is mainly used for experiment since the infrared portion of the

spectrum is unregulated or IrDA can also be for high performance.

The common types of lasers available today are:

1. Diode

2. Helium-Neon

3. Argon/Krypton ion

4. Carbon Dioxide lasers

5. Helium-Cadmium (HeCd) lasers.

2.2.5 Solid State Semiconductor Lasers GaAs (Hetrojunction) Lasers

These devices can produce very powerful light pulses with some being [16] able to launch light

pulses in excess of 20 watts, which is some 200 times more powerful than a typical GaAlAs

LED. These devices can only be driven with duty cycles, less than 0.1% (off time must be 1000

times longer than on time). Their maximum pulse width must be kept short (typically less than

16
200 nanoseconds) even under low pulse rate applications. However, despite their limitations

these devices can be used in some voice transmitter systems if some careful circuit designs are

used. As in most semiconductor lasers, the GaAs laser does require a minimum current level

(typically 10 to 20 amps) before it begins emitting useable light. Such high operating currents

demand more complicated drive circuits. Despite a 10:1 sensitivity reduction, caused by the

rather narrow emitted pulses (see receiver circuit discussion), the more powerful light pulses

available from GaAs lasers can increase the useful range of a communications system by a

factor of about 3, over a typical transmitter using a single LED.

2.3 INTERFACING STANDARDS

2.3.0 RS232 Standard

RS-232 (Recommended Standard 232) is a standard for serial binary single-endeddata and

control signals connecting between a DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) and a DCE (Data

Circuit-terminating Equipment). It is commonly used in computerserial ports. The standard

defines the electrical characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning of signals and the [18]

physical size and pinout of connectors. Standard RS-232-C as of 1969 defines the following;

Electrical signal characteristics such as voltage levels, signaling rate, timing and slew-

rate of signals, voltage withstand level; short-circuit behavior, and maximum load

capacitance.

Interface mechanical characteristics, pluggable connectors and pin identification.

Functions of each circuit in the interface connector.

17
 Standard subsets of interface circuits for selected telecom applications.

The standard however does not define such elements as

character encoding (for example, ASCII, Baudot code or EBCDIC)

the framing of characters in the data stream (bits per character, start/stop bits, parity)

protocols for error detection or algorithms for data compression

Bit rates for transmission, although the standard says it is intended for bit rates lower than

20,000 bits per second. Many modern devices support speeds of 115,200 bit/s and above

Power supply to external devices.

In RS-232, user data is sent as a time-series of bits. Both synchronous and asynchronous

transmissions are supported by the standard. In addition to the data circuits, the standard defines

a number of control circuits used to manage the connection between the DTE and DCE. Each

data or control circuit only operates in one direction, which is, signaling from a DTE to the

attached DCE or the reverse. Since transmit data and receive data are separate circuits, the

interface can operate in a full duplex manner, supporting concurrent data flow in both directions.

The RS-232 standard defines the voltage levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero

levels for the data transmission and the control signal lines. Valid signals are plus or minus 3 to

15 volts; the ±3 V range near zero volts is not a valid RS-232 level. The standard specifies a

maximum open-circuit voltage of 25 volts: signal levels of ±5 V, ±10 V, ±12 V, and ±15 V are

all commonly seen depending on the power supplies available within a device. RS-232 drivers

and receivers must be able to withstand indefinite short circuit to ground or to any voltage level

up to ±25 volts. The slew rate, or how fast the signal changes between levels, is also controlled.

18
Fig 2.3 RS 232 / MAX 232 Connection

Fig 2.4 This a DTE port as on the back of a PC Com Port -EIA-574 RS-232/V.24 pin out on a

DB-9 pin used for Asynchronous Data

2.3.1 EIA-485/ RS485 Standard

EIA-485, also known as TIA/EIA-485 or RS-485, is a standard defining the electrical

characteristics of drivers and receivers for use in balanced digital multipoint systems. EIA-485

only specifies electrical characteristics of the driver and the receiver. It does not specify or

recommend any dataprotocol. EIA-485 enables the configuration of inexpensive local

19
networksand multidrop communications links. It offers high data transmission speeds

(35 Mbit/s up to 10 m and 100 kbit/s at 1200 m). Since it uses a differentialbalanced line over

twisted pair (like EIA-422), it can span relatively large distances (up to 4000 feet or just over

1200 meters). RS485 is the most versatile communication standard in the standard series

defined by the EIA, as it performs well on all four points. That is why RS485 is currently a

widely used communication interface in data acquisition and control applications where

multiple nodes communicate with each other [20]. One of the main problems with RS232is the

lack of immunity for noise on the signal lines. The transmitter and receiver compare the

voltages of the data- and handshake lines with one common zero line. Shifts in the ground level

can have disastrous effects. Therefore the trigger level of the RS232 interface is set relatively

high at ±3 Volt. Noise is easily picked up and limits both the maximum distance and

communication speed. With RS485 on the contrary there is no such thing as a common zero as

a signal reference. Several volts difference in the ground level of the RS485 transmitter and

receiver does not cause any problems. The RS485 signals are floating and each signal is

transmitted over a Sig+ line and a Sig- line. The RS485 receiver compares thevoltage difference

between both lines, instead of the absolute voltage level on a signal line. This works well and

prevents the existence of ground loops, a common source of communication problems. The best

results are achieved if the Sig+ and Sig- lines are twisted [21].

20
 Table 1.0 Comparison between RS232, RS423, RS422 and RS485.

RS232 RS423 RS422 RS485

Differential No No Yes Yes

Max number of drivers 1 1 1 32

Max number of receivers 1 10 10 32

Modes of operation Half duplex Half duplex Half duplex Half duplex

full duplex

Network topology point-to-point Multidrop Multidrop Multipoint

Max distance (acc. standard) 15 m 1200m 1200m 1200m

Max speed at 12 m 20 kbs 100kbs 10Mbs 35Mbs

Max speed at 1200 m (1 kbs) 1kbs 100kbs 100kbs

Max slew rate 30 V/μs Adjustable n/a n/a

Receiver input resistance 3..7 kΩ ≧ 4 kΩ ≧ 4 kΩ ≧ 12 kΩ

Driver load impedance 3..7 kΩ ≧ 450 Ω 100 Ω 54 Ω

Receiver input sensitivity ±3 V ±200 mV ±200 mV ±200 mV

Receiver input range ±15 V ±12 V ±10 V –7..12 V

Max driver output voltage ±25 V ±6 V ±6 V –7..12 V

Min driver output voltage ±5 V ±3.6 V ±2.0 V ±1.5 V

(with load)

Source: LammertBies, “Homepage - LammertBies,” [online].

21
2.3.2 MAX 232 Standard

MAX232 runs on a single chip supply (+5 volts), contains double charge pump voltage doubler

and a +10v to -10v voltage inverter and requires a few external capacitors. There are some

versions of this chip. The voltages output are used to generate the RS-232 compliant signals of

two serial ports on the same physical [Link] is another version, the MAX233 which

requires no external parts. It is, however, a little larger physically, and also costs about 75%

more than the MAX232A.

Below is a diagram of the internals of the MAX232A. It shows a double charge pump voltage

doubler and a +10v to -10v voltage inverter. The voltages output are used to generate the RS-232

compliant signals. The MAX232A has provisions for two serial ports on the same physical

package. Most people only connect one of them.

Fig 2.5 Internal structure of MAX232

22
2.4 OPTICAL RECEIVERS

2.4.0 Light detectors

In optical [16] communications a light source forms the carrier and must also be modulated to

transmit information. Virtually all present optical communications systems modulate the

intensity of the light source. Usually the transmitter simply turns the light source on and off. To

decode the information from the light pulses, some type of light detector must be employed.

The detector's job is to convert the light signals, collected at the receiver, into electrical signals.

The electrical signals produced by the detector's optical energy to electrical energy conversion

are much easier to demodulate than pure light signals. As discussed above on light theory,

although light is a form of energy, it is the intensity or power of the light that determines its

strength. Therefore, the real job of the light detector is to convert light power into electrical

power, independent of the energy of the transmitted light pulses. This relationship also implies

that the conversion is independent of the duration of the light pulses used. This is an important

concept and is taken advantaged of in many of the systems that follow.

2.4.1 Types of Light Detectors

2.4.2 Photo transistor

One of the [16] most popular light detectors is the photo transistor. It is cheap, readily available

and has been used in many published communications circuits. But the PIN photodiode is a

much better choice if one wants systems with better performance. A phototransistor is a silicon

photodiode connected to the base-emitter terminals of a silicon transistor.

23
 Fig. 2.6 phototransistor

Since the phototransistor is made of silicon, it has a similar response curve as a standard silicon

PIN photodiode. The photodiode is connected directly to the transistor, it is not reversed biased

and operates in a photovoltaic mode. The current produced by the photodiode is routed to the

transistor that provides a sizable current gain. This amplification gives the photo transistor much

more light sensitivity than a standard PIN diode. But, with the gain comes a price. The

photodiode/transistor connection dramatically slows down the otherwise fast response time of

the diode inside. Most phototransistors will have response times measured in tens of

microseconds, which is some 100 times slower than similar PIN diodes. Such slow speeds

reduce the usefulness of the device in most communications systems. They also have the

disadvantage of having small active areas and high noise levels. One will often find them being

used for simple light reflector and detector applications that do not rely on fast light pulses. But,

overall, they are a poor substitute for a good PIN diode when connected to well design receiver

circuit.

2.4.3 The silicon pin photodiode

From the list of likely detectors, only the silicon "PIN" photodiode has the speed, sensitivity

and low cost to be a practical detector. As the letters PNP and NPN designate the kind of

24
semiconductor materials used to form transistors, the "I" in the "PIN" photodiode indicates that

the device is made from "P" and "N" semiconductor layers with a middle intrinsic or insulator

layer. Most PIN photodiodes are made from silicon and have specific response curves.

Fig 2.7 silicon pin photodiode response curve

From the curve, the device is most sensitive to the near infrared wavelengths at about 900

nanometers and the device's response falls off sharply beyond 1000 nanometers, but has a more

gradual slope toward the shorter wavelengths, including the entire visible portion of the

spectrum. In addition, the device's response drops to about ½ its peak at the visible red

wavelength (640 nanometers). It should therefore be obvious that in order to maximize the

device's conversion efficiency an information transmitter light source which closely matches the

peak of the silicon PIN photodiode's response should be chosen. Fortunately, most IR light

emitting diodes (LEDs) and infrared lasers do indeed emit light at or near the 900nm peak,

making them ideal optical transmitters of information. Like solar cells, the PIN photodiode will

produce a voltage (about 0.5v) in response to light and will also generate a current proportional

to the intensity of the light striking it. However, this unbiased current sourcing mode, or

"photovoltaic" mode, is seldom used in through-the-air communications since it is less efficient

25
and is slow in responding to short light flashes. The most common configuration is the

"reversed biased" or "photoconductive" scheme. In the reversed biased mode, the PIN detector

is biased by an external direct current power supply ranging from a few volts to as high as 50

volts. When biased, the device behaves as a leaky diode whose leakage current is dependent on

the intensity of the light striking the device's active area. It is important to note that the intensity

of a light source is defined in terms of power, not energy. When detecting infrared light at its

900 nanometer peak response point, a typical PIN diode will leak of about one milliamp of

current for every two milliwatts of light power striking it (50% efficiency). For most devices

this relationship is linear over a 120db (1 million to one) span, ranging from tens of milliwatts

to nanowatts. The wavelengths other than the ideal 900 nanometer peak will not be converted

with the same 50% efficiency. If a visible red light source were used the light to current

efficiency would drop to only 25%. The current output for light power input relationship is the

most important characteristic of the PIN photodiode. The relationship helps to define the needs

of a communications system that requires a signal to be transmitted over a certain distance. By

knowing how much light power a detector circuit requires, a communications system can be

designed with the correct optical components. The light power to electrical current relationship

also implies that the conversion is independent of the duration of any light pulse. As long as the

detector is fast enough, it will produce the same amount of current whether the light pulse lasts

one second or one nanosecond.

2.4.4 InGaAs PIN Diode

Silicon is not the only material from which to make a solid-state light detector. Other

photodiodes made from Gallium and Indium semiconductors work well at longer infrared

wavelengths than silicon devices. These devices have been used for many years in optical fiber

26
communications systems, which rely on longer wavelengths. Glass optical fibers operate more

efficiently at these longer wavelengths.

Fig. 2.8 InGaAs pin photodiode response curve

The typical response the curve of the device shows an InGaAs photodiode‟s response includes

only some of the wavelengths that a silicon photodiode covers. However, most of the devices

made are designed for optical fiber communications and therefore have very small active areas.

They are also much more expensive. Still, as the technology improves, perhaps these devices

will find their way into the hands of experimenters.

2.4.5 Avalanche Photodiode

Although the silicon PIN detector is the most universal device for nearly all optical

communications applications, there are a few other devices. One such device is an "APD" or

avalanche photodiode. An APD is a special light detecting diode that is constructed in much the

same way as a PIN photodiode. Unlike a PIN diode, which only needs a bias of a few volts to

function properly, an APD is biased with voltages up to 150 volts. When light strikes the device

it leaks current in much the same way as a typical PIN diode, but at much higher levels. Unlike

a PIN diode that may produce only one microamp of current for two microwatts of light, an

27
APD can leak as much as 100 microamps for each microwatt (x100 gain). This gain factor is

very dependent on the bias voltage used and the APDs operating temperature. Some systems

take advantage of these relationships and vary the bias voltage to produce the desired gain.

When used with narrow optical band pass filters and laser light sources APDs could allow a

through-the-air system to have a much higher light sensitivities and thus longer ranges than

might otherwise be possible with a standard PIN device. However, in systems that use LEDs,

the additional noise produced by the ambient light focused onto the device cancels much of the

gain advantage the APD might have had over a PIN. Also, most commercial APDs have very

small active areas, making them very unpopular for through-the-air applications. They are also

typically 20 times more expensive than a good PIN photodiode. Finally, the high bias voltage

requirement and the temperature sensitivity of the APD cause the detector circuit to be much

more complicated that those needed with a PIN. Still, as the technology improves, low cost

APDs with large active areas may become available.

2.4.6 Optical Heterodyning

Another detector scheme, that has already been demonstrated in the laboratory and may

someday be available to the experimenter, is "optical heterodyning". The scheme doesn't

actually use a new detector but rather a new way of processing the light with an existing

detector. In brief, this method mixes the frequencies from the incoming radio signal with

another fixed local oscillator frequency. To make the optical heterodyne concept work, special

lasers must be used that have been carefully constructed to emit light of very high purity. The

light from these lasers is very nearly one single wavelength of light. When the light from two of

these lasers that emit light of slightly different wavelengths, is focused onto a detector, the

28
detector's output frequency corresponds to a sum and difference of the two wavelengths. In

practice, the light from a nearby laser produces light with a slightly different wavelength than

the distant transmitter laser. As in the radio technique, optical heterodyning should allow very

weak signals to be processed more easily and should also permit many more distinct

wavelengths of light to be transmitted without interference. A single light detector could then be

used in conjunction with multiple laser sources. This technique is often referred to as

"wavelength division multiplexing" and could allow a single receiver system to select one color

"channel" from among several thousand channels transmitted. But, for the average

experimenter, such techniques are just too complicated.

2.5 TYPICAL PIN DIODE SPECIFICATIONS

2.5.1 Package

PIN silicon photodiodes come in all sizes and shapes. Some commercial diodes are packaged in

special infrared (IR) transparent plastic. The plastic blocks most of the visible wavelengths

while allowing the IR light to pass. The plastic appears to be a deep purple color when seen by

our eyes but it is nearly crystal clear to infrared light. Some of these packages also place a small

plastic lens in front of the detector's active area to collect more light. As long as the modulated

light being detected is also IR either the filtered or the unfiltered devices will work. However, if

you use a light source that emits visible light you must use an unfiltered PIN device.

29
2.5.2 Active Area

There will usually be an active area specification for PIN photodiodes. This corresponds to the

size of the actual light sensitive region, independent of the package size. PINs with large active

areas will capture more light but will always be slower than smaller devices and will also

produce more noise. However, if a small device contains an attached lens it will often collect as

much light as a much larger device without a lens. But, the devices with attached lenses will

collect light over narrower incident angles (acceptance angle). Flat surface devices are usually

used if light must be detected over a wide area. For most applications either style will work. For

high speed applications a device with a small active area is always recommended. However,

there is a tradeoff between device speed and the active area. For most long-range applications,

where a large light collecting lens is needed, a large area device should be used to keep the

acceptance angle from being too small. Small acceptance angles can make it nearly impossible

to point the receiver in the right direction to collect the light from the distant transmitter.

2.5.3 Response Time

All PIN photodiodes will have a response time rating that is usually listed in nanoseconds. The

rating defines the time the device needs to react to a short pulse of light. The smaller the

number, the faster the device. Sometimes there will be both a rise time and a full-time rating.

Usually, the fall-time will be slightly longer than the rise time. Large area devices will always

be slower and have longer response times. To be practical for most applications, the device

should have a response time less than 500 nanoseconds. However, even devices with response

times greater than tens of microseconds may still be useful for some applications that rely on

light pulses a few milliseconds long. A slow device will respond to a short light pulse by

30
producing a signal that lasts much longer than the actual light pulse. It will also have apparent

lower conversion efficiency. The detector should have a response time that is smaller than the

maximum needed for the detection of the modulated light source (see section on system

designs). As an example, if the light pulse to be detected lasts 1 microsecond then the PIN used

should have a response time less than ½ microseconds. The response time may also be linked to

a specific reverse bias voltage. All devices will respond faster when a higher bias voltage is

used. Some device specifications will show a curve of response times as a function of bias

voltage. To play it safe, only the response time that is associated with a bias voltage of only a

few volts on the time vs. voltage curve should be used. If one plots a curve of the minimum

detectable light power, using a photodiode, and the light pulse width being detected, one can

generate a curve. The curve would show that for a very short 100 picoseconds light pulse, at

least 100 microwatts of light power would be needed to be detectable. But, if the light pulses

last longer than 1 millisecond were used, one could detect light pulses down to about 10

picowatts. This is a handy curve to have, when you are designing an optical communications

system. It will give you a ballpark idea of how much light you will need based on the light

pulse widths being transmitted.

2.5.4 Capacitance

When choosing a suitable light detector from a manufacturer, their data sheets may also list a

total capacitance rating for the PIN device. It is usually listed in Picofarads. There is a direct

correlation between the active area and the total capacitance, which has an effect on the device's

speed. However, the capacitance is not a fixed value. The capacitance will decrease with higher

reverse bias voltages. As an example, a typical PIN device with a one square millimeter active

31
area might have a capacitance of 30 Pico farads at bias voltage of zero but will decrease to only

6 Pico farads at 12 volts. Large area devices will always have a larger capacitance and will

therefore be slower than small area devices. It is better to pick a device with the lowest

capacitance, when detecting short light pulses.

2.5.5 Dark Current

All PIN diodes have dark current ratings. The rating corresponds to the residual leakage current

through the device, in the reversed biased mode, when the device is in complete darkness. This

leakage current is usually small and is typically measured in nanoamps, even for large area

devices. As you would expect, large area devices will have larger dark currents than small

devices. However, by using the one of the detector circuit discussed in the section on light

receivers, even large leakage levels will have little effect on the detection of weak signals.

2.5.6 Noise Figure

When reviewing PIN diode specifications there would be the noise figure listing. The units

chosen are usually "watts per square root of hertz". Sometimes the listing will be under the

heading of "NEP" that stands for "noise equivalent power". However this can be ignored since it

has little meaning for most through-the-air applications that will always have to contend with

some ambient light.

32
2.6 LINK BUDGET ANALYSIS

Typical losses and specifications in the FSOC link are [18]:

Beam forming losses in Transmitter and Receiver (typ. 2-5 dB)

Beam divergence losses (typ. 35 dB)

Miss-pointing allowance (typ. 10 dB)

Atmospheric losses (0.2-300 dB per km)

a long wavelength 1550nm

A class 3A [n29] eye-safe power level was used.

Distance L: 500 meters

Weather conditions for carrier grade reliable operation: the visibility V = 0.5 km

The power loss as a function of the visibility at a distance L km from the transmitter is given by

[10]

Loss (V) = (Ar/Af) exp (-γ (v) L) Γ (dB)

Loss _dB (V) = 10 log (Ar/Af) exp (-γ (v) L) + Γ (dB)

Where

V: visibility in km

Ar: receptor area = (πDr^2) /4, Dr being the diameter of the receptor

Af: footprint at the receiver = (πDf^2) /4, Df being the diameter of the footprint

33
Γ: the scintillation constant

γ (Z) = (3.91/V) λ/550 ^-δ (V)

δ (V) = 1.6 if V ≥ 50

1.3 if 6 ≤ V < 50

(0.16.V + 0.34) if 1 ≤ V < 6

(V-0.5) if 0.5 ≤ V< 1

0 if V < 0.5

the scintillation constant G for 30-ft mounting and in a typical turbulence is assumed

to be 1.2 dB. The transmitter diameter is selected to be a typical value of 5 cm. We

haveused the receptor diameter of 30 cm. The beam angleθ is selected to be a typical

value of 0.3 milliradian. The footprint at the receiver end is calculated as

DF =L (km) *θ (mrad) = 15cm

Since the footprint diameter is less than the receptor diameter, there is no loss due to

beam divergence. Furthermore, we have used a link margin of 3 dB to account for link

deterioration over time and tolerance variations. Following Optsim program plots the

losses for a number of visibility conditions in the range of 200 meters to 2 km.:

V: Visibility, L: distance in km, lambda: wavelength in nm, DR: receptor dia,

DF: Footprint dia.

θ = 0.3mrad dT=0.05m dR=0.3m Γ=1.2dB

L=0.5m λ=1550nm V=2, 3.2 Margin= 3dB

34
 DF=Lθ +dT DF=0.2m DR= min (dR, DF)

δ (V) = 1.6 if V ≥ 50

1.3 if 6 ≤ V < 50

(0.16.V + 0.34) if 1 ≤ V < 6

(V-0.5) if 0.5 ≤ V< 1

0 if V < 0.5

γ (Z) = (3.91/V) λ/550 ^-δ (V)

Lossl (V) = (Ar/Af) ^2 exp (-γ (v) (*L)

dBloss(V)=-10 log(lossl(V)) + Γ + Margin

Fig 2.9 Loss versus Visibility

For a moderate weather condition (visibility V=0.5 km), the link budget is 21.181 dB.

35
2.7 REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORKDONE

A previous demonstration done by SambitBikas Pal of the Indian Institute of Science Education

& Research, Kolkata sought to demonstrate the transmission of data between two computers

using the „PHOENIX‟ interface to connect the transmitting and receiving circuits to the two

computers. Data entered into the computer was first converted into its equivalent ASCII codes

transmitted through the PHOENIX interface, through the semiconductor laser used in the

transmitting circuit ,through free space to the receiver circuit which was made up of a

phototransistor and a transistor (to amplify the signals. The incoming signal from the receiver

was then fed into the PHEONIX interface connected to the other computer. The computer

interpreted the incoming signal and generated the identical ASCII codes (binary string) and the

text was regenerated from the binary string. To transmit the character string as binary data

through the laser channel and to read binary stream from the laser channel through the digital

inputs of PHOENIX BOX, C codes were used. The project was successful in transmitting binary

data between two computers [23].

36
 Text-input fed to Text input converted LASER is switched on
& off depending on
the computer to binary string. whether the bit in the
binary stream
is 0 or 1

Text is regenerated Computer interprets Light falls on the

Fig 2.10 Block diagram. Source :SambitBikas Pal, Digital Data Transmission through Free

Space Optical LASER Indian Institute Of Science Education & Research, Kolkata.

In a paper by Jai P. Agrawal, Omer Farook and C.R. Sekhar of the Department of Electrical

and Computer Engineering Technology, Purdue University Calumet presented a project on the

design of a fiberless link between two buildings that were approximately 500 meters apart.

Demonstrated in the laboratory, the strict line-of-sight alignment was achieved using a stable

mechanical assembly of telescopes initially but was proposed to have automatic tracking

alignment system in full implementation. In this project however, a transceiver (transmitter and

receiver in a single package) using LVPECL (Positive Emitter Coupled Logic) signaling was

used together with the RS232 for interfacing the transceiver to the computers. An optical

collimator and receptor were included in the design. The fiberless link was however simplex. A

text file from a computer was transmitted and received across the link successfully with the

37
signals being recovered up to a distance of 20 feet in the laboratory. Below is the demonstrating

diagram showing how this project was implemented [24].

RS 232 RS 232

Fig 2.11 Fibreless link. Source: [Designing a Free-Space Optical/Wireless Link byJai P.

Agrawal, Omer Farook and C.R. Sekhar of Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Technology, Purdue University Calumet]

A report on a project embarked on by Russell Valentine on April 3, 2009 demonstrates how

data was successfully transferred through free space using Reasonable Optical Near Joint

Access (RONJA). This technology allowed a 10 Mbps full-duplex1 Ethernet bridge between

two points up to 1.4 km away using visible incoherent light as shown in Figure 2.2. The RONJA

Tetrapolis consists of a Receiver (RX) and Transmitter (TX) at both sides of the bridge. The

transmitter consists of an Light Emitting Diode (LED) and a lens. On the other side of the

bridge the receiver consist of another lens and a photo diode.

38
Fig 2.12 Overview diagram of RONJA system [source: RONJA and free space optics

byRussell Valentine]

A team of 10 students of the Applied Physics and Photonics,

VrijeUniverserstiteitBrusselPleinlaan, Belgium, sought to design and construct and implement

free space optical datacom laser link as an educational project for electrical engineers. The

students designed a laser link transparent to Ethernet network between two campus buildings.

The students targeted a 100Mbps Ethernet communication data stream, due to time restrictions,

the effort and emphasis was placed on the implementation and design of the photonics part of the

free space link. The students had to calculate the optical power budget since the double glazed

window introduced additional optical losses.

The efforts of the students resulted in the demonstration of the free space link on an optical

workbench. A pattern was obtained at a 500 Mbps, the bandwidth of the system being limited

only by the function generator and limited by communication distance [25].

39
Fig. 2.13 Picture to demonstrate free space link on an optical workbench. [Source: Design

and implementation of a free-space optical datacom laser-link: a photonics education project for

Electrical Engineers]

The first attempt to design a system to demonstrate FSOC in KNUST was done by Sarku

Jonathan, Bain John, and TweneboahKoduah Samuel in May, 2010. The main objective of their

project was to demonstrate a full duplex, combined analogue and digital FSO laser

communication. The data system was designed to operate at an optimum data rate of

56kbps in serial communications and a typical operating range around 10m. The RS232

standard was used for the communications protocol. Also in this project, a transceiver, based on

the MAX232A IC, consisting of two transmitters and two receivers in the same package was

used. The circuit was simulated to produce some results on the effect of distances on transmitted

power, BER and Q-Factor given a specific attenuation constant of the weather. The audio circuit

consisted of a microphone, a transmitter and receiver circuit and a speaker. However, the aim of

transmitting voice and data failed practically due to the unavailability of a three pin Electret

Microphone, a lax usage of TLC555 or CMOS version of timer in voice circuit, problems in

40
maintaining a strict alignment and focusing systems and incompatibility between the DB9 cable

used and the MAX232A IC. Below is the block diagram they used for their implementation

[17].

Fig 2.14 Voice Block Diagram [17]

Fig 2.15 Data Communication Block Diagram [17]

2.8 CONCLUSION

This project seeks to bridge the communication gap and is described as follows. One of the first

large scale users for optical communications were the telephone companies. They replaced less

efficient copper cables with glass fibers (fiber optics) in some complex long distance systems. A

single optical fiber could carry the equivalent information that would require tens of thousands of

41
copper wires. The fibers could also carry the information over much longer distance than the

copper cables they replaced. However, complex fiber optic networks that could bring such

improvements directly to the small business or home are still many years away. The phone

companies don't want to spend the money to connect each home with optical fibers. Until fiber

optics networks become available, through-the-air communications could help bridge the gap.

The term “the last mile” is often used to describe the communications bottleneck between the

neighborhood telephone switching network and the home or office.

Our design seeks to explore how FSOC can be effectively applied in Africa, a typically tropical

area, considering our climate and weather changes and how they affect the FSOC system. These

effects such as scintillation, beam divergence, effects of solar ambience, signal fading,

turbulence, aerosol scattering effects, among many others.

Our circuit is designed to be able to filter out interfering light sources such as those from the sun

and other light sources such as fluorescent lights.

42
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 PROPOSED CIRCUIT

Free Space Optical Communication provides a new and interesting way of communicating using

laser beams and free space as the transmission medium. Voice and data can be sent by using just

a beam of light.

We intend to design a system operating under the following parameters:

Bandwidth of 200THz in the 700 – 1500nm range

A transmit power within the range of 15dBm to 25dBm

3.0.1 Transmitter Specifications

 Red High Quality 15mW Laser Module

 Modulation scheme is pulse width modulation

 Pulse width operating frequency of 20 kHz

 Sharp low pass filter frequency at 6 kHz

 Operating voltage of 9 to 12 volts dc source

3.0.2 Channel

 Line of sight; Rician model

3.0.3 Receiver Specifications

 Photodetector

43
 o Photodiode Type PN Photodiode

o Photodiode Spectral Response Visible; IR

o Spectral Response Range 970 nm

o Active Area Diameter or Length 2.69 mm

o Active Area Height 2.69 mm

 LM386 audio power amplifier

 LMC660AIN quad rail-to-rail op amp

 78L05 voltage regulator

From the various literature reviewed, the following specifications have been noted to have been

used and achieved in constructing an effective free space optical data communication system.

Light Emitters- Semiconductor laser diodes, Infrared lasers or LEDs.

Interfacing Standards- RS232, RS232 and LVPECL, Ethernet Bridge or Phoenix.

Photo detectors- Photodiode.

Bitrates-56 kbps, 10 Mbps and 500 Mbps.

Transmission modes- Simplex or Full duplex.

Transmission Distance- 10m, 500m, 1.4 km.

44
3.0.4 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Fig 3.0 Audio transmitter circuit

3.1 AUDIO CIRCUIT

The microphone used in the transmitter circuit is a carbon microphone. A carbon microphone,

also known as a carbon button microphone (or sometimes just a button microphone), uses a

capsule or button containing carbon granules pressed between two metal plates. A voltage is

applied across the metal plates, causing a small current to flow through the carbon. One of the

plates, the diaphragm, vibrates in sympathy with incident sound waves, applying a varying

pressure to the carbon. The changing pressure deforms the granules, causing the contact area

between each pair of adjacent granules to change, and this causes the electrical resistance of the

45
mass of granules to change. The changes in resistance cause a corresponding change in the

current flowing through the microphone, producing the electrical signal [26]

This electrical signal is fed into the LMC660 CMOS Quad operational amplifier. This CMOS

Quad operational amplifier consists of four opamps connected together and is ideal foroperation

from a single [Link] operates from +5V to +15Vand features rail-to-rail output swing in

addition to an inputcommon-mode range that includes ground.

Fig 3.1 Connection diagram of LMC66OAIN [Source: 1999 National Semiconductor

Corporation]

As shown above this LMC660 CMOS Quad operational amplifier has four opamps connected

within along the various pins. The first opamp acts as a high gain stage amplifier. It has the input

being fed into pin 3 with pin 2 being grounded and pin 1 serving as the output pin. In our

proposed circuit, pin 3 is connected to a 0.1µF capacitor which couples the electrical signal from

the microphone to the opamp. The output from pin 1 is then fed into a three pin header and is

tapped into the forth and third stages of the LMC660 CMOS Quad operational amplifier. For the

fourth stage the input signal is fed into pin 13 and output through pin14, with the output being

46
fed back into the input to realize the low pass transfer function. The third stage also acting as a

low pass filter, has the signal input fed into pin 9 and output through pin 8. It also hasthe output

being fed back into the input to realize the low pass transfer function. These stages act as low

pass filters to filter the electrical output at a frequency of 6KHz. This is to prevent signals more

than half of the sampling rate from being digitized and the transposed on the signal when they

received according to Nyquist theorem before digitizing or sampling. The output from stage

three is fed into stage two through pin 5, which is a non-invertingopamp with variable gain. This

variable gain output through pin 7, is used by the microcontroller to give a decent range of

amplification for small to large signals, output from stages for and three.

The microcontroller used is MC68HRC908JKICP. It is an 8 bit, 20 pins, and 1538 bytes flash

memory size microcontroller. The block diagram is as shown below.

47
Fig 3.2 Microcontroller unit block diagram.

Fig 3.3 Microcontroller pins layout

[source: [Link]

48
Table 1.1Pin functions of microcontroller

[Source [Link]

This microcontroller has operating voltages of 5V and 3V performs Automatic Gain Control

(AGC) and digitizes the incoming audio with an internal Analog to Digital Conversion(ADC)

and converts the speech into an 18KHz Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) signal. The AGC of the

49
microcontroller tries to keep the signal within the range of the analog to digital converter so

thatwe have the best possible data reproduction, so the gain is always changing on the last stage

to keep it there. Once the sample is taken in the microcontroller, it is tested for level and the

AGC may or may not be adjusted. It is then converted to a PWM pulse and sent to pin 9, where

the FET (marked as Q1) is used to turn the laser module on and off for the single sample/cycle.

The laser beam is sent to the receiver for detection. The laser which is a device that emits

light(electromagnetic radiation) through a process of optical amplification based on the

stimulated emission of photons. A laser consists of a gain medium inside a highly reflective

optical cavity, as well as a means to supply energy to the gain medium. The gain medium is a

material with properties that allow it to amplify light by stimulated emission. In its simplest

form, a cavity consists of two mirrors arranged such that light bounces back and forth, each time

passing through the gain medium. Typically one of the two mirrors, the output coupler, is

partially transparent. The output laser beam is emitted through this [Link] light from the

laser falls on a photodetector which is then fed into the quad rail-to-rail opamp (marked as

OPT202), which acts as a High Gain Stage to boost up the small photodetector output. The

LMC660 CMOS Quad operational amplifier then behaves as described above. The signal is then

transmitted to the speakers, which outputs the voice.

50
3.2 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

3.21 THE AUDIO SYSTEM

The audio system consist of a transmitting circuit to which the microphone is attached and a

receiving circuit to which the speaker is also attached. A transducer (microphone) converts the

audio signal into an electrical signal which is then modulated and transmitted by the transmitting

circuit as light pulses. The receiving circuit receives the light pulses through the photodetector

converts the signal from light to electrical and processes the signal to be received by the speaker.

51
3.22 Audio Transmitter Circuit

Fig 3.4 Audio transmitter circuit

The audio input is fed into the microphone (marked as MC1). The audio signal is then fed into

the quad rail-to-rail opamp (marked as LMC660 AIN, U1:A), which acts as a High Gain Stage

to boost up the small output of the microphone. The next two stages (LMC660 AIN, U1:D and

LMC660 AIN, U1:C) act as sharp low pass filters that filter the audio output at a frequency of

6KHz. This is to prevent signals more than half of the sampling rate from being digitized and the

transposed on the signal when they received according to Nyquist theorem before digitizing or

sampling. Once the audio signal has been filtered the microcontroller (marked as

52
MC68HRC908JKICP) performs Automatic Gain Control (AGC) and digitizes the incoming

audio with an internal Analog to Digital Conversion(ADC) and converts the speech into an

18KHz Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) signal. It does this by looking at the largest values of

the incoming samples, and turning pins 11, 12, and 13 into high impedance (off) or low

impedance (on) to vary the gain of thequad rail-to-rail opamp (marked as LMC660 AIN, U1:B),

which is set up to be a non-inverting opamp with variable gain. The gain is found by the simple

formula of Av = 1 + Rf/Ri. Rf is R20, which is a 100k reistor, and Ri can be any combination of

R17, 18, 19, and 24. With all three pins on, R18, 19, 24,and 17 are all in parallel, making the

non-inverting opamp (marked as LMC660 AIN, U1:B) have a gain of (Av = 1+ 5.6k/100k) or

17.6. When all three pins are off, only R17 is in circuit making the gain (Av = 1 + 100K/100K)

or 2. This gives a decent range of amplification for small to large signals, and is controlled by the

microcontroller. The AGC of the microcontroller tries to keep the signal within the range of the

analog to digital converter so that we have the best possible data reproduction, so the gain is

always changing on the last stage to keep it there. Once the sample is taken in the

microcontroller, it is tested for level and the AGC may or may not be adjusted. It is then

converted to a PWM pulse and sent to pin 9, where the FET (marked as Q1) is used to turn the

laser module on and off for the single sample/cycle. The laser beam is sent to the receiver for

detection.

3.23 AUDIO RECEIVER CIRCUIT

The light signal from the laser falls on the photodetector and is then fed into the quad rail-to-rail

opamp (marked as OPT202), which acts as a High Gain Stage to boost up the small

photodetector output. The next two stages (LMC660 AIN, U1:A, D and C) act as sharp low pass

53
filters that filter the photodetector output at a frequency of 6KHz. The voltage regulators

(marked as VR1 and VR2) provide stable voltage outputs of 5V. The audio power amplifier

(marked as LM388N) then amplifiers the signal which is then fed into the stereo and then into

the speakers as a clear audio output.

Figure 3.5 Audio receiver circuit

3.3 THE DATA SYSTEM

The data system consists of two PCs for the generation of the data, the RS232 interfacing

standard for interfacing the PCs to the transmitting and receiving circuits. The data circuit is a

transceiver, thus transmits and receives signals simultaneously.

54
 Fig

3.

Fig. 3.6 The data circuit

55
3.4 THE DATA CIRCUIT

3.4.1 The Transmitter Circuit

The transmitterconsists of an opto-isolator and an open-collector hex inverter and a handful of

other [Link] transmitter is also powered by a 9V battery and draws approximately

70mA (laser on) and 30mA(laser off).

The circuit uses an opto-isolator (4N33) to couple a standard RS-232 signal from a computer to

thedriver section of the circuit. The resistor/diode configuration at the input to the opto-isolator

convertsthe +12/-12 voltage swings of a RS-232 signal into a signal suitable for the LED in the

opto-isolator. Asecond input on the board is also provided for external TTL compatible signals.

This can be wired tothe parallel port of the computer or other microcontrollers. Note: Never use

the TTL input signal at the same time as the RS- 232 input signal as these are shortedtogether

only via a resistor.

The laser diode driver section is identical to the one used in thetransceiver. The driver section of

the transmitter is also designed so that the laser is on when no datais present to help point the

laser.

3.4.2 The Receiver Circuit

The receiver is based on the MAX232A IC for generating and receiving RS-232 compatible

voltage signals. The receiving sensor is an NPN infrared photo-transistor (OP505A). We chose

an infrared photo-transistor to minimize ambient light interference. Although the laser

wavelength is in the visible spectrum (~670nm) the photo-transistor‟s broad response band

(550nm to 1050nm) is wide enough to sense the intense laser beam. The signal from the photo-

56
transistor is buffered via a pair of Schmitt trigger buffers to clean up and square the signal. The

output of the second buffer is then directly converted to a RS-232 standard signal via the

MAX232A.

The MAX232A generates +10V and -10V voltage swings using a dual charge-pump voltage

converter from a single +5VDC rail (see RS-232 standards below). Several different versions of

the MAX232 chip exist. The A version requires only 0.1 uF capacitors for the charge-pump and

inverter, whereas the MAX232 requires 1uF capacitors. The advantage of the A version is that it

has faster response times, and allows for faster data rates.

The 74LS05 is used to drive the laser diode inside the laser pointer. The laser diode driver

consists of a 7405 open-collector hex inverter IC. All the outputs of the inverters are coupled

together to provide enough drive current for the laser diode which draws around 35mA at 3V. A

7805 voltage regulator is used to provide the IC and laser diode with a stable 5V voltage source.

The two 1N4001 diodes, in series with the laser diode, step down the voltage from +5VDC to

around 3.6VDC which is close to the nominal voltage for the laser diode.

The transceiver is designed in such a way that when no signal is present the laser is on. This

helps you see where the laser is pointing during the laser-detector alignment. The transceiver is

powered by a 9V battery and draws approximately 80mA (laser on) and 40mA (laser off).

3.4.3 Software

The software driver used by the pc to recognize the circuit and allow communication is written in

Visual Basic. .

When the FSOC software application is run the communication terminal is open as shown below

and data transfer can then proceed.

57
Fig. 3.7 Data communication software terminal

3.4.4 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

One PC is connected through its Com port to the RS232 male. The data generated by this PC is

converted into its equivalent ASCII codes. This data is then sent through the Com port to the

RS232 male. The RS 232 defines the electrical characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning

of signals, and the physical size and pinout of connectors. The RS-232 standard defines the

voltage levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero levels for the data transmission and

the control signal lines. Valid signals are plus or minus 3 to 15 volts; the ±3 V range near zero

volts is not a valid RS-232 level.

Pins 1, 4 and 6 of the RS 232 are connected together in order to signal for them to be always

ready to transmit data. The data signals are then transmitted through pin 3 of the 9-pin „D‟

58
connector of the RS232 COM port to pin 8 of the MAX 232A. The advantage of the A version is

that it has faster responsetimes, and allows for faster data rates. The MAX 232A generates +10V

and -10V voltage swings using a dual charge-pump voltage converter.

When the circuit is powered, the green LED diode comes on indicating a function circuit. The

data is converted to its ASCII equivalent and sent through the RS 232 to the D-9 connector. The

signal is then sent to the MAX 232 A which regulates the voltage to between +/- 10V, the signal

is sent out through the pin 12 of the MAX 232 and sent to the LS05 IC, which is hex inverter

with open collector outputs. This provides 70mA needed to drive the laser. The laser is turns on

and the signal transmitted.

When line of sight is acquired, the green photo diode which is initially on to indicate circuit is

function and ready, goes off, an indication that line of sight has been established. The red photo

diode blinks on and off to indicate transmission in progress.

To receive when the signal falls on the photo transistor,it is buffered via a pair of Schmitt

Trigger, which is a collection of LS14 inverters. This buffers to clean up and square the signal.

The output of the second buffer is then sent to the MAX 232A to and received at the pin 2 of the

RS 232; the signal is then converted to alphabets and displayed on the receiving computer.

3.5 CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUIT

Firstly, the PCB is cleaned, and all the passive components are mounted; this includes the

resistors, capacitors, and diodes taking into considerations their polarity. We next fit the active

components, which includes all the microcontrollers and the voltage regulators. The voltage

59
regulator does not require a heat sink, so it can be placed against the PCB. The microcontrollers

are mounted in sockets on PCB and all additional external components such as laser pointers,

photodiodes, battery connectors and switches, and speaker are attached. The components are

carefully soldered onto the printed circuit [Link] last component to be connected to the

circuit is the laser.

It is expected that both circuits transmit voice and data successfully.

Fig 3.8 Construction of circuit

60
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 TESTING

4.0.1 AUDIO CIRCUIT

In the process of troubleshooting the audio transmitter circuit the microphone malfunctioned.

The microphone was bypassed and a connection made to the jumper (J1). This allows the audio

input to be fed from any audio source. For our system, we feed the audio from a pc. The audio

output of the receiving circuit is taken from speakers. A 9V battery is used to provide the power

for both circuits. The transmitting and receiving circuits are aligned such that there is a strict line

of sight for the laser to be directly focused on the photo detector.

With the 9V battery connected to the transmitter, the LED turns on. With the laser focused on the

photo detector the LED blinks and one can hear a sound from the speakers. With an input audio,

the output audio is heard from the speakers. For further testing of the circuit the distance was

varied from 15cm to 2m at intervals of 15cm.

Fig 4.0 Testing of audio circuits

61
4.0.2 DATA CIRCUIT

In testing, each transceiver was tested for data transmission on one PC. To do this, the rs232

cable was connected to the computer and to the transceiver. Then the 9v battery was connected

to the transceiver. There are three diodes present. These are; the white which is photo transistor,

the second diode which is green and normally glowing, goes off to indicate alignment. The red

Which is the third diode will only blink while there is data transmission. When the laser is

pointed directly on the photo transistor of the same transceiver circuit, the next diode to the

photo transistor, which is the green diode, will stop glowing indicating proper alignment. In the

absence of the laser beam it will glow. This is known as the loop back test.

For data transmission between the two PCs, the rs232 cable was connected to the two PCs as

indicated above and the D9 connectors to the transceiver. Then the 9v battery was connected to

the transceivers.

For both transmissions using one PC and two PCs, the software terminal was opened and data

was successfully transmitted and received.

Distances were varied from 15cm to 1m at intervals of 15cm.

Fig 4.1 Testing of data circuit

62
4.1 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1.1 Simulated Results and Analysis

Audio transmitter circuit

Fig. 4.2 Portion of simulated audio circuit.

A portion of the audio transmitter circuit was simulated and the frequency response of the

LMC660 AIN was obtained. It realized from the frequency response graph below that the low

pass filter characteristics of the LMC660 AIN has a cut off frequency of 6 kHz as expected.

63
Fig 4.3 Frequency response curve

Audio receiver circuit

Fig. 4.4 Simulated portion of receiver circuit

64
A portion of the audio transmitter circuit was simulated and the frequency response of the

LMC660 AIN was obtained. It realized from the frequency response graph below that the low

pass filter characteristics of the LMC660 AIN has a cut off frequency of 6kHz as expected.

Fig 4.5 Frequency response

65
4.1.2 Transient analysis curves

Fig 4.6 Transient analysis curve at an input of 5kHz

The input signal is the green signal and the output is the red signal, after the signal has gone

through the LMC660 AIN. It is realized from the output that the capacitor of the output

discharges. This is indicated at the 0.0V level by the output signal. The capacitor then charges

and stabilizes giving the wave form shown above. This shows the signals are being filtered at

6KHz.

66
Fig 4.7 Transient analysis curve at an input of 8kHz

The input signal is the green signal and the output is the red signal, after the signal has gone

through the LMC660 AIN. It is realized from the output that the capacitor of the output

discharges. This is indicated at the 0.0V level by the output signal. The capacitor then charges.

However, since the circuit is designed to attenuate signals above 6 kHz, the 8kHz input signal is

heavily attenuated and approaches 0.0V level. This shows the signals are being filtered at 6kHz.

67
4.2 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

4.2.0 Audio circuit

The audio circuit was tested and the following results were obtained at various distances under

laboratory conditions.

Distance (cm) Signal received Signal level

15 yes Very high

30 Yes Very high

45 Yes Very high

60 Yes Very high

75 Yes Very high

90 Yes Very high

105 Yes Very high

120 Yes Very high

135 Yes High

150 Yes High

165 Yes High

180 Yes High

195 Yes High

Table 1.2 Experimental results at various distances

68
4.2.1 Analysis

Distance does not really affect the power of the signal received provided there is a strict line of

sight. However, obtaining a strict line of sight in the lab at longer distances was difficult

resulting in a decrease in the power and volume of the received signal.

4.2.2 Data circuit

The data transceiver circuits were tested to receive the following results.

Distance (cm) Data Received

15 Yes

30 Yes

45 Yes

60 Yes

75 Yes

90 Yes

105 Yes

120 No

135 No

Table 1.3 experimental results for data transmission

From the experiment conducted it was realized that there was data reception up to distances of

1m. However for distance greater than 1m, there was difficulty in receiving the transmitted data.

This was due to the difficulty in obtaining a strict line of sight at longer distances. Also due to

69
high sensitivity of the phototransistors to specifically ignore ambient light, the laser has to be

very well focused on the phototransistor in order for the data to be received.

70
CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 COST ANALYSIS

Table 1.4 Cost Analysis

Cost of components for data circuit GH ¢ 112.50

Cost of components for voice circuit GH ¢ 87.00

Cost of shipment of components for data circuit GH ¢ 150.00

Cost of shipment of components for audio circuit GH ¢ 147.00

Miscellaneous GH ¢ 80.00

Total GH¢ 576.50

71
5.1 CONCLUSION

Free Space Optical Communication using lasers require a strict line of sight for effective

transmission. The objectives of our project were to review previous work done by past students

on the demonstration of FSOC, design and construct an improved test circuit to implement

FSOC, demonstrate data and voice communication using FSOC and do a cost analysis for our

system under laboratory conditions.

We have been able to achieve our objectives and emphatically demonstrate transmission of voice

at distances up to 2m in the laboratory. Our data transceiver circuit was also able to successfully

transmit data between two PCs at 9600 kbps. Larger distances can be covered if higher powered

lasers and detectors and higher protocols such as the RS 485 are used.

Our results show that FSOS is a very reliable and secure means of communication and provides

high data speeds with low redundancy. However, when implementing FSOC on a large scale,

environmental factors such as weather conditions; fog, smog, scintillation and objects flying into

the line of sight need to be taken into consideration. Also a strict line of sight has to be ensured.

72
5.2 RECOMMENDATION

It is recommended that strict alignment be given the utmost priority when implementing FSOC

for optimum performance of the system.

73
REFERENCES

[1] E. Kapon,Semiconductor Lasers II: Materials and structures. CA, USA: Academic Press,

1999, pp xi.

[2] G. Keiser, Optical Fiber Communications, 3rd Edition. McGraw-Hill International

Editions, 2000, pp 6.

[3] Last Mile by Laser, Scientific American, July 2002.

[4] Nanyang Technological University, Network Technology Research Centre, A Trial-

Based Study of Free-Space Optics Systems in Singapore,Info-Communications

Development Authority of Singapore, Singapore, 2002

[5] “An explanation of fSONA [Link]” [ Online] Available:

[Link] [Accessed :9/17/2009 ]

[6] Professor Z Ghassemlooy, Free Space Optical Communication,Associate Dean for

Research, Optical Communications Research Group, School of Computing, Engineering

and Information Sciences The University of Northumbria Newcastle, U.K, 2008.

[7] B. Wu, B. Marchant, and M. Kavehrad, “Channel modeling of light signals propagating

through a battlefield environment: analysis of channel spatial, angular, and temporal

dispersion,” Appl. Opt. 46, 6442–6448 (2007).

[8] SugiantoTrisno Dissertation Design and Analysis of Advanced Free Space Optical

Communication Systems, the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of

Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor

of Philosophy 2006.

74
[9] A. Biswas, M. Wright, A. Portillo, S. Lee, Ground-Ground Optical Communication

Demonstration, International Symposium for Deep Space Communications and

Navigation, Pasadena, California, September 21, 1999.

[10] Hugo Weichel ,TutorialtextsLaser Beam Propagation in the Atmosphere, in optical

engineering; v.TT3, SPIE Optical Engineering Press, 1990. Pasadena, California,

September 21, 1999.

[11] S. Arnon, D. Sadot, and N. S. Kopeika, Analysis of optical pulse distortion through

clouds for satellite to earth adaptive optical communicationJ. Mod. Opt. 41, 1591–1605

(1994).

[12] [Link]

[13] PAV, Free Space optical solutions: PAV providing solutions in the GSM world, PW

Comms (UK) Ltd., Cheshire, UK. [Link]

[14] AhmetAkbulut, Murat Efe, A. Murat Ceylan, Fikret Ari, ZiyaTelatar, H. Gokhan Ilk and

SerdarTugac, An Experimental Hybrid FSO/Rf Communication System,Ankara university,

Faculty of Engineering, Tandogan, Ankara, Turkey.

[15] [Link]

[16] Dr. David Rockwell and Dr Stephen Mecherle, Optical wireless: Low Cost, Broadband,

Optical Access by [Link]

[17] Sarku Jonathon, Tweneboah-Koduah Samuel, Bain John, “Design and construct a circuit

to demonstrate free space optics communication ” BSc thesis, University of Kwame

Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, 2010.

75
[18] RS 232 from Wikipedia, the fee encyclopedia, 25th October 2010 [format: article],

[Accessed date: 30th October 2010]

[19] “A „layman‟s‟ explanation of RS 232 data interface: a tutorial on data interace and

cables” Available: [Link] [Accessed: 30th October 2010]

[20] EIA-485 from Wikipedia, the fee encyclopedia, 25th October 2010 [format: article],

[Accessed date: 30th October 2010]

[21] LammertBies, “Homepage - LammertBies,” [online]. Available: http

[22] MAX 232 from Wikipedia, the fee encyclopedia, 25th October 2010 [format: article],

[Accessed date: 30th October 2010]

[23] SambitBikas Pal, Digital Data Transmission through Free Space Optical LASER Indian

Institute Of Science Education & Research, Kolkata

[24] Jai P. Agrawal, Omer Farook. C. R. Sehker, Designing a Free Space Wireless link,

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Eechnology Purdue University,

Calumet for American society of Engineering Education, 2004.

[25] LievenDesmet, Michael Vervaeke, Valerie Baukens, Hugo Thienpont, “Design and

implementation of a free-space optical datacom laser-link: a photonics education project

for Electrical Engineer,” Department of Applied Physics and Photonics (TW-TONA),

VrijeUniversiteitBrussel, Pleinlaan 2, B1050 Brussels, Belgium, 2002

76
APPENDIX

SOURCE CODE

VISUAL BASIC 2008 ([Link] SOURCE CODE FOR SERIAL COMMUNICATION)

PublicClass Form1

Inherits [Link]

'// Private members

Private miComPort AsInteger

FriendWithEvents btnOpenCom As [Link]

FriendWithEvents btnCloseCom As [Link]

FriendWithEvents btnTx As [Link]

FriendWithEvents Label2 As [Link]

FriendWithEvents Label3 As [Link]

FriendWithEvents txtTx As [Link]

FriendWithEvents txtRx As [Link]

FriendWithEvents btnRx As [Link]

FriendWithEvents Label5 As [Link]

FriendWithEvents txtBytes2Read As

[Link]

FriendWithEvents GroupBox1 As [Link]

77
 FriendWithEvents optCom2 As

[Link]

FriendWithEvents optCom1 As

[Link]

FriendWithEvents txtTimeout As [Link]

FriendWithEvents Label4 As [Link]

FriendWithEvents txtBaudrate As

[Link]

FriendWithEvents Label1 As [Link]

FriendWithEvents ToolTip1 As [Link]

FriendWithEvents chkAutorx As [Link]

FriendWithEvents chkRTS As [Link]

FriendWithEvents chkDTR As [Link]

FriendWithEvents btnExit As [Link]

PrivateWithEvents moRS232 As Rs232

Private mlTicks AsLong

PrivateDelegateSub CommEventUpdate(ByVal source As Rs232,

ByVal mask As [Link])

#Region" Windows Form Designer generated code "

PublicSubNew()

[Link]()

78
 'This call is required by the Windows Form Designer.

InitializeComponent()

'Add any initialization after the

InitializeComponent() call

EndSub

'Form overrides dispose to clean up the component list.

ProtectedOverloadsOverridesSub Dispose(ByVal disposing

AsBoolean)

If disposing Then

IfNot (components IsNothing) Then

[Link]()

EndIf

EndIf

[Link](disposing)

EndSub

Private components As [Link]

'Required by the Windows Form Designer

For complete code please refer to attached CD

79