Volume XVI No.

2 April-June 2011

Giant river prawn broodstock A visit to Vientianne

Farm-made feeds and growth of humpback grouper Impacts of alien species
Simple device aids holding of live fish Striped catfish in India
 A healthy underwater world

A clear vision from

Intervet Aquatic
Animal Health

For more information please email spaquaculture@[Link]

[Link] and [Link]
 Aquaculture Asia Volume XVI No. 2 ISSN 0859-600X
is an autonomous publication April-June 2011
that gives people in developing
countries a voice. The views and The future of fish
opinions expressed herein are
those of the contributors and According to UN estimates the planet will probably have an extra 1.3 billion people
do not represent the policies or by 2030, mostly added in the developing world. These people will need to be
position of NACA, indeed you will fed. While we are at it, we also need to find better ways to feed the 1.02 billion
often find opposing views, all in undernourished people that we already have, nearly all of whom also live in the
the interests of debate. developing world. At present, hunger is mainly due to poverty rather than food
shortages per se, but there is no escaping the fact that we will need to produce a
lot more food in future than we do now.
Editorial Board
Wing-Keong Ng According to FAO, the world will need to produce an additional 27 million tonnes
M.C. Nandeesha of foodfish by 2030 just to maintain per capita fish consumption at current levels,
an increase of about 36% over 2009 production. As wild fisheries production
Editor peaked some fourteen years ago, the additional foodfish must come from farmed
Simon Wilkinson supplies and aquaculture production will have to almost double by 2030 to meet
simon@[Link] this demand. However, the reality is that per capita demand for fish is not static, it is
increasing, having grown from 9.9 kg in the 1960s to 17.1 kg in 2009.

NACA Can we do it? Probably. But at what price? There is no denying that farming has
An intergovernmental an environmental impact. Land, water, fishmeal and other feed ingredients are
organisation that promotes limited and supplies are under increasingly serious stress. There are legitimate
rural development through arguments (and deliberate misdirection from some quarters) about whether it is
sustainable aquaculture. NACA an efficient use of resources, or even ethical, to feed animals with food that could
seeks to improve rural income, be eaten by people. There are arguments about whether farming animals for meat
increase food production and is sustainable at all, given the enormous amount of agricultural land and other
foreign exchange earnings and resources currently allocated to such activities.
to diversify farm production. The
ultimate beneficiaries of NACA What if we don't do it? Fish is often the only animal protein that is affordable to
activities are farmers and rural the poor. If fish availability is reduced prices will rise and it will be the poor and
communities. malnourished - the people who need it the most - who are the first to miss out.
This is not some idle fantasy, it’s happening now. In 2008 the FAO’s estimate of
the absolute number and proportion of undernourished people increased for the
Contact first time in decades to 1.02 billion. There are more hungry people now than at any
The Editor, Aquaculture Asia other time since 1970. This was due in part to the spike in food prices that followed
PO Box 1040 the most recent oil shock.
Kasetsart Post Office
Bangkok 10903, Thailand It’s an ugly and extremely unpopular fact that we are trading population size off
Tel +66-2 561 1728 against environmental quality. Sustainability is in part a question of scale: Most
Fax +66-2 561 1727 activities are sustainable when conducted on a small scale, but as the population
Website [Link] grows our farming practices must improve to compensate. We need to find more
efficient ways to produce food that will increase output while consuming fewer
Submit articles to: resources and reducing unit impact on the environment.
magazine@[Link]
In the medium term, it seems likely that both environmental and economic
Follow us on Twitter under pressures will start to push aquaculture production away from carnivorous species
'AquacultureAsia' towards those lower in the food chain, the omnivorous and herbivorous fishes,
which tend to offer a reduced environmental footprint, lower feed costs and are
more affordable. For policy makers and researchers, it might be time to start
investing more heavily in such species and seeing if the process can be pushed
Printed by along a bit in the interests of food security.
Scand-Media Co., Ltd.

1
Sustainable aquaculture
Peter Edwards writes on rural aquaculture: A visit to
Vientianne, Lao PDR 3

The princess of aquaculture and the plights of the fish farmers 12

Krishna, R.R., Rao, K.V.P. and Reddy, D.M.

Research and farming techniques

Development of captive broodstock of giant river prawn
Macrobrachium rosenbergii 17
Pillai, B.R., Sahoo, L., Lalrinsanga, Mohanty, S. and Sahu, S.

Genetics and biodiversity

Alien introduction and its impact on native fishery and aquatic
biodiversity of West Bengal, India 20
Chattopadhyay, N.R., Kumari, A., and Sahoo, U.

CONTENTS
Ecological impacts of exotic fish species in India 23
Singh, A.K. and Lakra, W.S.

Marine finfish aquaculture network

Farm-made feeds support good growth and survival of the
humpback grouper 26
Shapawi, R., Mustafa, S., Ng, W.-K.

Technology
An easy way to hold live fish 30
Kowarsky, J.

Health
Litopenaeus vannamei introduction: Sound management
or expediency? 32
Regunathan, C. and Kitto, M.R.

NACA Newsletter 35

2 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

Peter Edwards writes on

Rural Aquaculture
A visit to Vientianne, Lao PDR
Last August I was invited by Xaypladeth Choulamany, Fisheries Programme
Coordinator of the Mekong River Commission (MRC) Fisheries Program to attend
the Stock Enhancement Consultation Meeting Vientiane, Lao PDR and make a
presentation on ‘Aquaculture development and culture-based fisheries in the Lower
Mekong Basin’. At first I declined because I have not worked in stock enhancement Dr Edwards is a consultant and
but after he insisted I attend and make a presentation on any relevant topic to the Emeritus Professor at the Asian Institute
theme of the meeting, further reflection led to the realisation that a major constraint of Technology in Thailand where he
to many stock enhancement schemes is the small size of stocked fingerlings, founded the aquaculture programme.
a topic which I am familiar with. I recall that the Thai Department of Fisheries He has over 30 years experience in
representative at the final meeting in 1991 of the MRC Review of the Fishery aquaculture education, research and
Sector in the Lower Mekong Basin, for which I was Aquaculture Specialist in the development in the Asian region.
six-man team of consultants, stated that their stocking programme was mainly of Email: pedwards1943@[Link].
political significance as the stocked fish were so small that they merely provided
feed for wild carnivorous snakehead in large water bodies.

Tilapia are raised in modern floating cages on the Mekong

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 river in Luang Prabang. 3
Sustainable aquaculture

in cooperation with local government

with facilitation by the AIT Aqua
Outreach programme.

Definitions regarding
stock enhancement
Seed from aquaculture mainly comes
from hatcheries (breeding, early nursing
of hatched eggs to fry). Advanced
nursing of fry to large fingerlings may
also be carried out by hatcheries but
if it is carried out at all, it is more likely
to be done by farmers due to the large
amount of space required. Grow-out
is defined as capture fisheries in large
water bodies where fish are usually not
owned and managed and are mainly
from self-recruiting species rather than
stocked fingerlings; and is defined as
aquaculture in small water bodies if the
stocked fish owned by an individual,
company or community.

Aquaculture
development -
seed production
Techniques for seed production have
Cartoons from AIT Aqua Outreach extension booklets. been developed for most cultured
species, especially herbivorous/

My presentation on seed production

and especially the need for advanced
nursing prior to stocking is outlined
below. MRC kindly arranged a field
trip for me to catch up on recent
aquaculture developments in and
around Vientianne. I also could not
drag myself away from fish completely
as I took a short holiday in the ancient
capital of Luang Prabang.

Stock enhancement
meeting
Although my knowledge of stock
enhancement is minimal, I witnessed
the development of aquaculture seed
production networks in the region and
specifically R & D by AIT colleagues
on the development of seed production
technology, especially breeding and
nursing tilapia, decentralised seed
production, and capacity building of
local staff in the region. Imperial College
later carried out stock enhancement
research in NE Thailand and Lao PDR
Tilapia are sold live in a Vientianne market.

4 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

Tilapia dispayed in an aquarium in a Vientianne market.

omnivorous fish. This includes Chinese carps although grass in aquaculture seed development. Government investment
carp can be difficult to breed in the tropics, Indian major carps is usually needed to develop and/or disseminate new
although catla can also be difficult to breed, common carp technology; to develop improved aquaculture techniques; and
and silver barb, as well as tilapia which breeds readily without to develop and maintain quality broodstock or germplasm.
human intervention. Clearly there is a need for public-private partnerships in fish

Aquaculture development -
need for nursing
A major issue regarding stock enhancement as mentioned
above is the need for advanced nursing to produce large
fingerlings to stock large water bodies. Tropical hatcheries
often sell 0.2-0.5 g (2-3 cm) fingerlings which are stocked in
grow-out ponds. High mortality usually occurs because the
small fingerlings are either not strong enough to survive or
are predated by wild carnivorous fish such as climbing perch,
snakehead and walking catfish.

Aquaculture development -
government or private hatcheries
Another issue in seed production is whether the seed
should be produced by government or private hatcheries.
Governments tend to build large centralised hatcheries
with several disadvantages: they are expensive to build,
operate and maintain; institutional capacity is often weak;
and the sustainability of government-led systems may be
limited. Furthermore, the private sector soon out-competes
government seed production as the former is more
responsive to market forces; is more efficient; and seed
production is a 24 hour job during the breeding season
which does not correspond to regular government working
hours. However, the government does have roles to play Descaling a tilapia purchased while still alive in Vientianne.

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 5

Sustainable aquaculture

seed. Research into breeding indigenous species, which

are usually considered to be more appropriate for stock
enhancement as they may have less adverse environmental
impact than exotic species, has been carried out through the
MRC project, Aquaculture of Indigenous Mekong Species
(AIMS).

Aquaculture development -
decentralised seed supply
It is best to decentralise seed production closer to where it is
required for stocking if transportation of seed is difficult over
long distances or long periods of time or even impossible
due to poor infrastructure. Decentralised seed production
improves access to high-quality seed for widely dispersed
famers or large water bodies. Furthermore, the economic Wild red tail catfish Hemibagrus wykioides in a Vientianne
benefits of seed production are more widely distributed. market.

conventional nursing in specially designed and prepared

Aquaculture development - relatively ponds which is a specialised business – relatively simpler and
cheaper hapas (suspended cages) can be used.
simple techniques available
Fry can be nursed to fingerlings at community or village level Hatchery and nursery
to produce large fingerlings (advanced nursing) for stocking.
Most herbivorous/omnivorous fish can be bred easily so Hatcheries are often relatively capital intensive and
there can be decentralised breeding and early nursing too. dominated by better-off entrepreneurs as breeding and early
Fry can be nursed in rice fields, ponds, cages, pens or nursing to produce fry are highly profitable because of the
hapas-in-ponds or other water bodies. There is no need for rapid turnover of large numbers of fry. Hatcheries seldom

6
Tilapia are raised in floating cages on the Mekong river Vientianne. Aquaculture Asia Magazine
 Sustainable aquaculture

Nursery pond on a fish farm in Vientianne Prefecture.

produce large fingerlings through advanced nursing as it

is land-intensive. This is another reason to decentralise at
least fingerling production to small-scale farmers and fishers.
Informal, private and decentralised fish seed networks have
developed in many countries in response to need.

Complexity of stock enhancement

Stocking has been defined as a technical intervention into
aquatic resource systems of great complexity as, according
to my review of the literature it is characterised by widely
different levels of uncertainty. Outcomes are determined by
various natural, socio-economic and institutional conditions.
As I mentioned above, a major issue is the size of stocked
fish as ecological studies suggest a threshold size for
mortality when a fish outgrows predation by carnivorous fish.

Therefore one of most crucial aspects of stocking is to ensure

that stocked fish are of sufficient large size. Unfortunately
there is a bottleneck in advanced nursing of fry to fingerlings
suitable for stocking in water bodies.
Farmer in Vientianne Municipality next to Moina production
tanks to feed ornamental fish.

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 7

Sustainable aquaculture

Seed network case studies

Advance nursing is a well established practice in commercial
aquaculture with cost-effective advanced nursing taking
place in rice fields, ponds, hapas, pens and cages. Well
developed culture-based fisheries in Chinese reservoirs
are stocked with 12-15 cm (25-27 g) advanced fingerlings.
I described examples of commercial aquaculture systems
of advanced nursing in previous columns from Indonesia
(Aquaculture Asia 14, 4: 3-8; Aquaculture Asia 15, 1: 3-9),
Myanmar (Aquaculture Asia 10, 2:5-8.) and Thailand
(Aquaculture Asia 15, 3:7-14). Seed production networks
are especially impressive in Indonesia where freshwater fish
seed production is dominated by small-scale farmer-operated
hatcheries as outlined in my column. Small-scale hatcheries
owned by individual small-scale farmers or farmer groups
supply 80% of national seed demand with most small-scale
farmers in West Java changing from low-profit traditional Goldfish for sale on a farm in Vientianne Municipality.
grow-out to nursing common carp and tilapia to stock in
grow-out cages of better-off farmers in reservoirs.

Choice of nursing system depends more on farming context

than on technical efficiency: availability of land e.g. cages
may have to be used if land is not available; and socio-
economic status e.g. the poor may nurse in rice fields which
used to dominate in Indonesia although most advanced
nursing now takes place in ponds.

Development and extension of hapa

nursing technology
AIT Aqua Outreach carried out R & D on hapa nursing
systems in Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia, initially on the
AIT campus and subsequently with farmers in partnership
with national institutions. Imperial College later conducted
research into stock enhancement through the same
institutional set-up in NE Thailand and Lao PDR.
Rather poor quality koi carp for sale on a fish farm in Vientianne
Seed was widely available in NE Thailand at the start of the Municipality.
research in the 1980s but only as small 2-3 cm fingerlings
which were readily consumed by wild carnivorous fish
when stocked in farmers’ ponds as well as in reservoirs.
Farmers were reluctant to pump their ponds dry as water is
a precious resource in drought-prone NE Thailand. Farmer
recommendations were developed by AIT through on-station
research on the AIT campus, followed and by researcher-
managed on-farm trials and finally farmer-managed on-farm
trials in partnership with the local DoF to assess how farmers
respond to the technology. Field-tested extension materials
and extension methodologies were developed as well as the
hapa nursing technology.

The technology includes a nylon net nursing hapa suspended

in a fish pond. Two sizes of hapa were recommended, either
22.5 m2 (3,000 fry) or 5.4 m2 (1,000 fry), both stocked at 150
fry/m2. The profits were Baht 2,000/large hapa and Baht 400/
small hapa. Some farmers nursed for more than one nursing
cycle and sold fingerlings in excess of those needed to stock
their pond to earn income.

AIT Aqua Outreach developed decentralised seed networks

in Lao PDR based on the hapa technology from NE Thailand. Young ornamental fish enthusiastics selecting koi carp on a
Capacity building of staff was carried out at the Department of fish farm in Vientianne Municipality.
Livestock and Fisheries at provincial and district levels and a

8 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

Floating cages in Nam Houm reservoir Vientianne Prefecture.

Regional Development Committee was set up in Savannakhet stock enhancement led to a low level of fishing and selected
province to handle multiple donors. Families in six provinces harvesting of larger stocked fish. There was no evidence of a
produced a total of 13.6 million fingerlings in S. Lao PDR in negative effect of stocking exotic fish on stocks of wild fish.
2003.
Stocking and harvesting strategies were improved in 2000-
An FAO/UNDP sponsored fisheries development project 2006 with stocking of larger 3-5 cm seed as advanced nursing
visited Savannakhet in central Lao PDR in 1998 and had been promoted at community level (K. Lorenzen and N.
subsequently promoted hapa nursing in other provinces in Innes-Taylor, pers. Comm., August 2010). Standing stocks
the country. According to S. Funge-Smith (pers. comm., July of fish were higher in stocked than non-stocked lakes and
2010), the AIT Aqua Outreach network is a ‘great example there was a higher CPUE as there was also reduced fishing
of getting seed to stock small water bodies – sustained by intensity. There was also a dramatic increase in wild fish
fishers paying for service so cost recovery built in’. However, stocks in stocked lakes. Again the change in management
according to N. Innes-Taylor (pers. comm., August 2010), involved lowered fishing pressure and much reduced
while the ‘technical aspects of nursing technology very simple fishing intensity as well as targeting large stocked fish. This
and robust…hard part is organising cost-effective community exploitation system led to a ‘size refuge’ and a dramatic
level training and monitoring’. increase in wild fish. It was concluded that the above ‘indirect’
effect of stocking may have affected standing stocks and also
probably yields more than the direct effect of stocking.
Small-scale water body
The impact of stocking exotic fish was also specifically
enhancement in NE Thailand and studied by the Imperial College researchers. Paired
comparisons were made of 23 wetlands stocked with nursed
Lao PDR 3-5 cm fingerlings and 23 not stocked with carps and tilapia.
An experimental study was also made of 14 wetlands stocked
Imperial College, London carried out research on culture- (carps only, tilapia only, 1:1 ratio of the two) and 14 not
based fisheries for about a decade, initially in NE Thailand stocked. Stocking again led to a significant increase in total
and later in Lao PDR. fish biomass but with no effect on native fish biomass.

Small 2-3 cm fingerlings were stocked without nursing in 1-20

ha ‘village fish ponds’ in NE Thailand in the 90s. Outcomes in Conclusions
terms of production, distribution of benefits and institutional
sustainability were often different from those expected Stocking is a potential win-win situation leading to increased
although predation pressure on small stocked fish was low fish yields and with no effect on biodiversity.
in the engineered water bodies of NE Thailand, unlike the
natural water bodies in Lao PDR as was discovered later (K. As communities in the Lao PDR made special arrangements
Lorenzen, pers. comm., August 2010). to allow poor households to fish throughout the year with
small gear, the changes in the management of the communal
Community-based nursing was introduced into community water bodies introduced with stock enhancement did not
water bodies in the Lao PDR and 52 villages in two provinces disadvantage poor households.
had registered community fisheries programmes by 2003.
Yields were the same in stocked and non-stocked water Regarding the need for R & D, there is a need for more
bodies although catch per unit effort (CPUE) was higher in D than R as the technology exists for breeding and early
the former than the latter. Access restriction introduced with and advance nursing. The major requirement for stock
enhancement programmes of small water bodies to be

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 9

Sustainable aquaculture

Fish harvested from Nam Houm reservoir, native as well as exotic species.

successful is for participatory, action-based community $3.64/kg and some species were much more expensive e.g.
learning in each and every water body to be stocked and red tailed catfish (Hemibagrus wykioides) at $7.88/kg and
sustainably managed. Wallago sp. at $7.89/kg.

Mekong river cages

Field trip in and around Vientianne
There are two sites for cages on the Mekong river in
Dr. Sinthavong Viravong, Deputy Director of the Living Vientianne, to the north and south of the city. I visited the site
Aquatic Resources Research Center (LARReC) kindly to the south where I interviewed a lady farmer. She had been
guided me on a one day field visit to get up to date on recent raising fish for 10 years, previously having been a maths and
aquaculture developments. physics teacher. She mostly taught herself from Thai fish
farming manuals and visiting other fish farmers although the
Thong Kham Market Thai company Charoen Phokphand later provided advice
when it supplied her with tilapia fingerlings.
First we visited a fish market as I always try to do to see what
is available and in demand. A wide range of fish was on sale, She borrowed money from a bank to set up with a single cage
both native and exotic species in Thong Kham market, a large which cost $700 and purchased feed from a local store. At
central market in Vientianne, the capital city of the country. the time of my visit she had 28 almost 50 m3 cages of 4 x 6
The major fish being sold was live normal dark coloured Nile x 2m dimensions each of which she stocked with 3,000 14
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in aerated bowls and aquaria cm fingerlings on the inside row of cages and 2,000 on the
at US$ 2.67/kg for fish between 0.5 and 1.0 kg in weight. In outer row as the current was strong. Fingerlings were now
contrast to Central and N. Thailand but in common with NE purchased from a local fish farm, Ta Bor. She fed pelleted
Thailand, consumers do not like red tilapia in Vientianne. feed twice a day and the fish reached 0.7- 1.0 kg in 4 months.
Rohu (Labeo rohita) about 0.5 kg in size was being sold for Mortality was about 5%, mainly at the start of the rainy
a lower price of $1.94/kg. I was surprised not see any silver season.
carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), usually the cheapest
farmed fish. Wild fish were more expensive then farmed fish
such as striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) at

10 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

She reported that business was not so good now because

of competition from more numerous cage farmers along the
Nam Neum river, some of whom were Chinese investors.
There were about 10 cage farms at this site involving about
20 families as some of them shared a farm although one farm
had recently gone out of business as the farm gate price of
tilapia dropped to only $1.45/kg although it was at its highest
point at $ 2.30/kg during my visit. Some of the cages were out
of the water during my visit to sundry the nets for a week to
kill fowling organisms. She reported that once a tourist boat
crashed into the cages.

Fish farm in Vientianne Municipality

The farm was mainly raising ornamental fish but also Nile
tilapia and African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). Previously the
family were rice farmers but the son, who now managed the
1.5 ha farm, previously had raised 16,000 chicken layers over Selling live tilapia on a Luang Prabang market.
fish ponds before the outbreak of bird flu. Most of his income
now came from raising goldfish, koi carp and Siamese fighting
fish followed by sale of African catfish seed.

Other fish farmers in the area I was informed had only a

single pond to raise African catfish and tilapia for household
consumption. A very large farm in the area, Ta Ngone, which
was originally constructed through an MRC project has had a
long and not that successful history but I was informed that it
is now being used to raise giant river prawn (Macrobrachium
rosenbergii) for live sale to markets and restaurants, using
post larvae imported from Thailand.

Nam Houm Reservoir

Extensive cage culture was introduced into the reservoir

over 20 years ago through an FAO/UNDP project using only
natural food and continues today. The reservoir is managed
by a Reservoir Fisheries Management Committee which
overseas fish conservation zones and the prohibition of illegal
fishing methods.

The cage is very simple, consisting merely of large diameter Tilapia also sold dead on a Luang Prabang market.
pieces of bamboo and wooden poles to provide the floating
cage frame which support the net enclosure. I understand Cage culture is good business. Vendors come to the reservoir
that the design was transferred from the Pokara lakes in to purchase fish. Catla fetches the highest price of $1.70-
Nepal where it was initially developed and continues there 1.80/kg, followed by common carp, mrigal, rohu and tilapia
successfully today. I interviewed the farmer who has 150 at $1.45/kg, with silver carp at $1.20/kg and bighead carp at
cages out of the total of 300 cages in the reservoir, the other $0.97/kg fetching the lowest prices.
150 owned by the military. The cages are almost 50 m3 in
volume with dimensions of 4 x 4 x 3 m. They are stocked with The interviewed fish farmer reported that ten years ago there
bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis), common carp (Cyprinus were 460 cages and about nine owners, including Chinese
carpio), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), rohu, silver carp and tilapia investors. However, most cage farmers ceased to raise fish in
in approximately equal numbers with a total of 300 4-5 cm 2005 when there was a major drought. The water level in the
fingerlings per cage, a rather low stocking density of only reservoir fell, sediments were stirred up by the wind and the
6.25 fish/m3 as no feed is given. Catla (Catla catla) may also caged fish died. The farmer interviewed only had six cages
be stocked but only at a very low density of 20 fingerlings initially but reinvested to continue and expand cage farming
per cage as there is not enough seed available. Common although he now has to hire a guard.
carp and tilapia graze the net so the cages do not need to be
cleaned. In 10 months the carps reach a size of 1.5-2.0 kg. Luang Prabang
There has never been any fish disease although there is high
mortality of stocked fingerlings. There is also mortality of large On holiday for a few days after the Vientianne meeting and
fish in some years, up to 40%, when the water level falls due field visit in Luang Prabang, I came across a street market
to drought. selling fish. Tilapia were being sold live for $2.42/kg but unlike
in the market I visited in Vientianne, here they were also for
sale dead at $1.81/kg. Striped catfish were retailing for $7.27/

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 11

Sustainable aquaculture

kg, possibly for the tourist hotels at such a high price as the about being unable to communicate with the farm workers as
price was almost double that in Vientianne whilst the live the Lao language is closely related to Thai. The problem was
tilapia prices were comparable. soon resolved as the not too friendly Chinese farm manager
appeared, also confused, as to why a foreigner was asking so
On enquiring about the source of the tilapia at the market, I many questions about the operation of the farm. I decided to
was informed that tilapia was being raised in cages along the beat a hasty retreat and resume my holiday.
Mekong River not far from the city. I hired a tourist boat to visit
a cage site. The boat driver told me that tilapia cage farming
started 3-4 years ago using seed and feed imported from
Thailand. Although my Thai is far from fluent, I was puzzled

The princess of aquaculture and the plights

of the fish farmers
Krishna, R.R.1, Rao, K.V.P.1 and Reddy, D.M.2

1. Fisheries Research Station, S.V. Veterinary University, Undi, Andhra Pradesh, India, e-mail: rrkrishna1@[Link];
2. Associate Professor, College of Fisheries Science, S.V. Veterinary University, Muthukur, Andhra Pradesh, India

The princess
The striped catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus is
called ‘the princess of Vietnamese aquaculture’. It was
introduced in to India (West Bengal) without authorisation
from neighbouring Bangladesh for the first time in 1994-
951. From West Bengal, in 1995-96, it reached Andhra
Pradesh, the leading aquaculture state in India especially
for the commercial pond culture of Indian major carps. The
introduction, culture and seed production of this species in
India was officially regularised as recently as December,
20092.

The inviters
The Princess charmed the Indian fish farmers with its fast
growth and high production levels. What about Andhra Part of the harvest of pond-cultured striped catfish.
Pradesh fish farmers specifically? Well, they have fallen in to
love with it. The pouring in of news and personal witnesses
that the princess was blessing the Vietnamese farmers with carefully for a second takeoff opportunity. Then enter the
hundreds of tonnes of production per hectare was music to American Soy Bean Association, whose goal is to promote
their Indian counterparts. The first group of people attracted the use of soybean in aquafeeds, particularly in the pellet
to it were the seed producers and sellers in Bangladesh feeds. The association tried to convince the Indian major carp
and West Bengal and seed commission agents in Andhra farmers first to use pellet feeds through field demonstrations.
Pradesh. The common bond of attraction among them was They did not respond enthusiastically as they were somehow
a lucrative business, in Andhra Pradesh particularly. They satisfied with the use of traditional mash feed. The striped
sensed the opportunity correctly and at the right time. The fish catfish culture offered a great opportunity for the use of
farmers of Andhra Pradesh had long been searching for an soybean as a major component in commercial pellet feeds.
alternative to the Indian major carps, with which they had their In Andhra Pradesh the rapid expansion and intensification
own problems. On the other hand, most of the shrimp farmers period of striped cat fish culture and the introduction of
in the state had abandoned shrimp culture subsequent to commercial pellet feeds occurred almost in parallel and were
1993-94, mainly due to devastating out-breaks of white spot mutually dependent.
virus disease. They too were in a bad need of an alternate
species for low saline water (0-10 ppt) to bring abandoned
ponds back under culture again. The striped cat fish satisfied A red carpet welcome
this need also. Another group of potential inviters of the
princess were the commercial pellet feed manufacturers. So by 2002, everything was set and was in its place to extend
Many members of this group had enjoyed a thriving business a red carpet welcome to the princess. The welcome resulted
when shrimp culture was in its glory, during 1990-93, but in an amazingly rapid expansion and intensification of the
subsequently left without business because of the slump in culture of the striped catfish, in Andhra Pradesh with an
the shrimp industry. They were eagerly waiting and watching expansion phase from 2005 to 2009. The estimated annual

12 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

Striped catfish as a minor component in polyculture with pacu.

increase of the culture area during this period was 36% to production of this species at 1.2 million tonnes in 20084. Thus
73%3. The other Indian states in which the striped catfish by 2010, probably, India has emerged as the second largest
culture is developing are Bihar, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala, producer of the pond-cultured striped catfish. In a pilot scale
West Bengal, Orissa, Panjab, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh commercial cage culture in October 2010, in a minor irrigation
and Assam. reservoir in Maharashtra, a production of 13 tonnes/year in a
4×6×3 m cage (72 m3) was achieved5.

The charming characters It is interesting to note that it took Indian major carp farmers
about 30 years to achieve an annual production of 800,000
The major reasons for the farmers adopting the striped tonnes with self sufficiency in seed production. In contrast,
catfish culture are the following: Fast growth, the possibility the striped catfish farmers achieved the same level of
of stocking at high density to achieve a far higher production production in just over four years, without a single established
than is ever possible with Indian major carps, tolerance to low commercial hatchery in the state.
dissolved oxygen even at higher densities; plenty of available
seed, suitability for monoculture and polyculture with Indian
major- and Chinese carps, easy to implement management Consumer markets
practices, and consumer acceptability. An added advantage
was the well developed, readily available infrastructure of the The striped catfish fish produced in Andhra Pradesh is
Indian major carp culture system and industry. ice-packed and transported to the consumer markets mainly
in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Assam and in some other
North-Eastern states. As compared with the well established
Culture area and production consumer markets of the Indian major carps in about twenty
states, those of this new species are very limited and with
The currently estimated culture area in Andhra Pradesh a far limited selling capacity. One processing plant with a
alone is 32,000 ha3, with a production range of 12.5 to 50 fillet production capacity of 40 tonnes per day has recently
tonnes/ha/year. The total annual production is estimated to be came into operation in 2010 in West Godavari district, Andhra
800,000 tonnes, at an average production of 25 tonnes/ha/ Pradesh.
year. This production is next only to the annual Vietnamese

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 13

Sustainable aquaculture

Pellet feed is the most widely used supplementary feed.

The seed culture areas in these regions are interspersed with those of
commercial Indian major carp culture, and in some coastal
Almost all the seed used in Andhra Pradesh is brought from regions with the shrimp culture areas.
West Bengal. From this state the seed of both striped- and
albino variety of the fish are sent to eight other Indian states6.
Supplementary feed
There are two important problems with the seed brought in
from West Bengal. Firstly, the health status of this seed is Filed data recorded in our research station during April 2010
often bad, perhaps due to the stress induced by long distance to September 2010 indicate that floating pellets are the most
transport under high density and without supplemental widely used type of pellet feed (42% farmers), followed by
oxygen. Frequent bacterial disease related mortalities are mash feed consisting of de-oiled rice bran, groundnut cake,
noticed even by the time it reaches farmer. Many farmers cotton seed cake (31%), sinking pellets (12%), and other
report 50% to 80% mortalities during 1-3 days after stocking. types of feed ingredients, for example distiller wet grains
Secondly the genetic quality of the seed is not known. (15%). The mash is fed through demand bag feeding, and
sinking pellets either through demand bag feeding or open
distribution. The total production of floating pellets from a
Culture systems total of twelve producers is an estimated 525,000 tonnes
and that of sinking pellets, 300,000 tonnes. The commercial
The most widely practiced culture system of the striped pellet feed producers are almost entirely dependent on the
catfish in Andhra Pradesh is monoculture. Polyculture with striped catfish culture for their sales. Six more commercial
the striped catfish as the major component and Indian major pellet feed companies are in the pipe line at different stages
carps as minor components is the second most important of construction, with a total future production capacity of
culture system. The other polyculture systems of minor 430,000 tonnes, floating- and sinking pellets together. All
importance are, with Chinese major carps and pirapatinga commercial feed producers claim in general an FCR of 1 to
(Piractus brachypomus). The culture systems of the striped 1.25 but farmers put it at 1.25 to 1.6.
catfish are spread in both inland and coastal regions, and the

14 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

The crisis
The farm gate price of striped catfish reached a peak price of
Indian rupees (INR) 55/kg in November 2009 to December
2009 (roughly US$1 = INR45). By July 2010, the price
declined to INR36/kg and by September 2010 it collapsed
to INR27/kg. At the time of writing this article (December
2010) the price is only INR33/kg, as against the estimated
production cost of INR40/kg. Even now the exact reasons
for the steep price fall are not clear. But the most probable
reason is excess production.

As an adaptive measure farmers have resorted to partial

harvests of market size fish, to meet the mounting investment
and switching over to cheaper feeds, either mash or pellet. Cooked mash feed.
But they are still very much worried because of the prolonged
culture period with the associated additional management
costs and are eagerly waiting for the crisis to pass.

There has also been another disturbing news to the Indian

striped catfish producers. A considerable quantity of the
striped catfish fillets are being imported in to India from
Vietnam at a cheaper price, although the exact quantity is
not known. It appears that from now on the Indian striped
catfish farmers will have to compete with imported fillets from
Vietnam.

Diseases and other problems

Bacterial haemorrhagic septicaemia caused by Aeromonas
hydrophila has become persistent, necessitating the repeated
use of antibiotics. Several farmers had to resort to crash
harvest because this disease could not be controlled, an
indication that the pathogenic bacteria has developed
resistance to the antibiotics used.
Mash feed consisting de-oiled rice bran, groundnut cake, and
Three other types of bacterial diseases with different clinical cotton seed cake.
signs caused by un-identified pathogens are also frequently
occurring. Increasing incidence of gill flukes and yellow
discoloration of body have also been recorded. The other
important problem is water quality deterioration with total
ammonia levels reaching up to 2-8 ppm in these still water
culture ponds.

The lesson
The well wishers of the Indian major carp culture In India in
general and in Andhra Pradesh in particular had advocated
caution. They emphasised that the exotic catfish princess
should not affect the native queens, the Indian major carps.
This apprehension is now lurking in the minds of these
farmers. But this council was overridden by the supposedly
guaranteed allurements of ‘tonnes and tonnes of production,
and millions of rupees of profit’ that the princess would
bestow upon the farmers.

This ‘princess and farmer’ story can be repeated in any other

state in India or in any other country, if any foreign princess Wet distiller grains.
of aquaculture is invited in to their native waters for culture,
without carefully studying the important risks involved6, Now, one is not sure whether Indian farmers, or for that
including market demand in the long run. matter the Vietnamese farmers with 55% to 73% of them
incurring a loss7, still call the striped catfish the ‘princess
of aquaculture’. But, is ‘the princess’, really at fault with its
positive characters that any farmer seeks, the fastest growth

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 15

Sustainable aquaculture

and the highest yield capacity amongst all cultured freshwater

fish? Are not ‘the inviters’ who disregarded the long term
consequences of the sudden expansion and intensification of
the culture driven by the desire for quick profits within a short
period of time?

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Dr V. Prabhakara Rao, Vice-Chancellor,

and Dr Md. Hafeez, Director of Research, Sri Venkateswara
Veterinary University, Andhra Pradesh, the fish farmers of
Andhra Pradesh, for their encouragement and co-operation.
They also thank Mrs. N. Sridevi for typing the script.

References

1. Chatopadhyay, N.R., Mazumdar, B & Mazumdar, B. 2002. Induced

spawning of Pangasius sutchi with pituitary extract. Aquaculture Asia, 7(1). Bacterial red disease (haemorrhagic septicaemia).
43-44.
2. Government of India notification.2009. Guidelines for regulating introduction
of Pangasius sutchi in India.
3. Gopal Rao, K. 2010. The present status of Pangasius Pangasianodon
hypophthalmus (Sauvage) farming in Andhra Pradesh, India. A
comprehensive study report submitted to the National Fisheries
Development Board, Hyderabad, India. 41pp.
4. Sinh, L. and Hien, L.L., 2010. Supply and use of catfish (Pangasianodon
hypophthalmus) seed in the Mekong delta of Vietnam. Aquaculture Asia,
January-March, 2010. 26-33.
5. Editor. Cage farming of pangasius (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) –
Demonstration in minor irrigation reservoir in Maharashtra. Fishing Chimes,
30(9), December 2010, 8-9.
6. Lakra, W.S. and Singh, A.K., 2010. Risk analysis and sustainability of
Pangasianodon hypophthalmus culture in India. Aquaculture Asia, January-
March, 2010. 34-37.
7. Phuong, N.T., 2010. On-farm feed management practices for striped catfish
Pangasianodon hypophthalmus. Book of Abstracts, FAO Expert Workshop,
On-farm feeding and feed management in aquaculture, 13-15th September
2010, Manila, Philippines, 18. White gill disease with bacterial red disease sign in the eye (seed).

Women attending to the final stage fillet making.

16 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Research & farming techniques

Development of captive broodstock of giant river prawn

Macrobrachium rosenbergii
Pillai, B.R., Sahoo, L., Lalrinsanga, Mohanty, S. and Sahu, S.

Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Kausalyaganga, Bhubaneswar 751002, Orissa, India

Adult male Macrobrachium are spectacular animals.

The giant river prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii is one of Broodstock is one of the most critical production components
the most widely cultured freshwater prawn species globally. that is directly related to the success of any hatchery.
Asia contributes more than 95% of farmed production of this Healthy and good quality broodstock ensures good quality
species. China, India, Thailand, Taiwan Province of China and seed. In practice most of the hatcheries world over source
Bangladesh account for the bulk of the production. Farmed broodstock either from grow-out ponds, or from its natural
production of this species has shown a rapid decline in India habitat (rivers, canals, backwaters etc). In many cases it is
since 2006. A decrease in productivity was the major reason not possible to collect sufficient number of berried females
for the decline in production. Poor quality seed and diseases of the same ripeness from grow-out ponds. An additional
have been cited as reasons for the falling productivity. issue is that the nutritional requirement of broodstock is
specific and may not be met by normal grow-out feeds.
Seed production technology of M. rosenbergii has been When broodstock is collected from grow-out ponds there is a
standardised since the 1970s and commercial hatcheries are possibility of deterioration in the egg quality, in turn affecting
able to meet demand in many of the producing countries. egg viability. The availability of broodstock from the wild is
Commercial seed production of this species uses both wild also dependent on season. Although breeds throughout the
caught females and pond-reared females, depending on the season under tropical conditions (26-31°C), the availability
location and availability. As the quality of the seed depends to of berried females is restricted to certain seasons even
a large extent on the quality of mother prawn, it is essential to in the tropics as the peak breeding activity of this species
develop a high quality captive broodstock of this species. is different in different river systems of India. There is a

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 17

Research & farming techniques

danger of introducing unknown pathogens when we use Broodstock ponds

wild broodstock. Thus development of captive broodstock is
essential to ensure the quality of seed. Freshwater ponds are ideally suited for the development of
captive broodstock. The size of the pond depends on the
seed production target of the hatchery. The requirement
Factors affecting quality of captive of grey-berried females for one cycle of operation may be
calculated to decide on the size of the pond. For example a
broodstock prawn hatchery with a production target of 10 million seed
per annum and operating in four cycles producing 2.5 million
The genetic makeup of the animals, quality and quantity of seed per cycle require around 150-180 grey-berried females
the feed and the environment where they are grown are the of 50-60 g. As approximately 5 to 10% of the females only will
most important factors affecting the quality of broodstock. be in berried condition at any given time at least 7,200 female
Genetic factors are important as they determine the fitness prawns need to be stocked to provide 180-berried females in
and adaptability of organisms. So far no genetically improved 5 to 6 months (50% survival, 5% of female spawning at any
breed of M. rosenbergii is available and hence we have to given time). Along with the females 1,800 male prawns would
depend on juveniles raised from quality post larvae supplied also be required for successful breeding. This system would
by known reputed hatcheries to ensure seed quality. support a continual supply of grey-berried females for seed
production. At 2/m2 stocking density the area requirement for
Regarding feed quality, broodstock should be provided with broodstock pond is 4,500m2 (0.45 ha). It is advisable to have
pellet feed having a crude protein content of 35-40% and two ponds of 0.22 ha or 0.25 ha each than having one 0.45
lipid content of 8-10%. The protein source of the feed should ha pond.
include both plant and animal protein (oil cakes and fish
meal). Similarly the lipid source of the feed should preferably Broodstock ponds should be well prepared prior to stocking
include lipids from both plant and animal origin (vegetable oil following the standard pond preparation practices of drying,
and fish oil). High quality ingredients ensure high quality feed. liming, filling and fertilising. Sufficient numbers of hides in
the form of earthen pipes (45 cm length: 10cm diameter) or
The environment also plays a crucial role in the quality of similar materials may be provided in the pond as shelter for
broodstock. Rearing ponds should be well managed to moulting prawns. The addition of substrates in the form of
provide optimum environmental conditions for fast growth nylon nets planted vertically or horizontally in the pond also
and improved health. Low stocking density, maintenance has been found to improve survival. Predation by birds is
of minimum depth of water, provision of aeration facility, a major cause of low survival in prawn ponds. Large mesh
prevention of predation and competition and routine water nylon nets may be tied above the pond surface to exclude
quality analysis to maintain optimum water quality are bird access. Once the pond is ready for stocking (a week
important to achieve this goal. or 10 days after fertilisation) it should be stocked with fast
growing advanced juveniles (>5 g) at a male female ratio of
Provided below is an account of the requirements and 1:4.
practices to be followed for the production of good quality
captive broodstock of giant river prawn Macrobrachium
rosenbergii. Feed and feeding
Freshwater prawns are omnivorous bottom feeders, mainly
consuming bottom living plants and animals. They also feed
on dead and decaying organic matter. Gut content analysis

18 Berried female, the orange colour of the eggs indicates Aquaculture

they have been
Asia
recently
Magazine
laid.
 Research & farming techniques

Steps involved in pond preparation

Steps involved Activity involved Advantage

Eradication of predators Complete drying of the pond and Eradicate the predators and competitors. Sun drying
exposing the pond bottom until helps in the mineralisation of the organic mater, helps in
cracks develops soil aeration and sanitises the pond bottom.
Liming Application of lime as either It helps to correct the pH; increases the buffering
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), capacity of the water and disinfects the pond bottom also
calcium oxide (quick lime-CaO), act as a source of calcium, which is very important for
calcium hydroxide (slaked exoskeleton formation of prawns.
lime-Ca(OH)2) @200-1,000 kg/ha
depending on the soil pH.
Fertilisation/ Manuring Application of cattle dung @1,000 Manures and fertilisers help in the development
kg/ha or poultry manure @ 500 of phytoplankton cover, which in turn prevents the
kg/ha and single super phosphate development of bottom algae and rooted vegetation in
@100 kg/ha to initiate a plankton the ponds. Phytoplankton also purifies the water and
bloom. produce oxygen during daytime. They also helps in the
development of bottom living animals (benthic micro and
macro fauna) on which prawn feed.

of prawns has revealed a variety of feed particles including Sampling of prawns

the remains of insects, molluscs, crustaceans, filamentous
algae, sand and detritus. Prawns will accept a variety of food Regular monthly sampling with cast nets or small mesh seine
items including grain, worms, mollusc flesh, crustaceans and nets should be done to assess the growth of prawns. The
fish under captivity. Broodstock should be fed with specially prawns attain maturity in two to three months and females
formulated broodstock diet preferably in pellet form (crude bearing grey eggs can be collected from these ponds
protein – 35-40%, lipid – 8-10%) twice daily @ 10% of the regularly for the seed production purpose.
biomass for the first two months and subsequently at rates
ranging from 3-5% of the biomass. Feed should be spread
evenly along the peripheral area of pond. Use of check trays Collection of berried females for
placed at different locations in the pond will be helpful to
check the consumption rate and for managing the feeding seed production
rate. Since the prawns are more active during night feeding
should be done during late evening and early morning. Daily Berried prawns for seed production are usually selected
observation regarding the consumption of feed should be the based on the apparent ripeness of eggs and clutch size.
main criteria for deciding the quantum of feed to provide. Ripeness is indicated by the egg colour. Newly spawned eggs
are bright orange in colour. As the eggs undergo development
the colour of the eggs gradually changes from orange to
Water quality management yellow and then to deep grey. The embryonic period is usually
19-21 days at 28-31°C. Grey eggs usually hatch within a span
Giant river prawn being a tropical species grows best at of 24-48 hours. Hence, females with grey eggs are usually
temperature ranges of 28-31°C. Temperature plays a major selected to bring into the hatchery. Post hatch fecundity of the
role in growth as well as timing and intensity of spawning. female prawns range from 600-1,000 larvae per gram body
Colder temperatures (<26°C) reduce the growth rate, prolong weight of the females. As the number of eggs produced per
the embryonic period and appear to promote fungal growth on spawn is proportional to female size, selecting the largest
eggs. Dissolved oxygen is also a very critical environmental grey-berried females available for seed production helps in
parameter affecting survival of prawns in ponds. Hence it is reducing the number of prawns required for seed production.
preferable to provide aerators in the ponds to prevent any Selecting broodstock as early in the production cycle as
oxygen related mortality. Water may be exchanged at 25-30% possible has been suggested to enhance the growth rate of
on a monthly basis to maintain better water quality in ponds. future progeny. While selecting the broodstock the following
Daily monitoring of important water quality parameters such criteria should be adhered to:
as temperature, dissolved oxygen and pH is preferable to
properly manage water quality. The visibility and colour of • Active and well pigmented berried prawns with a full clutch
the pond water gives a visual assessment of the condition of of eggs, with apparently no injury or appendage loss only
the pond ecosystem. Ideally, visibility should be maintained should be selected.
in the range of 30-40 cm to avoid water quality deterioration.
In unproductive ponds the water may be clear with visibility • Prawns should be carefully examined for any apparent
extending to the bottom. In highly eutrophic and/or turbid infection and for presence of external parasites.
ponds the visibility may only be a few centimetres (<10 cm).
Water depth may be maintained at 3-4 feet by frequent water Water quality parameter Optimum range
addition. Temp erature (ºC) 28 - 31
pH 7.0-8.5
Total hardness (ppm) 40-100
Dissolved oxygen (ppm) >4
Calcium (ppm) 50-100

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 19

Genetics & biodiversity

• It is preferable to screen the selected berried prawns for Broodstock should be disinfected upon arrival to the hatchery
viral pathogens especially that of white muscle virus using by placing them in freshwater containing 30-50 ppm formalin
latest available diagnostics. for 30 minutes. Aeration should be provided during this
period. After disinfection the prawns may be preferably
screened for the presence of virus (noda virus) using latest
Transportation of broodstock available diagnostic kits. The berried females may be stocked
in hatching tank or larval rearing tanks.
Broodstock can be transported in open containers for short
distances, but for long distance transportation they should
be packed in double polythene bags under oxygen pressure. Conclusions
The polythene bags should be kept inside insulated boxes.
Ice can be used to maintain lower temperature as it lowers Quality of broodstock depends on the genetic make up
metabolic rate and increase survival. The prawns should of the animals, feed and environment they live in. Thus
be fasted for 24 hours prior to transportation so that their selecting fast growing juveniles from a reliable source,
fecal matter does not pollute the media. The pointed rostrum providing a highly nutritious feed and maintaining them in a
and telson can be made blunt by cutting the tips, further the good environment are important while developing captive
rostrum can be inserted in a plastic tubing to prevent damage broodstock. As the life span of prawn is nearly three years
to polythene bags. The chela are also usually tied using a we need to replace the broodstock every alternate year. One
rubber band to make it immobile. The optimal temperature year plus females are found to be most suitable for breeding
for transportation is 19-20ºC. Earlier studies have shown that purposes. Very young or very old females are not good as the
12-15g of prawn/l can be transported up to 42 hours at 19-20º quality of their eggs may not be very good.
C. However, at 29-30°C, prawns packed at 25 g/l suffered
25% mortality within 6 h, those packed at 6.5g/l suffered 15%
mortality within 24 h and no mortality could be observed after
24 h when packed at 3g/l.

Alien introduction and its impact on native fishery and

aquatic biodiversity of West Bengal, India
Chattopadhyay, N.R., Kumari, A., and Sahoo, U.

Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fishery Sciences, West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, 3A Sonali
Apartment,104/115, [Link], Birati, Kolkata-700051, India

In the last 15 years, or so the north-eastern states have The fish breeders of Bengal have conducted various
served as the gateway for introduction of alien fish species to hybridisation programmes unscientifically between native
India from Bangladesh, Thailand and even South America and and introduced fishes. How many undesirable hybrids are
Africa. The species chosen for transfer are mainly carnivorous produced through indiscriminate hybridisation and the extent
in habit. The species introduced are African catfish, Clarias of their distribution to diverse geographic territories is not
garipineus; Thai catfish, Clarias macrocephalus; pangasid known. It is also not known the nature of damage already
catfish, Pangasius sutchi; pacu Piaractus brachypomus and done in the native fishery due to alien transfer and how many
many others still not known to scientific community. native fishes are threatened and or endangered.

The introduction of a new species in an environment unit Hybridisation attempted between non-native and native
(river, lake, pond etc) can be dangerous for local native species include virtually all the Indian major carp species
communities. It is difficult to determine in advance the long with bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis), silver carp
range of effects that the introduction of an alien species will (Hypopthalmicthys molitrix) and common carp (Cyprinus
have on local communities. Though there exists a prescribed carpio var Communis).
code of practice for alien transfer, it is easier, in the absence
of strong rules, to introduce foreign species than to conduct The hybrids produced out of the said outbreeding resulted in
a study on the possible impact of the newcomer in the unit of the production of some hybrids with some distinctly different
destination. It is known that introduction of predatory species morphological characteristics such as almost complete
such as the largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides and absence of scale or a single row of enlarged scales in some
various salmonids, amongst others, have caused a number of pockets.
extinction worldwide (IUCN, 1977, 1988). One most dramatic
examples of radical extermination caused by alien transfers
was the introduction of the Nile perch Lates niloticus in lakes
Victoria and Kyoga, which caused the extinction of hundreds
of endemic species (Barel [Link] 1985; Ogatu-Ohwayo 1989).

20 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Genetics & biodiversity

Genetic concerns with stock Population fitness

transfers Population admixtures following hybridisation may also
affect fitness and may be either positive or negative. This
The genetic consequences of alien transfer on native fish can be viewed along a continuum of the breeding system .
fauna are of two types. One is direct effects, that results from At one end assortive breeding, small population size or
hybridisation and another is indirect effects, which results both lead to strong inbreeding which ultimately lead to
from factors such as competition, predation and disease genetic consequences such as inbreeding depression and
transfer. Stock transfers that lead to hybridisation can affect reduction in fitness. Outbreeding i.e. hybridisation between
biodiversity in two ways: two populations or related species can reduce inbreeding
depression. Outbreeding reduces inbreeding depression in
• Through reduction in levels of differentiation between two ways:
populations.
• By masking deleterious alleles.
• Through reduction in fitness within populations.
• By increasing overall fitness through heterosis.

Differences between populations Instead of these positive impacts outbreeding also create
outbreeding depression due to:
While hybridisation can increase the heterozygosity or
average gene diversity within hybridising populations at • Loss of local adaptation.
the same time it results in a relative loss of gene diversity
between populations. The prime concern is that locally • Breakdown of coadapted genes at different loci.
adapted populations may be replaced by a smaller number
of relatively homogenous ones. This process of consolidation Outbreeding depression occurs when there exists differences
and homogenisation may limit the evolutionary potential of between the hybridising populations or species that are
the species as a whole. We cannot know which alleles or genetically based. In case of hybridization of alien species
populations may be significant in future so it is important to with native one, the hybrids may exhibit reduced fitness to
avoid actions that may reduce the genetic diversity of wild either of the environment as they are not adapted to either
stocks. of the parental environment. In such a case outbreeding
depression results due to increasing frequency of maladapted
genes in the population. Increased fitness also depends
on favourable interactions in “coadapted gene complexes”
(Dobzhansky 1955) that evolve to function efficiently as a

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 Hatchery-produced catla x common (mirror) carp.
21
Genetics & biodiversity

Continuum of breeding systems that can lead to inbreeding depression or outbreeding depression

INBREEDING OUTBREEDING OUTBREEDING

DEPRESSION ENHANCEMENT DEPRESSION

Å BREEDING SYSTEM CONTINUUM Æ

unit. Outbreeding depression can result from the breakup of Experience with two subspecies of large-mouth bass and their
these favourable genetic combinations. The effect of stock hybrids, when they are raised in the native environment of
transfer on the fitness of a population can be gauged by northern species, showed that there is maximum probability
determining the relationship between fitness and degree of for the introduced species to contribute to the extensive
outcrossing and the place on the breeding system continuum “hybrid zone”.
where a hybrid population will fall. Hybridisation resulting from
stock transfer can be detrimental as it shifts the hybridising Hybridization, even at species and subspecies level, may
population towards the right of the breeding continuum, results in virtual disappearance of the pure native forms, but
potentially putting the hybrids lower on fitness scale. the introduced species and the hybrids registered a reduced
growth rate compare to native.

Effect of stock transfer on fish

Possible impact of the hatchery
biodiversity
raised fish into the wild
Protein electrophoresis and nested gene diversity analysis
(Gyllensten,1985) suggests that, the possibility for adverse Supplementation of hatchery raised fish seed into the natural
genetic consequences of stock transfers is greater for habitat to increase the population, through ranching, is a
freshwater fishes (29.4%) compare to marine (1.6%). common practice now-a-days. Due to a lack of scientific
investigation, for most ranching activities it is usually not
known whether the transplanted fish replace the native
population, hybridise with them or have no permanent effect
on them. According to Hinder [Link] (1991) each of the three
outcomes are possible as indicated in the adjacent figure.

Final impact
Stock transfer can have detrimental effects on aquatic
biodiversity by way of reducing between population variability
and within population fitness. Concerning the negative impact
of stock transfer on native fishery, the following steps may be
adopted:

• Stock transfer should be considered only after a full, open

and scientific evaluation of risks involved.

• Stock transfer even with positive and or neutral short term

effects may have substantial negative long term effects on
the resources.

• More thoughts and research needs to be devoted to the

issue of defining appropriate units for conservation.

References

IUCN.1997. Red deta Book: freshwater fishes, Morges.

IUCN.1988. Red data Book: freshwater fishes, Morges.
Three possible outcomes results from the supplementation Barel, C.D.N., and 13 co-authors, 1985. Destruction of fisheries in Africas’
of hatchery raised fish into the wild are (1) total replacement lakes. Nature,315:19-20
of wild genepool by hatchery raised fish (2) integration Ogutu-ohwayo, R.1989. The decline of native fishes of lakes Victoria and
(coexistence or hybridization) of native and hatchery gene Kyoga (East Africa) and the impact of introduced species, especially
pools (3) persistence of native gene pool with little or no the Nile Perch, Lates niliticus and Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus.
permanent genetic effect of hatchery stock. Environmental Biology of Fishes 27: 81-96

22 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Genetics & biodiversity

Dobzhansky,T.1955. A review of some fundamental concepts and problems of Hindar, K.,N. Ryman, and [Link].1991. Genetic effects of Cultured fish
population genetics. Cold Spring Harbor Symposid on Quantitative Biology on natural fish populations. Canadian Journal of fisheries and Aquatic
20: 1-15 Sciences 48
Gyllensten, U. 1985. The genetic structure of fish: Differences in the
intraspecific distribution of biochemical genetic variation between marine,
anadromous, and freshwater fishes. Journal of Fishery Biology 28: 691-700

Ecological impacts of exotic fish species in India

Singh, A.K. and Lakra, W.S.

National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Canal Ring Road P.O. Dilkusha, Lucknow-226006 (Uttar Pradesh) India, Email:
aksingh56@[Link].

In spite of already rich and diverse fish genetic resources of pressure), fast growth, phenotypic plasticity (tolerance of
India, more than 300 exotic fish species have been introduced range of salinity and temperature), ability to live off a wide
into the country (Lakra et al. 2008). While a vast majority range of food types and other successful invasive characters.
of them are ornamental fishes, which remain more or less,
confined to aquaria, some 28 species have been introduced In the Yamuna and Periyar (Kerala) rivers as well as in
in aquaculture. Silver carp, grass carp and the three varieties Jaiselmer lake (Rajasthan), Oreochromis mossambicus was
of common carp were brought into the country with the found to displace Gangetic carps, and from the southern
objectives of broadening the species spectrum in aquaculture region it displaced Puntius dubius and Labeo kontius.
and increasing the yield through better utilisation of trophic Bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis strongly competes with Catla
niches. In recent years, the bighead carp Aristichthys catla in aquaculture and has potential to hybridise with catla
nobilis African catfish Clarias gariepinus, sutchi catfish and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix). This fish is now
Pangasianodon hypophthalamus, Nile tilapia Oreochromis available in several reservoirs and rivers including the Ganga
niloticus, red-bellied piranha Pygocentrus natterei and Pacu river. The common carp Cyprinus carpio has now naturalised
Piaractus brachypomus have been introduced illegally and populations in rivers, lakes and reservoirs. It has displaced
are reported from the aquaculture systems. These exotic local species such as mahseer Tor putitora, Schizothorax
fishes are becoming popular among aquaculturists and their
accidental and deliberate introductions into the open waters
have caused deleterious impact on the fish biodiversity.

Spread and impact of exotic food

fishes
Some of the commonly used exotic food fishes for
aquaculture have escaped from culture facility and formed
natural population in open waters like rivers. Recent
explorations of exotic fishes has revealed their presence in
Cuavery, Sutlej, Beas, Ken, Betwa, Yamuna, Ghaghra, Saryu,
Gomti and the Ganga rivers besides their occurrence in
canals, lakes reservoirs, beels and wetlands. The fish catches
of river Yamuna and Ganga is presently dominated by exotic
fish species. The highly carnivorous fish, Clarias gariepinus
has entered into Cauvery, Yamuna and Ganga rivers.

Impact assessment studies of alien fishes have been carried

out in the river Yamuna, Ganga and Periyar; back waters
of Kerala, Jaiselmer lake (Rajasthan), Ramgarh lake (Uttar
Pradesh.) and Kolleru lake (Andhra Pradesh) and the species
covered were Oreochromis mossambicus, O. niloticus,
Pangasianodon hypophthalamus, Litopenaeus vannamei,
Clarias gariepinus, Cyprinus carpio, Hypophthalmichthys
molitrix, Ctenopharyngodon idella and Aristichthys nobilis.
The impacts of introduced fishes have been assessed by
our developed protocol for the Fish Invasiveness Screening
Test (FIST) which covered the ability of the introduced fish
to reproduce naturally, high dispersal ability (propagule African catfish Clarias gariepinus caught from a lake.

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 23

Genetics & biodiversity

An ornamental fish Pterygoplichthys sp caught from river.

spp. and others from upland waters. It has also displaced an of L. vannamei aquaculture (Singh and Lakra, 2008).
endemic fish species Ostebrama belangiri from Loktak Lake Disease concern (particularly Taura syndrome) as well as
(Manipur). Recent upsurge in the population of exotic fishes socio-economic issues are also being raised in the culture
particularly Cyprinus carpio and Oreochromis niloticus in the of L. vannamei in India. However, it is important to mention
Ganga river in Uttar Pradesh has declined the catch of local here that incidence of Taura disease has not yet been found
fishes by 24.56% whereas the catch of exotic fishes has from India. Of late culture of pacu Piaractus brachypomus has
increased by 115.80% during 2009. also started clandestinely in the state of West Bengal and it
is becoming popular these days (Chatterjee and Mazumdar
The silver carp formed a breeding population in Govind 2009).
sagar Reservoir (Himachal Pradesh) and Kulgarhi reservoir
(Madhya Pradesh) and changed the trophic structure thereby
replacing the catla fishery. African catfish Clarias gariepinus Spread and impact of aquarium
is cultivated in almost every part of the country including
lower reaches of hills and has been assessed to possess fishes
invasive characters. It is highly carnivorous and recently the
critically declined bird Moorhen Gallinula chloropus has been Twenty-one alien aquarium fish species have been found
found from the gut of a 67 cm long fish in Rajasthan near to occur in natural aquatic bodies in different parts of
Bharatpur bird sanctuary (Anoop et al. 2009). This fish is the country. Eleven species of exotic aquarium fish have
causing loss to the local fish biodiversity and it is important been found in the inland waters of the Kerala State, a
to mention that the local Clarias batrachus has virtually biodiversity hot-spot region of the country. Of these, four
disappeared from most of the habitats. The unregulated are popular aquarium pets - guppy (Poecilia reticulata),
spread of Pangasianodon hypophthalamus in India has three-spot gourami (Trichogaster trichopterus), platy
also caused concern regarding disease threats affecting (Xiphophorus maculatus) and sucker catfish (Pterygoplichthys
biodiversity and socio-economic conditions (Singh et al multiradiatus). Guppies have been collected from second-
2009). Recently introduced L. vannamei for brackish water order streams of the Chalakudy river and are found to be
aquaculture has attracted farmers owing to its high export present in good numbers in branches of the Meenachil river
value. As per our risk assessment study, the potential of some in Kottayam apart from the drainage canals in Ernakulam city,
ecological impacts such as reducing aquatic biodiversity or which are connected to various natural water bodies such
spreading alien pathogens may undermine the sustainability as Vembanad Lake (Raghavan et al. 2008; Krishnakumar

24 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Genetics & biodiversity

Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Alien

aquarium fish species introduced purposefully or accidentally
into natural water bodies can adversely affect local fauna
through genetic impacts, disease introduction and ecological
impacts such as predation, competition and environmental
modification (Lakra et al 2008).

Conclusion
Aquarium fish trade and fish introductions for aquaculture
are likely to increase in future. Hence, effective quarantine
measures are required to prevent their adverse impacts and
the introduction of exotic pathogens and parasites along
with introduced species. A general plan and guidelines have
been developed to regulate fish introduction in India (Lakra
et al 2006). Detailed species specific guidelines have also
Pacu Piaractus brachypomus from a fish farm. been developed for introduction of Litopenaeus vannamei,
ornamental fish species, tilapia and Pangasius sutchi in
et al. 2009). The three-spot gourami, on the other hand, is India and submitted to the Department of Animal Husbandry,
a new entrant. The gourami is an “opportunistic carnivore Dairying and Fisheries (DAHD&F), Ministry of Agriculture,
having territorial and aggressive behaviour that can prove New Delhi for implementation and monitoring. All farmers and
harmful to native species”. The sucker catfish Pterigoplichthys fish breeders are expected to follow the prescribed quarantine
multiradiatus was found in Vembanad Lake recently guidelines developed by this institute for reducing the
apart from Vylathur in Thrissur and the Chackai canal in resultant economic losses to the country due to unplanned
Thiruvananthapuram. This fish has potential to alter and and indiscriminate introductions of exotic fishes.
reduce food and physical cover for other aquatic insects
due to its algae-devouring habits (Raghavan et al. 2008; References
Krishnakumar et al. 2009).
Anoop KR, KS Gopi Sundar, Bholu Abrar Khan, Sohan Lal (2009) Common
During our survey study, we have captured some live Moorhen Gallinula chloropus in the diet of the African Catfish Clarias
specimens of red-belied piranha Pygocentrus nattereri gariepinus in Keoladeo Ghana National Park, India . Indian Birds 5(1),
from Periyar river of Kerala. This fish also existed in the 22-23.
Dimbhe reservoir near Pune, Maharashtra and there are Chatterjee N R, Mazumdar B. (2009) Induced breeding of pacu (Piaractus
incidences of some people bitten when they entered into brachypomus) in captivity with pituitary extract. Aquaculture Asia April-June
the reservoir for their day to day work. This fish is hardy and 2009, 23.
occasional breeding in aquaria has also been found. Since Gopalakrishnan A, Ponniah AG (1999) Introduction of red Piranha for aquarium
this fish is original inhabitant of South America, the tropical purposes in Kerala. Fishing Chimes 18(2), 53-55.
humid climate of Kerala is likely to support its establishment Krishnakumar K, Rajeev Raghavan, Prasad G, Bijukumar A, Mini Sekharan,
(Gopalakrishnan and Ponniah, 1999). We have also recorded Benno Pereira, Anvar Ali (2009) When pets become pests – exotic
more than ten other aquarium fish species from wetlands of aquarium fishes and biological invasions in Kerala, India. Current Science
West Bengal, Assam including other north eastern regions; 97(4), 474-476.
Kolleru lake (Andhra Pradesh) and also from Bihar and Uttar Lakra W S, Rehana Abidi, Singh A K, Rathore G, Neeraj Sood, Raja
Pradesh. Two species of highly invasive fish Pterygoplichthys Swaminathan T (Eds.) (2006) Fish Introductions and Quarantine: Indian
fish namely P. dijunctivus and P. perdalis have been recorded Perspectives. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow, India
to breed in large number in wetlands of West Bengal where 198pp.
thousands of live specimens have been captured. They were Lakra W S, Singh A K, Ayyappan S (Eds) (2008) Fish Introduction in India:
also captured from lakes, rivers and reservoirs in Andhra Status, Potential and Challenge. Narendra Publishers, New Delhi, India 303
pp.
Raghavan Rajeev, Gopalan Prasad, Anvar-Ali P H, Benno Pereira (2008)
Occurrence of exotic fishes in Rivers Exotic fish species in a global biodiversity hotspot: observations from River
(Dominant exotic f ishes were common carp and tilapia)
Chalakudy, part of Western Ghats, Kerala, India. Biological Invasions 10
80
(1), 1387-3547.
70 Singh A K, Mishra Arvind, Lakra W S (2008). Spread and colonization of
60
alien fish species in open waters: a reliable indicator of aquatic health.
Aquaculture Health International, VIP Press New Zealand, March Issue 13,
Abundance Index %

50
40-42
40 Singh, A. K. and [Link] (2008) Perspectives and problems of introduced
shrimp species, Litopenaeus vannamei in Asia. Aquaculture Health
30
International, VIP Press, New Zealand Issue 12, 16-19.
20 Singh A K, Phani Prakash K, Lakra W S (2009) Diseases in catfish in India.
10 Aquaculture Asia Pacific Magazine Nov-Dec 2009, 30-31.

0
2000 2004 2009

Yamuna Ganga

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 25

Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Farm-made feeds support good growth and survival of the

humpback grouper
Shapawi, R.1, Mustafa, S.1, Ng, W.-K.2

1. Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Locked Bag 2073, 88999 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia;
2. Fish Nutrition Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia.
E-mail: rossita@[Link]; wkng@[Link].

Grouper farming and

feeding
Grouper aquaculture has been practiced
for many decades in many parts of the
world, especially in the Asia-Pacific
region. It was started using simple
cage culture systems along the coastal
area and this culture system is still
the mainstay of the grouper farming
industry to this day. Groupers are high
value marine fish in the live fish trade
market in Southeast Asia, commanding
wholesale prices of up to US$90-100/
kg, in many instances. The humpback
grouper, Cromileptes altivelis, usually
fetches a much higher price than any
other grouper species with prices
increasing two to three-fold during
festive seasons, especially the Chinese
New Year. In Malaysia, major cultured
species of groupers are Epinephelus
coioides, E. malabaricus, E. tauvina,
E. fascoguttatus, E. lanceolatus,
Plectropomus leopardus, P. maculatus,
E. areolatus, E. bleekeri, and C.
altivelis. With the exception of slower-
growing species such as E. akaara
and C. altivelis, groupers exhibit good
growth rates in captivity.

Despite the continuing expansion of

grouper aquaculture, there remain
several important constraints to the
sustainable development of this
industry. One of the major constraints is
problems related to feeding practices.
Trash fish or low-value fish has been
traditionally used as the main feed
source for farmed groupers. This The humpback grouper commands a higher price compared to other grouper
method of feeding is preferred by most species and is easily distinguishable by its arched dorsal and polka-dotted body.

26 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

farmers due to the availability of trash fish and the perception

by farmers of lower cost when using trash fish compared
to the high price of commercial pelleted Feed1. The low
usage of pelleted feeds by grouper farmers is also due to
inadequate information on the use of such feeds and limited
supply of weaned stock2. Trash fish is a term commonly
used to describe low value fish species, which include
crustaceans, molluscs and other invertebrates3. In Malaysia,
the term is used for part of the fishery catch which is not fit
for direct human consumption, including undersized fish of
commercially important species4. The demand for trash fish
has increased steadily despite the declining wild fish stocks
in South East Asia5. Fresh and properly managed trash fish
can be a very good source of food for culturing carnivorous
marine fish. Nevertheless, there are several major issues and Farm-made feeds formulated with alternative ingredients for
problems related to the use of trash fish in marine fish farming humpback grouper.
such as the depletion of wild fish stocks, long-term ecological
sustainability of these finite resources, increase in costs due
to seasonal supply, ethics of using potentially food-grade
fishery resources for animal feeding rather than for direct
human food, negative impact on the environment resulting
from feed losses (FCR 6 to 17:1), spread of fish diseases,
fluctuations in the nutritional quality of trash fish, necessity for
trash fish to be stored frozen or refrigerated in order to avoid
spoilage and loss of nutritional value, and the high labour
input as trash fish should be gutted, de-boned and heads
removed before feeding to groupers.

Globally, the use of pelleted feed in the farming of tropical

marine fish species is much lower compared to feeds
targeting salmonids or freshwater fish. In the case of
groupers, efforts have been made to use pelleted feeds
as an alternative to trash fish. However, constraints to the
development of pelleted feed are mainly due to the lack of
data on nutritional requirements of groupers, together with
the high price of key ingredients such as fishmeal and fish
oil. One of the main aims in feed development research is
to develop feeds that are derived from sustainably-sourced Trash fish (Sardinella spp.) used in the study.
ingredients, are lower-polluting, and cost-effective alternatives
to trash fish feeding6. Therefore, finding suitable alternatives and carbohydrate sources, in humpback grouper diets7-9 and
to fishmeal and fish oil is critical to achieve this aim. Effective compare these prototype feeds with two commonly used
feed development will ensure the sustainability of the grouper commercial marine fish feeds and trash fish of monospecies
aquaculture industry. Therefore, in a recent study, we composition.
evaluated two farm-made grouper feeds developed based
on our previous findings on using alternative protein, lipid

Growth of humpback grouper fed farm-made feeds, FCR of farm-made feeds, commercial feeds or trash fish fed
commercial feeds or trash fish. to humpback groupers.

5.5
600 5
% Weight Gain

4.5
500 4
3.5
400
FCR

3
300 2.5
2
200 1.5
1
100 0.5
0 0

Dietary Treatment Dietary Treatment

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 27

Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Table 1: Proximate, fatty acid and amino acid compositions of pelleted feeds and trash fish (Shapawi et al., 2011b).

Farm Feed 1 Farm Feed 2 Com Feed 1 Com Feed 2 Trash fish
Proximate composition (g kg-1)
Dry matter 887 886 915 917 248
Crude protein 497 503 452 516 701
Crude lipid 108 104 109 175 44
Ash 134 135 92 99 151
Crude fiber 32 30 26 39 -
Nitrogen Free
Extract 229 228 321 171 104
Amino acid composition (g 100g-1 amino acid)
Histidine 2.8 2.7 2.8 3.1 3.5
Arginine 8.9 8.9 7.4 9.4 8.4
Threonine 4.6 4.4 4.2 4.5 4.7
Valine 4.5 4.6 5.2 5.1 5.0
Methionine 2.7 2.4 2.8 2.3 4.0
Isoleucine 3.9 4.0 4.6 4.6 4.7
Leucine 6.4 6.7 8.6 7.8 8.2
Phenylalanine 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.7 5.5
Tryptophan 1.3 0.8 1.3 1.1 1.9
Lysine 5.5 5.3 5.8 5.6 8.6
Fatty acid composition (% of total fatty acid)
Total saturates 38.3 34.3 30.7 32.4 49.5
Total monoenes 43.0 42.9 23.5 35.0 15.3
Total PUFA 18.6 22.8 45.8 32.5 35.2
Total n-3 PUFA 6.6 7.3 35.5 21.9 30.7
Total n-6 PUFA 11.8 15.2 10.2 10.5 2.4
n-3/n-6 0.6 0.5 3.5 2.1 13.0

Table 2. Body indices, proximate composition (% wet weight) and fatty acid content (% total fatty acids) of muscle
tissue (Adapted from Shapawi et al., 2011b10).

Body Indices Farm Feed 1 Farm Feed 2 Com Feed 1 Com Feed 2 Trash fish
HSI 2.0a 1.9a 3.7b 3.5b 1.5a
VSI 7.1ab 7.2ab 8.5b 10.0b 5.1a
IPF 0.6a 0.8a 0.6a 1.5b 0.1a
Proximate Composition
Moisture 70.5ª 70.6ª 71.5ab 70.2ª 74.0b
Protein 17.6 17.6 17.0 16.7 17.1
Lipid 6.2ab 6.4ab 5.4b 7.6a 3.1c
Ash 5.2 4.9 4.9 4.5 5.2
Fatty Acid Composition
Saturates 34.3 31.2 31.1 32.9 33.1
Monoenes 35.5b 38.9b 28.1a 33.9b 26.5a
PUFA 30.3ab 29.2a 40.2c 33.1b 40.2c
n-3 PUFA 17.9b 14.4a 26.2d 21.8c 34.3e
n-6 PUFA 12.0bc 14.4c 13.7bc 11.1b 5.7a
n-3/n-6 1.5ab 1.0a 1.9b 2.0b 6.1c

According to the respective feed manufacturers, Commercial

Feeding trial Feed 1 is a fishmeal-based feed and Commercial Feed 2
consists of fishmeal, plant protein and poultry proteins. Both
Fishmeal in both farm-made feeds (Farm Feed 1 and Farm commercial feeds are used by local grouper fish farmers.
Feed 2) was replaced with poultry by-product meal (PBM) at The trash fish used was Sardinella spp. which was minced
a significant level to supply the needed dietary protein. Added and formed into small balls by hand before feeding to the
dietary lipid was in the form of crude palm oil (CPO) and fish experimental fish. The diets were fed close to apparent
oil in Farm Feed 1, and only fish oil was used in Farm Feed 2. satiation twice a day to triplicate groups of humpback grouper
Tapioca starch was used as the carbohydrate source in both fingerlings for 14 weeks. Fish were raised in fiberglass tanks
feeds. The proximate, amino acid and fatty acid composition (300L) with a flow-through water system.
of the experimental feeds as well as trash fish are presented
in Table 1. The performance of the two farm-made feeds
was compared with a local commercial marine fish feed
(Commercial Feed 1), an imported commercial high-fat
marine fish feed (Commercial Feed 2), and trash fish.

28 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

References

1. Williams, K. C. & Rimmer, M. A. 2005. The

Future Of Feeds And Feeding Of Marine Finfish
In The Asia-Pacific Region: The Need To
Develop Alternative Aquaculture Feeds. Paper
presented at the “Regional Workshop on low
value and trash fish in the Asia-Pacific region”,
Hanoi, Vietnam, 7-9 June.
2. Che Musa, C. U. & Nuruddin, A. A. 2005. Trash
Fish Production And National Trash Fish Feed
Requirement In Malaysia. Paper presented
at the Regional workshop on low land value
and ‘trash fish’ in the Asia-Pacific region,
Hanoi, Vietnam, 7-9 June, Asia-Pacific Fishery
Commission (APFIC).
3. Tacon, A. G.J., Hassan, M.R., & Subasinghe, R.
E. 2006. Use Of Fisheries Resources As Feed
Inputs For Aquaculture Development: Trends
And Policy Implications. FAO Fisheries Circular
No 1018. Rome: FAO.
4. Kusairi, M. N., Tai, S. Y. & Tengku Aizan, T. A.
H. 1997. Population Characteristics And Trends
Of Fishing Communities In Malaysia And Their
Trash fish stacked up in an on-farm freezer at a grouper farm in Sabah, Malaysia. Relationship To The Level Of Exploitation Of
Fisheries Resources. In Tietze, U (ed.). Report
Growth performance of higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids of the workshop on population characteristics
compared to fish fed the experimental and change in coastal fishing communities,
humpback grouper prototype feeds (Table 2). Madras, India (FFIT/R566). Rome: FAO.
5. Williams, M. J. 2002. Asian fisheries in the 21st
Weight gain of fish fed the PBM-based century. Which Way To Prosperity? (keynote
Farm Feed 2 were significantly higher Conclusion address to the 6th Asian Fisheries Forum,
(P<0.05) compared to fish fed the other Kaohsiung, Taiwan [Province of China], 25-29
feeds. No significant difference (P>0.05) When formulated correctly, farm-made November, 2001) [Link]
was observed in the weight gain of fish pelleted feeds are able to support ph/~afs/[Link]. 4th January 2006.
fed Farm Feed 1 or Commercial Feed good growth, efficient feed utilisation 6. Tacon, G.J. & Forster, I. P. 2003. Aquafeeds
2. Similarly, the weight gain of fish fed and survival of cultured groupers, and the Environment: Policy Implications.
Commercial Feed 1 or trash fish were and give better or comparable growth Aquaculture. 226:181-189.
not significantly different. FCR ranged performance when compared to 7. Shapawi, R., Ng, W.K. & Mustafa, S. 2007.
from 1.3 to 2.4 in fish fed pelleted diets. commercial extruded marine fish feeds. Replacement of fishmeal with poultry
These values were not significantly Being a cheaper protein source, good by-product meals in diets formulated for the
different between Farm Feed 2, quality PBM has high potential to humpback grouper, Cromileptes altivelis.
Commercial Feed 2, and Farm Feed 1. become a major protein source in the Aquaculture 273, 118-126.
However, FCR of fish fed Commercial diets of carnivorous fish species. Feed 8. Shapawi, R., Mustafa, S. & Ng, W.K. 2008.
Feed 1 was significantly lower than that costs can be substantially reduced with Effects of dietary fish oil replacement with
of Farm Feed 2, but not significantly the inclusion of greater quantities of vegetable oils on growth and tissue fatty acid
different from that of Farm Feed 1 and PBM in the diets of slow-growing marine composition of humpback grouper, Cromileptes
Commercial Feed 2. Feeding fish with fish such as the humpback grouper. altivelis (Valenciennes). Aquaculture Research
trash fish resulted in a significantly From our findings, trash fish appeared 39, 315-323.
higher FCR of 5.0. to be the least desirable method for 9. Shapawi, R., Mustafa, S. & Ng, W.K. 2011a.
feeding cultured grouper as shown by Effects of dietary carbohydrate source and
The survival of groupers fed the the poor growth, poor FCR values and level on growth, feed conversion ratio and body
pelleted diets was more than 90% but low survival rate of the fish. proximate composition of humpback grouper,
groupers fed trash fish had a survival Cromileptes altivelis. Journal of Applied
of only 50%. Whole body composition Authors’ note Aquaculture, 23:1–10.
was also affected by the feeds used, 10. Shapawi, R., Mustafa, S. & Ng, W.K. 2011b. A
especially the lipid content. Groupers The full report of this study has been Comparison of the Growth Performance and
fed trash fish had the lowest body lipid recently published in “Shapawi, Body Composition of the Humpback Grouper,
content and fish fed Commercial Feed R., Mustafa, S. & Ng, W.K. 2011. A Cromileptes altivelis Fed Farm-Made Feeds,
2 had the highest body lipid deposition. Comparison of the Growth Performance Commercial Feeds or Trash Fish. Journal of
Groupers fed the two commercial feeds and Body Composition of the Humpback Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 6, 523-534.
had higher hepato- and viscero-somatic Grouper, Cromileptes altivelis Fed
indices (HSI and VSI, respectively) Farm-Made Feeds, Commercial Feeds
as well as higher deposition of or Trash Fish. Journal of Fisheries and
intraperitoneal fat (IPF). Groupers fed Aquatic Sciences 6, 523-534.”.
the commercial feeds or trash fish had

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 29

Technology

An easy way to hold live fish

Kowarsky, J.

Keeping live fish in good condition while

holding them is a major challenge to fish
farmers and others in related industries.
Measures must be taken to ensure
that fish are not too crowded, that they
have good water quality, that there
are no stagnant pockets of water with
low oxygen levels, that fish are easily
accessed and, in the case of bottom-
living fish, that they have sufficient floor
area. At the same time the fish farmer
must minimise water, energy, space
and labour use in order to maximise
profitability.

Often, holding facilities use large tanks.

Large tanks mean large volumes
of water, and water is heavy. Once
a system is built, it is virtually fixed The K Box Cone stands 20 cm high, with a flange around its base to allow easy
and there is no flexibility in terms of attachment to the container base.
changing the floor plan.
• Holes in the flange for attaching the
In many situations there is a potential Cone to the tub base.
alternative approach. Instead of relying
on large tanks, the operator can • Score marks around the Cone to
establish batteries of smaller units that allow it to be neatly cut to whatever
will enable the system to be flexible and height is required.
adaptable. The size and number of units
can be adjusted to meet current live • Indent marks around each level of
fish needs, supplies and sales. All that the Cone to allow for easy drilling K Box Cones fitted to a ariety of tubs.
is needed to establish such a system is of intermediate overflow holes if
an overhead water supply and a base required.
water collection capability.
• The K Box Cone can be adapted and
One approach to such a modular fitted to a wide variety of plastic tubs
system is to use a ‘K Box Cone’, a which can be readily purchased.
simple overflow device that can be
fitted to a variety of tubs and tanks. It • To modify a plastic tub, all that is
works on the tried and true principle of a required is to drill a hole in its base
standpipe. Water flows into a container, and attach a Cone using stainless Attaching a K Box Cone to a tub with a
reaches the level of the standpipe and steel screws or bolts. 92 mm diameter hole cut in its base.
overflows to be collected beneath the
container. Systems using standpipes
are common in hatcheries, holding How the system works
facilities and experimental laboratories.
The system works by having an
overhead water supply directing
The K Box Cone water into the uppermost tub. Water
cascades to the next tub via the K Box
We will firstly describe the K Box Cone Cone. This continues down the stack
and then outline how it can be used. until the water overflows into the base
The K Box Cone is a simple, food- collector. Depending upon the particular
grade, UV-stabilised plastic fitting made circumstances, water may be allowed to
by injection moulding. flow to waste or alternatively, it may be
recirculated with or without a filtration
As its name suggests, The K Box Cone and purification process. By having tubs
is conical and it has a flange around its one above another, the use of available
base. A number of features have been floor space is maximised.
included in its manufacture including:

Basic set-up for tubs.

30 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Technology

A significant feature of the system there is a need to have a suitable live

as described is that K Box Cones storage facility offsite for the short-term
can be fitted to plastic tubs that are holding of product.
self-stacking. This means that racks
or shelves, generally used with In some cases it may be preferable to
conventional standpipe systems, are not have the water draining through one
needed. The system is self-supporting or more holes in the side of the K Box
and can be built to any safe height. Cone rather than over the top. This is
simply accomplished by drilling holes
A stack can be progressively built as centred on the pre-formed indents
more live product becomes available, moulded into the K Box Cone wall.
and the stack can be progressively And by adjusting the flow rate of water
dismantled as product is used or moved through the system, it is possible to
on. In all cases as long as there is the have an arrangment where the overflow
same overhead water supply and the operates over the top of the K Box Cone
same collector container, the system is under normal conditions, but when
functional irrespective of the number of the pumping slows down or stops, the
levels. water drains to a lower level to keep the
product moist in shallower water.
If the tubs used are nesting as well as
stacking, they can then be efficiently The cascading water from one level
stored because the shape of the K Box of the stack to the one below raises
Cone allows nesting to still take place. oxygen levels and reduces the risk of
stagnant water pockets. Clearly, this
A simple self-contained system that is can be adjusted by altering the flow
completely portable uses a submersible rate through the stack. The relatively
pump in the collector with the water small volume and the more uniform
being pumped to the top tub of the distribution of fish through the water
stack. This re-circulating system can in this sort of system (as opposed to
be set up in minutes and is ideal where a large tank where fish may tend to
congregate in one area) will also reduce
the chances of dead water pockets A stack of inexpensive tubs that both
by keeping the water moving. By nest and stack. These were obtained
intermittently putting higher-flow pulses from a local variety store.
of water through a stack any waste
solids will tend to be re-suspended and
carried down and out of the stack.

The benefits
There are a number of benefits of this
system using K Box Cones.
Yabbies (freshwater crayfish Cherax
destructor) being held in a portable • Simple assembly – can be quickly put
tub and collector system. An electric up and taken down by one person.
submersible pump in the collect delivers
water to the top tub of the stack. • Simple plumbing – all that is needed
is an overhead water supply and a
collector tank.

• Self-supporting if stacking tubs are

used – shelving is thus unnecessary.
The same five tubs as shown in the
• Space efficient – multiple layers best previous photograph, nested for
utilise available floor space. storage.

• Water efficient – reduces layer of

under-utilised water column so that • Product separation – the modular
crowding need not occur. system allows for easy identification
The uppermost tub of stack of prototype of batches.
tubs holding yabbies. Drainage in this • Water quality – cascading water
case is through holes in the side of the reduces the chances of stagnation. • Easy storage if nesting tubs are
Cone, and mesh has been placed over used.
the top of the Cone to prevent yabbies • Adaptable – can be used with flow-
escaping! through and re-circulation systems

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 31

Aquatic Animal Health

Frequently asked questions If I can’t see the product and a fish dies, will this lead to a
mass mortality due to poor water quality?
Why can’t I just make a system similar to this myself
using commonly available plumbing fittings? The likelihood of this outcome will depend upon factors
such as the rate of flow of water through the stack and the
Of course you can, but the cost of such fittings to achieve a efficiency of the filtration and purification system used if the
good seal with the tub base would not be significantly less water is re-circulated. Exactly the same consideration applies
expensive and the features already mentioned that allow the to a single large tank where fish deaths can and do occur
Cones to be modified for a wide variety of tubs and uses are undetected. Our experience using a trial of yabbies was that
not present in conventional plumbing equipment. there was minimal mortality in a simple system that operated
for several weeks.
Why have a cone shape rather than a cylindrical shape
for the stand pipe? The main application for the K Box Cone tub system is for
relatively short-term (days to weeks) convenient storage of
The conical design is stronger and the broad base together live product. It is not suggested that a system be established
with the flange allow firm attachment to the tub base. The and left unattended for months.
conical shape allows the tubs to nest for efficient storage. It is
also easier to manufacture by injection moulding. What sort of operations might benefit from using K Box
Cones?
Can I inspect the fish in an operating system?
We see that K Box Cones have potential applications in
This depends upon the type of tub used. If transparent or aquaculture, the live seafood industry, the ornamental fish
translucent plastic is used (such as the tubs shown in the industry, live bait holding, freshwater and marine research,
photograph of the five-stack), it is possible to see the product and for purging and depurating shellfish and finfish.
through the sides of the tubs.
Further information about K Box Cones can be found at:
In other cases using opaque tubs this is not possible. [Link]
However the simplicity of the set-up and plumbing means that
a large stack can be dismantled and re-assembled easily if a
detailed inspection is required.

Litopenaeus vannamei introduction:

Sound management or expediency?
Regunathan, C.1 and Kitto, M.R.2

1. 228 B, East of DVD School, Kottar, Nagercoil, Tamil Nadu, India. [Link]: oceanbiocare@[Link]; 2. P.O. Box : 80207,
Jeddah 21589, Faculty of Marine Science, King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia. Email: drkitto@[Link]

Throughout Latin America, hatcheries

maintain captive stocks of Litopenaeus
(= Penaeus) vannamei broodstock,
some of them pathogen-free, some
of them pathogen-resistant and some
of them in captivity for 30 years. The
successful attempt culturing exotic,
imported SPF L. vannamei in the Indian
sub-continent has led to more farmers
adopting this species in India. But
what about the environmental issue of
‘escapees’ to the natural ecosystem,
even if this is strictly denied by the
farming community in public? This
issue of escapees of hatchery larval
stages is serious and the magnitude
of this effect remains unknown. There
is every opportunity for the escapees
to establish a natural population.
P. vannamei has been reported in
fisherfolk’s catches on Andaman

32 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Aquatic animal health

Just a white shrimp...or a shrimp with uninvited guests?

and Gulf of Thailand coasts. During the late 1970s and Many of these viruses, without methods of diagnosis, are
early 1980s L. vannamei was introduced to Hawaii and the probably being harboured unknown within the wild and
Eastern Atlantic coast of the Americas from South Carolina cultured populations of shrimp throughout the world. It may
and Texas in the North to Central America and as far south not be until shrimp species are moved from one location
as Brazil (Briggs et al., 2004). Now though not confirmed, another and their natural viral ‘flora’ comes into contact with
it is well assumed that L. vannamei has gotten established new and/or naive or intolerant hosts that disease epidemics
in Hawaii and Gulf of Mexico. Relevant research, involving begin. Crustaceans may be particularly problematic since
long-term monitoring of established introduced populations of they tend to have persistent, often multiple, viral infections
L. vannamei are lacking. It had been reported that pathologic without gross or even histological signs of disease (Flegel
viruses could be transmitted to native wild penaeid shrimp and Fegan, 2002). 25 years back, India brought Penaeus
populations (Overstreet et al., 1997), thus introduced exotic monodon broodstock from Taiwan Province of China and
shrimp viruses may be capable of infecting native wild shrimp Thailand, those mistakes proved costly and Indian shrimp
populations. IHHNV which severely affected the culture of L. farmers paid a heavy price within one or two decades (Babu
vannamei and Litopenaeus stylirostris in the west was not et al., 2000). Today, India has not yet learnt from its mistakes
known there and is said to have been introduced with live P. but remains hooked onto the indefinitive learning curve. When
monodon imported from Asia. P. indicus could sustainably lead in the Middle East especially,
Saudi Arabia for a quarter century, Indian farmers failed to
Taura has spread to every country in the western hemisphere choose P. indicus as an alternative to P. monodon.
with the exception of Venezuela where hatcheries maintain
captive broodstock and restrict the introduction of new The potentially thunderous and explosive epidemic effect of
broodstock. Concrete research on specific pathogen free the associated impacts of transboundary introductions of L.
larval shrimp in disease-laden Indian hatchery environment vannamei shrimp is a story that may yet be unfolding. For
needs stringent studies. Indian farmers are still often of the example, the Taura Syndrome virus is a highly mutable RNA
incorrect view that L. vannamei resists WSSV. Cohabitation virus and could mutate into a more virulent form for native
with diseased or latent carriers can always infect new hosts. Asian shrimp, as it has occurred in Latin America (Flegel
Many of the viruses infecting shrimp are hidden or cryptic and Fegan, 2002; Lightner, 2002). Even today, the pathways
and, although present in their host, may produce no gross of viral pathogen transfers in shrimp are still far from clear.
signs of disease or notable mortality. Although the original stock of SPF shrimp may have been

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 33

Aquatic Animal Health

certified as clear of specific pathogens, shrimp can no References

longer be regarded as SPF once they leave the biosecure
environment and the offspring produced from this stock are at Babu, M.M., Kitto, M.R. and Peter Marian, M., 2001. Shrimping footprints in the
the mercy of the poorly biosecure production facility in India. sands of time. Current Science 81 (1).
Inbreeding of pond-reared L. vannamei broodstock in India Briggs, M., Funge-Smith, S., Subasinghe, R. and Phillips, M., 2004.
is potentially also a concern, if broodstock are not carefully Introductions and movement of Penaeus vannamei and Penaeus stylirostris
managed. in Asia and the Pacific, FAO Regional office for Asia and the Pacific,
Bangkok, 92 pp.
The use of alien animal species to increase food production Flegel, T.W. and Fegan, D., 2002. Preventing the spread, part one. Asian
and income has been an established practice in India Aquaculture Magazine, May/June 2002. pp. 17-19.
since the middle of the 20th century. India was a leading Lightner, D.V., Introduction of non-indigenous shrimp viruses and their potential
exporter of black tiger shrimp to the US until this market was impact on farmed and native wild shrimp populations. Fourth international
threatened by the cheap L. vannamei shrimp production symposium on aquatic animal health, New Orleans, 2002.
rapidly expanding within India. By switching to the latter, India Overstreet, R.M., Lightner, D.V., Hasson, K., McIlwain, S. & Lotz, J.M.,
has lost its relatively parallel scores with leaders in monodon Susceptibility to Taura Syndrome Virus of some Penaeid shrimp species
farming and is now forced to compete with countries such native to the Gulf of Mexico and the Southeastern United States. Journal of
as China and Thailand. The market has already seen Invertebrate Pathology 69: 165-176. 1997.
overproduction and price crashes. India has already seen the
impact of imported shrimp pathogens and little consideration
has been given to how exotic species could potentially affect
native flora and fauna. Aquatic veterinary research teams
in India and globally must be prepared to face the threat
of disease outbreaks caused by careless transboundary
movement of aquatic animals. Decisions to import alien
aquatic species must be made based on sound science rather
than the expediency of the moment, otherwise it may be that
history will judge these decisions poorly.

Once the dominant species in the region, the native Penaeus monodon is an
34 increasingly rare sight in hatcheries and farms as it is increasingly
Aquaculture displaced by the
Asia Magazine
alien P. vannamei.
 NACA News

NACA Newsletter ISSN 0115-8503

Published by the Network of Aquaculture Centres Volume XXVI, No. 2

in Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand April-June 2011

Collaborative project “Group/cluster certification of aqua societies”

completed

This two-year project by MPEDA, NaCSA and NACA economic activity. With 70% of the Aquaculture production
developed guidelines and methodologies for group coming from the small scale farmers, of which 90% have <
certification and pilot tested it in three selected aqua 2ha of land, aquaculture in India is basically an enterprise of
societies in Andhra Pradesh, India, from January 2009 to small scale farmers. Therefore, the well being of the small
December 2010. Implementation of the project contributed scale farmers is an index of well being of the aquaculture
to significant capacity and awareness building of small industry. Aquaculture is highly diverse activity consisting of
scale farmers on concepts of aquaculture certification, many species, systems, practices, people, and environments.
group/cluster certification, functioning of Internal Control With the limited financial resources and inadequate technical
Systems, compliance to mandatory and voluntary standards, knowledge the small scale farmers are subjected to variety
traceability, and market access. Pilot testing of the group of challenges (animal health and welfare, risk on investment,
certification methodology enabled the project partners to impact on environment and society, inconsistent demand and
understand the issues and limitations of small scale farmer fluctuations in market price and so on) both in production and
aqua societies to comply with standards and functioning of in marketing their produce.
Internal Control system. The project produced the following
key documents: Better Management Practices for improving the
aquaculture production
• Guidelines cum methodology for group/cluster certification
of aqua societies. MPEDA - NACA collaboration since 2002 has demonstrated
that bringing the individual small farmers of a locality into
• Reference standards and road map for pilot testing of a compatible and cohesive entity (group/cluster) towards
group certification methodology. sharing the common resources coupled with adoption of
Better Management Practices (BMPs) is the key towards
• Pond data register to facilitate record keeping and sustainable aquaculture. Motivated by the concept and
traceability. encouraged by the results, many small scale farmers
have come forward and a good number of aqua societies
• Cluster certification brochure. have been formed in maritime states. Complimenting the
interest shown by the small scale farmers, MPEDA in 2007
• Group/cluster certification training manual. has established a new institution, the National Centre for
Sustainable aquaculture (NaCSA) to service the needs of
• Pilot test findings on functioning of internal control system the aqua societies. There are presently 712 aqua societies in
(ICS) and compliance to reference standards. operation comprising of 15,753 farmers, covering an area of
16,126 ha with an annual production of about 16,000 tonnes.
The project outputs will serve as useful resource material to
extend the concept of group certification in the aqua societies Aquaculture certification to enhance opportunities
established under NaCSA and help prepare aqua societies in marketing of aquaculture produce
in India to participate in future certification programs. The
project has helped to open avenues for linking small scale Production and marketing are the two sides of an enterprise
farmers to modern markets using the concept and principle which needs synchronisation in meeting consumer demand.
of group certification and compliance with mandatory and Aquaculture products are perishable with a short shelf life;
voluntary standards. The project outputs will also have therefore distribution skills and production planning have to be
regional relevance for promoting the concept of better honed to meet market demands. Sharing the food production
management practices (BMP) adoption through a group/ guidelines with growers, food producers and retailers -
cluster management approach and group/cluster certification specifying how food is grown and what has been used to
in order to link small scale farmers to modern markets and produce it - is an important contribution to the harmonisation
support responsible aquaculture in the region. of trade enabling clear and transparent processes.
Thus certification is seen as a tool of communication between
Background the primary producer and the end consumer enabling primary
producer economic freedom with social responsibility.
Aquaculture contributes significantly for food production “Certification is a procedure by which a certification body
leading to food security and poverty alleviation, supports gives written or equivalent assurance that a product, process
livelihood for millions, creates employment opportunities or service conforms to specified requirements and is carried
and generates national income; thus it forms an important out by competent and accredited body” (Adopted from

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 35

NACA News

IFOAM). Keeping in view of the fact that nearly 90% of the Final workshop
aqua farmers are small scale operators and the certification
for individual farmers is not only prohibitively expensive but The workshop finalised the guidelines/methodology, road
also impractical, grouping small farmers with common natural map, and other related documents on group certification
resources becomes imperative to extend coverage to all the of aqua societies. A detailed analysis on the pilot testing
small scale farmers cost effectively. of group certification guidelines/methodology was made,
limitations were identified and solutions explored. The
Group certification workshop acknowledged that the MPEDA / NaCSA/ NACA
collaborative project had made important progress on
The certification of groups of small scale farmers at a given developing and pilot testing the group certification concept,
locality, who share common resources and employing methodology and emphasised the need to continue the
common technology is a practical approach for promoting journey to attain better marketing by addressing the
sustainable aquaculture. It can be achived by using an limitations identified. The workshop realised that the
entity (Aqua Society) that manages and documents a clear economic success of aquaculture depends on the ability
and transparent Internal Quality Assurance System. The of small scale operators not only in sustainable production
society provides a legal mechanism for granting recognition but also in marketing the same for commensurate prices in
to a group of farmers and to manage certification, with global markets through appropriate value chain linkages (e.g.
certificates issued in the name of the society. Compliance using the market intelligence of the processor combined with
to the set standards both by i) every individual member group certification for small scale producers). The workshop
and ii) collectively (the society) is mandatory for group agreed that it would be very valuable now to proceed to the
certification. Responsibility (both individual and collective), next stage of developing linkages of selected small scale
unity and compatibility of members are the essence of group farmer clusters/groups to the global market through interested
certification which calls for an efficient co-ordination among processors in the efforts towards empowerment of small scale
the farmers. aqua farmers.

MPEDA /NaCSA NACA collaborative project on Project outputs

“Certification of Aqua societies”
The project has:
With the objective to assist the small scale farmers to improve
the marketing of their produce (in terms of wider accessibility • Contributed to significant strengthening of capacity and
and better remunerative price) through group certification, awareness among the various stakeholders on the concept
MPEDA and NaCSA have signed a memorandum with NACA of group certification.
towards development of group certification methodologies for
the aqua societies that would enable them to prepare for and • Contributed to the development of following resource
seek group certification from independent third party certifiers material.
or for proposing voluntary certification by the societies
themselves. • Guidelines cum methodology for group/cluster certification
of aqua societies.
Methodology
• Reference standards and road map for pilot testing of
The methodology of study is outlined in the following steps: group certification methodology.

Pilot testing analysis on group certification of aqua • Pond data register to facilitate record keeping and
societies traceability.

The pilot testing performed analysis on the compliance to • Cluster certification brochure.
mandatory and voluntary standards (legal aspects, adoption
of BMPs, food safety, traceability, documentation, social and • Group/cluster certification training manual.
environmental issues) in each of the aqua societies and also
assessed compliance to efficient functioning of the Internal • Pilot tested findings on functioning of internal control
Control System (ICS). The pilot testing has clearly shown system (ICS) and compliance to reference standards.
that it is possible to build capacity of small scale farmer
groups/clusters and prepare them to participate in group Project recommendations
certification programs. The study clearly identified that small
scale farmers should be motivated and adequately trained Considering the global developments with certification
in ICS operation so that small scale farmer groups/clusters programs and the need to comply with mandatory and
can set up and operationalise efficient ICS and comply with voluntary standards, it is strongly recommended that MPEDA/
standards of the chosen certification program. ICS provides NaCSA and NACA should continue the present work on
the quality assurance and proof of compliance on behalf of group/cluster certification and provide technical support
the farmer group/cluster to the external certification body and to small scale farmer clusters/societies in order to build
hence efficient functioning of ICS is vital for seeking group their capacity and prepare them for participation in group
certification. certification programs in future.

36 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 NACA News

Considering the importance of ICS in any group certification Guidelines on Aquaculture Society
program, it is recommended that the project partners develop
a strong training program on ICS and implement the training Certification released
in a structured manner so that the capacity of ICS committees
is significantly strengthened. These guidelines are the key output of the MPEDA/NaCSA/
NACA collaborative project on the certification of aquaculture
Recognising the importance of BMP adoption through societies.
cluster management approach and the efficient functioning
of ICS to comply with standards (mandatory and voluntary), Draft guidelines developed by the project partners were
it is recommended that the project partners implement discussed at the inception meeting on aquacutlure society
a systematic compliance analysis program in place so certifiction held at Kakinada during 1-2 September 2009. The
that more clusters under NaCSA can be monitored and meeting was attended by leaders of the aquaculture societies,
evaluated for compliance to standards and compliance to ICS representatives of certifying bodies and institutions.
functioning.
As per the recommendations of the inception meeting, pilot
Considering the globalisation of trade coupled with testing of group certification was carried out during January
consumers’ awareness on the product quality (food safety, to September 2010 in three societies and the draft guidelines
traceability), need for responsible aquaculture (adoption were revised in October 2010, considering the lessons learnt
of BMPs, reducing social and environmental impacts) and from the pilot testing.
strategy on linking producers and processers towards efficient
marketing of produce (win-win business relationship) it is The guidelines developed are independent of commodity
strongly recommended that small scale farmers must be and certification standards. The guidelines prepare and
linked to modern markets so as to remain competitive and enable aquaculture societies to seek group certification from
sustainable. independent third party certification programmes.

Recognising the value of supply chain integration, role of Download the guidelines from:
processors, niche markets, ecosystem marketing concepts,
etc, it is strongly recommended that NACA develop a long [Link]
term project on linking small scale farmers to modern markets php?cid=162&lid=1026
through group certification for funding consideration by
MPEDA/NaCSA.

Considering the need to motivate small scale farmers to Listen to us online

prepare for group certification, it is suggested that as a
promotional gesture in the initial stages, Government may NACA has begun making audio recordings of technical
consider incentives in the form of equipment, capital, and presentations given at aquaculture workshops, meetings and
infrastructure for groups willing to participate in the project. projects in which we are involved. We are doing this to allow
people throughout NACA member states to access these
Recognising the value of documents (e.g. group certification materials. Only a handful of people can ever physically attend
guidelines, road map for group certification, brochure, a workshop, but not anyone can listen to the proceedings,
training manual on group certification, etc) produced under wherever they may be.
the project, it is recommended that the documents be made
available widely within India and in the region. Recordings are made available in the podcasting section of
the NACA website (link below). The recordings may be freely
All documents produced under the project are available for downloaded or you can listen to them online (stream) them
free download from NACA website. from our server:

[Link]

The recordings are also available as podcasts. If you have a

Report of the Advisory Group on podcasting client software installed on your computer, or use
an online service such as Google Reader, we encourage you
Aquatic Animal Health available to sign up for our recent podcasts feed. This will ensure that
you receive new recordings as they are released. The feed
The report of the 9th Asia Regional Advisory Group on URL is:
Aquatic Animal Health is now available for download. The
report provides the latest information on disease trends [Link]
and emerging threats for fish, crustaceans, molluscs and
amphibians; outcomes of the OIE General Session and the Lastly, the software we use to distribute podcasts has been
Aquatic Animal Health Standards Commission; and the status developed in-house and is available as an open source
of disease reporting in the region. Download the report from: module for the ImpressCMS content management system.
Download it from:
[Link]
php?cid=132&lid=1025 [Link]
[Link]?cid=37&lid=1376

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 37

NACA News

Workshop on ecosystem approach to inland fisheries: data needs and

implementation strategies

NACA coordinated an international workshop Ecosystem • Rank the issues based on the risks they pose to a fishery.
approach to inland fisheries: data needs and implementation
strategies, in Vientiane, Lao PDR, 7-11 December 2010 as • Set agreed operational objectives for the high-priority
part of its continued engagement on inland fisheries issues. social, economic and ecological issues identified in step V
The workshop was supported by the FAO and the US and develop linked indicators and performance measures.
Geological Survey, and brought together 28 experts in inland
fisheries from 12 countries and representatives from regional • Formulate management decision rules.
and international organisations.
• Monitor the fishery using the selected indicators, and
The contribution inland fisheries makes to improve the human regularly evaluate the performance of management in
well-being, and the status of inland fishery resources and meeting operational objectives – by inference, because
the ecosystems that support them, are in general relatively of the linkages developed between policy goals and
poorly known and often undervalued. As recognised by FAO operational objectives, this will provide an assessment
and others, this is because of (a) the importance of fisheries on how well management is achieving the broader policy
is not reflected in the formal economy, because much goals.
production is consumed locally or traded for other goods
(b) the varied and diffuse nature of many inland fisheries • Goals and objectives of the workshop
operating in remote areas, associated with lack of formal
landing areas; (c) lack of awareness and policies on inland The goals of the workshop were to examine strategies to
fisheries in national agendas, (d) poorly defined market incorporate inland fisheries sectoral policy objectives into
chains or infrastructure dealing with catch from inland waters, ecosystem approaches for management of inland waters
and (e) the high cost of collecting dispersed information. through:
Moreover, in many developing countries inland fisheries
are considered a traditional, non-economic activity that for • Considering ways of enhancing the profile of inland
the betterment of the nations should be replaced by more fisheries as a significant contributor to human well being/
obvious industrial or agricultural activities that contribute
directly to formal economies. Also where information is • Determining elements of guidelines and strategies for
lacking, either improvement must be made to acquire it, or application of an ecosystem approach to fisheries that is
alternative strategies must be developed to manage inland relevant to the multitude of inland water types.
fisheries responsibly. Additionally, inland fisheries are greatly
impacted by other sectors that use freshwater resources, • Defining ecosystem services provided by inland fisheries.
such as hydro-electric development, irrigation and agriculture,
catchment and upstream land development and navigation. • Examining tradeoffs in management of freshwater
ecosystem services.
In order to address these broad issues FAO, the scientific
community and others are adopting an Ecosystem Approach Determining strategies to improve acquisition and quality
to Fisheries (EAF) and Aquaculture (EAA). The ecosystem of inland fisheries data as a solid basis for policy-making in
approaches are consistent with and will help implement to relation to the above-mentioned considerations and in line
FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF) with the FAO Strategy for Improving Information on Status
[1]. The purpose of an EAF is to plan, develop and manage and Trends of Capture Fisheries.
fisheries in a manner that addresses the multiple needs
and desires of societies, without jeopardizing the options The workshop reached consensus on the following:
for future generations to benefit from the full range of goods
and services provided by aquatic ecosystems. The EAF • To prepare a suitable “policy framework” manuscript and to
encourages the participation of all relevant stakeholders in a seek publication of it in the journal Science. In this regard
participatory process in order to: the group discussions were held on the possible contents
of the manuscript and confirmed in plenary. The main aim
• Identify the fishery, area and all relevant stakeholders. of the said manuscript would be to increase the profile of
the inland fisheries sector among public and especially
• Identify broad social, economic and ecological (including among policy makers.
the fisheries resource) issues for the fishery, based on
the broad international and national policy goals and • The workshop agreed to have manuscripts, based on the
aspirations. presentations, prepared for publication in a peer reviewed
journal for wider dissemination.
• Identify external drivers affecting inland fisheries.
• The workshop also agreed to prepare a manuscript on the
• set broad objectives for these issues. importance of inland fisheries in a more popular journal
dealing primarily on policy developments in order to attract
• Break down broad issues into issues sufficiently specific to attention of policy/ decision makers on the importance
be addressed by an identified management measure(s). of inland fisheries to development, food security and

38 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 NACA News

livelihoods. In this regard, the meeting report has been Disease advisory: Infectious
accepted for publication in Biology Letters and will be
available online in March 2011.[2] myonecrosis (IMN) status and threat
The workshop also decided that avenues be explored to Infectious myonecrosis (IMN) is a viral disease caused by
have a special session in relation to inland fisheries at infectious myonecrosis virus (IMNV). It affects Pacific white
the forthcoming Fisheries Congress, in 2012, Edinburgh, shrimp Penaeus vannamei, tiger shrimp P. monodon and blue
Scotland. In this regard Dr. Doug Beard will take the initiative shrimp P. stylirostris. IMN is associated with heavy losses in
and keep the participants informed of the progress. farmed shrimp of 40-70%.

[1] FAO (1995). Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, Originally reported from Brazil, outbreaks were reported in
pp. 41. FAO, Rome, Italy. East Java, Situbondo District in Indonesia in May 2006. In
2009 several other provinces were affected.
[2] Beard, T.D., Arlinghaus, R., Cooke, S.J., McIntyre, P.,
De Silva, S. Bartley, D. and Cowx, I.G. (2011). Ecosystem With the current spread of the disease there is a high threat of
approach to inland fisheries: research needs and the disease spreading to neighbouring P. vannamei-producing
implementation strategies. Biology Letters. ([Link]/10.1098/ countries. Suspected outbreaks should immediately be
rsbl.2011.0046). reported to the authorities.

NACA has published an infectious myonecrosis (IMN): Status

and Threat Information Sheet. For more information, please
download the sheet from the NACA website at:

[Link]

7th Regional Grouper Hatchery Production Training Course,

25 September - 15 October, Situbondo, Indonesia

Applications are invited for participation in the 7th Regional We would also appreciate it if you would fill in an information
Grouper Hatchery Production Training Course, which will be sheet about your farm.
held at the Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Center in
Situbondo, Indonesia from 25 September to 15 October. [Link]
collection_form.xlsx
Grouper culture has led to a significant contribution to fish
production and rural economy in coastal communities in Course contents
Asia and also played an important role in conservation
of the fragile coral reef fishes which are increasingly This course is designed to provide hands-on training on all
being threatened with overfishing and habitat destruction. aspects of grouper seed production. Participants will learn to
However, one of the major constraints to furthering grouper select, maintain and handle broodstock, induce fish to spawn,
culture is seed supply. Realising the need to produce incubate eggs, prepare live feed and develop feeding regimes
commercial quantities of grouper seed, the Network of for newly hatched larvae, and practice nursing prior to seed
Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA), in collaboration harvesting, packaging and transportation. Participants will
with its collaborating centres in the region, has offered a also be presented with a theoretical background on biology,
training course on grouper hatchery production six times. reproductive physiology, nutrition and health management.
Drawing expertise throughout the region and supported Field visits will showcase production technology and status
by experienced field experts in our collaborating centres, of small and medium-scale grouper hatcheries, nurseries,
this highly hands-on training course aims to provide grow-out farms, live food suppliers, traders and live seafood
participants with a favorable learning environment to update exporters in Indonesia. Some government research and
their knowledge and enhance their skills in grouper seed extension institutes will also be visited. Topics covered in the
production and hatchery management. training course are:

How to apply • Biology of grouper.

Download the application form from NACA website, fill in • Site selection, hatchery design, equipment and setup.
and send it to NACA through post, fax or email. You will
be acknowledged of acceptance after your application is • Broodstock selection and management.
approved by NACA Director General and Director of BADC.:
• Eggs handling and development stages.
[Link]
application_2011.doc • Culture environment and water quality management.

Volume XVI No. 2 April-June 2011 39

NACA News

• Larviculture and nursery. Finfish division: broodstock tanks,

pond, larval rearing tanks, quarantine Network of
• Live food production – phytoplankton tanks, live food culture tanks, Aquaculture
and zooplankton. seawater reservoir, floating cages, and Centres in
laboratories. Asia-Pacific
• Nutrition and feed for grouper larvae
(including artificial feeds). Shrimp division: spawning tanks, larval
rearing tanks, live food culture tanks, Mailing address
• Disease and fish health management seawater reservoir, and laboratories. PO Box 1040,
in the hatchery. Kasetsart University Post Office
Aquaculture division: brackishwater Ladyao, Jatujak,
• Harvesting, packaging and ponds, nursery ponds, reservoir pond, Bangkok 10903
transportation. and laboratories. Thailand

Training venue A section of the centre incorporating Phone +66 (2) 561 1728
12 microalgae production units, 4 Fax +66 (2) 561 1727
The Brackishwater Aquaculture rotifer production units and 10 indoor Email: info@[Link]
Development Center - larviculture units are devoted to grouper Website: [Link]
Situbondo (BADC-Situbondo) was hatchery training course. All the
established in 1994 as a sub-center for participants will get hands-on intensive NACA is a network composed of
brackishwater aquaculture development training from egg handling through to 18 member governments in the
by the Ministry of Agriculture to support harvest of fingerlings. Asia-Pacific region.
the program to increase fish production Resource speakers and trainers
in Indonesia. Since 1 May 2001 it has
been upgraded and become a center Most of the topics will be delivered
with 3 divisions: Finfish, Shrimp and by the grouper breeding and
Aquaculture. BADC-Situbondo is the larviculture resource persons from
Technical Implementation Unit (TIU) of BADC-Situbondo, supplemented by
the Directorate General of Aquaculture. specialists inputs from other centers and Copyright NACA 2011
institutions in Indonesia. Published under a Creative
BADC-Situbondo has been involved Commons Attribution license.
with applied research on grouper Who should attend You may copy and distribute this
aquaculture particularly for hatchery publication with attribution of
technology since 1994. In 1996 it Hatchery managers, technicians, NACA as the original source.
produced its first batch of grouper researchers, extension officers, and
fingerlings. With continuous applied other aquaculture professionals who
research and also technology exchange are seeking to expand knowledge and
with other research institutes such as obtain hands-on experiences in grouper
Research Institute for Mariculture in seed production. Contact point
Gondol, the technology for grouper
hatchery has improved and taken up Requirements For more information including course
by private sector, including large-, fees and travel arrangements, please
medium-, but mainly small-scale Knowledge in fisheries science, download the flyer from:
hatcheries. aquaculture, and other relevant
subject areas, plus adequate language [Link]
The marine species that on which BADC proficiency in listening, speaking and temporary/grouper_hatchery_
Situbondo focuses its research and reading in English. flyer_2011.doc
development work include Cromileptes
altivelis, Epinephelus Course fees Or contact:
fuscoguttatus, Epinephelus
lanceolatus, Cheilinus The training fee covers costs for tuition, Mr Yuan Derun
undulatus, Pompano, hybrid grouper, shared-room accommodation during Coordinator, Education and Training
and milkfish Chanos chanos. stay in BADC (from 25th September Network of Aquaculture Centres in
The hatchery technology for C. to 9th October 2010), most lunches Asia-Pacific
altivelis and E. fuscoguttatus have and some dinners, airport pickup, P.O. Box 1040
been developed and taken up by many local transportation and materials and Kasetsart University Post Office
private sector operations. Consequently, supplies for training related activities. Ladyao, Jatujak
numerous grouper hatcheries have Bangkok, 10903
been established and are now doing The fee does not cover international and Thailand
good business. domestic flights to and from the nearest Phone: +66-2 561 1728 ext. 111
airport, accommodation during field trips Email yuan@[Link].
Training facilities to Bali (from 10th – 15th October 2011),
allowance and personal expenses. The
BADC-Situbondo has good room rate for hotel in Bali will be around
infrastructure and facilities, including: US$ 40 –50 per night.

40 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Four issues per year

Subscription: US$50/year
at [Link]/shop
Or write to:
The Editor, Aquaculture Asia
PO Box 1040
Kasetsart University Post Office
Ladyao, Jatujak
Bangkok 10903 Thailand

Fax: +66 (2) 561 1727

Email: magazine@[Link]

Free download: [Link]

 All slides and audio
recordings now published
on conference website!

With aquaculture now providing nearly 50% of global food fish supplies, FAO in partnership
with NACA and the Thai Department of Fisheries, organised the
Global Conference on Aquaculture 2010, to evaluate where the sector stands
today and prepare for the challenges ahead. The objectives of the conference were to:

• Review the present status and trends in aquaculture development.

• Evaluate progress against the 2000 Bangkok Declaration & Strategy.
• Address emerging issues in aquaculture development.
• Assess opportunities and challenges for future aquaculture development.
• Build consensus on advancing aquaculture as a global, sustainable and competitive
food production sector.

The presentations and complete audio soundtracks from the conference are now
available for download from the conference website at the link below.

Enquiries and further information

Please visit website for more information, or feel free to contact the conference secretariat:

Conference Secretariat
Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific Phone: +66 2 561 1728
PO Box 1040, Kasetsart University Post Office Fax: +66 2 561 1727
Ladyao, Jatujak, Bangkok 10903 Email: aqua-conference2010@[Link]
Thailand