Study Material

Course Code: ENG: 101

Course Title: Introduction to Grammar

Instructor: Ms. Navila

Parts of speech
There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. A part of speech indicates how the word functions in
meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can function as more
than one part of speech when used in different circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is
essential for determining the correct definition of a word.

1. Noun:
A noun is a kind of word that is usually the name of something such as a person, place, thing,
quality, or idea.

Types of noun
There are several different types of noun, as follows:

Common noun

A common noun is a noun that refers to people or things in general, e.g. boy, country, bridge, city,
birth, day, happiness.

Proper noun

A proper noun is a name that identifies a particular person, place, or thing, e.g. Ali, Africa, London,
Monday. In written English, proper nouns begin with capital letters.

Concrete noun
A concrete noun is a noun which refers to people and to things that exist physically and can be
seen, touched, smelled, heard, or tasted. Examples include dog, building, coffee, tree, rain,
beach, tune.

Abstract noun
An abstract noun is a noun which refers to ideas, qualities, and conditions - things that cannot be
seen or touched and things which have no physical reality, e.g. truth, danger, happiness, time,
friendship, humour.

Abstract Nouns are formed:

(1) From Adjectives; as,
Kindness from kind; honesty from honest.
[Most abstract nouns are formed thus.]
(2) From Verbs: as,
Obedience from obey; growth from grow.
(3) From Common Nouns; as,

Childhood from child; slavery from slave.

Material noun

Material noun refers to a material or substance from which things are made such as silver, gold,
iron, cotton, diamond and plastic.

Collective nouns

Collective nouns refer to groups of people or things, e.g. audience, family, government, team,
jury. In American English, most collective nouns are treated as singular, with a singular verb:

The whole family was at the table.

Countable and Uncountable nouns

Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns (or count nouns) are those that
refer to something that can be counted. A countable noun is a separate object. It is a separate unit.
We can clearly count the number of units of a countable noun. An example is “apple”.A countable
noun has a singular form (when there is one unit). Example: I have one apple. It also has a plural
form (where there is more than 1 unit) For regular nouns, we usually form the plural by adding “s”
– Example: I have two apples.

Uncountable nouns (or mass nouns) An uncountable noun is not a separate object or unit. We
cannot count uncountable nouns. It is a large solid mass or liquid without clear boundaries. An
example is “water” We cannot count water. We do NOT say “I have 3 waters” – It does not make
sense. Water is a liquid and is just one big amount all together.
Uncountable nouns only have a singular form. Example: I have some water.
There is no plural form for uncountable nouns. I have some waters.
We cannot use the indefinite article (“a” / “an”) Example: I have a water.

Uncountable nouns are therefore names of materials, gases, liquids, concepts, collections, mass
objects without boundaries.

Examples: sugar, butter, oxygen, rice, pasta, salt, bread, milk, water

Compound Noun

Compound nouns are words for people, animals, places, things, or ideas, made up of two or more
words. Most compound nouns are made with nouns that have been modified by adjectives or
other nouns.

Compound nouns are sometimes one word, like toothpaste, haircut, or bedroom. These are often
referred to as closed or solid compound nouns.

Sometimes compound nouns are connected with a hyphen: dry-cleaning, daughter-in-law, and
well-being are some examples of hyphenated compound nouns.

Sometimes compound nouns appear as two separate words: full moon, Christmas tree, and
swimming pool are some examples of compound nouns that are formed with two separate words.
These are often referred to as open or spaced compound nouns.

Compound Nouns Exercises

Choose the word that makes each of these nouns into a compound noun.

1. Fund __________ (A – driver, B – seat, C – raiser)

2. News __________ (A– paper, B – story, C – travels)
3. Sun ____________ (A– day, B – glasses, C – heat)
4. Child ___________ (A – hood, B – ren, C – play)
5. Door ___________ (A– frame, B – handle, C – way

Possessive Nouns
Possessive nouns demonstrate ownership over something else. The best way to spot them is to
look for an apostrophe. Here are some examples:
• Ali’s imagination ran wild as she daydreamed about her trip to Muree.
• Ireland's landscape is truly breath taking.
• The kids' toys are in the basket
Gender-specific Noun
A gender-specific noun refers specifically to a male or a female. In English, the gender of
most nouns is neuter. However, if a noun refers to something obviously male or female, then
its gender will be masculine or feminine. For example:
• queen, vixen (female fox), bitch (female dog), sow (female pig)
(The grammatical gender of these nouns is feminine.)
• king, uncle, drake (male duck), (The grammatical gender of these nouns is masculine.)

A noun that denotes either a male or a female is said to be of the Common Gender; as
Parent, child, friend, pupil, servant, thief, relation, enemy, cousin, person, orphan,
student, baby, monarch, neighbour, infant.

A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female (i.e., thing without life) is
said to be of the Neuter Gender; as,
Book, pen, room, tree.
• [Neuter means neither, that is, neither male nor female]

Verbal nouns
Nouns derived from verbs (e.g., a building, an attack)
It was a lovely building.
Their arrival has been delayed
That was an awful decision by the referee.

2-Pronouns
Pronouns are used in place of a noun often to avoid repeating the noun. For example:

Hina was tired so she went to bed.

Ali took the children with him.

Ali brought a glass of water for me

That is a good idea.

Anything might happen.

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns are used in place of nouns referring to specific people or things, for example I,
we, they, you, he, she, me, mine, you, yours, his, her, hers, , or them. They can be divided into
various different categories according to their role in a sentence, as follows:

• subjective pronouns
 • objective pronouns
• possessive pronouns
• reflexive pronouns

Subjective pronouns

The personal pronouns I, you, we, he, she, it, and they are known as subjective pronouns because
they act as the subjects of verbs:

She saw her. We drove Ali home. I waved at her.

Objective pronouns

The personal pronouns, me,you, us, him, her, it, and them are called objective pronouns because
they act as the objects of verbs:

Huma saw her. Ali drove us home. She waved at me.

Here’s a table setting out the different forms:

SINGULAR PLURAL

Subjective objective subjective objective

first person I me we Us

second person You you you You

third person he/she/it him/her/it They Them

Notice that the personal pronouns you and it stay the same, whether they are being used in the
subjective or objective roles.

Possessive pronouns

The personal pronouns mine, yours, hers, his, ours, and theirs are known as possessive pronouns:
they refer to something owned by the speaker or by someone or something previously mentioned.
For example:

That book is mine.

John’s eyes met hers.

He is Our family friend.

Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive personal pronouns include myself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and
themselves. These are used to refer back to the subject of the clause in which they are used:

I fell and hurt myself.

Daisy prepared herself for the journey.

The children had to look after themselves.

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns make up another class of pronouns. They are used to connect relative clauses
to independent clauses. Often, they introduce additional information about something mentioned
in the sentence. Relative pronouns include that, what, which, who, and whom. Traditionally, who
refers to people, and which and that refer to animals or things.

The woman who called earlier didn’t leave a message.

All the dogs that got adopted today will be loved.
My car, which is nearly twenty years old, still runs well.
Demonstrative Pronouns

That, this, these and those are demonstrative pronouns. They take the place of a noun or noun
phrase that has already been mentioned.

This is used for singular items that are nearby. These is used for multiple items that are nearby.
The distance can be physical or metaphorical.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are used when you need to refer to a person or thing that doesn’t need to be
specifically identified. Some common indefinite pronouns are one, other, none, some, anybody,
everybody, and no one.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used in questions. The interrogative pronouns are who, what,
which,whom etc.

Reciprocal Pronouns
A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun which is used to indicate that two or more people are carrying
out or have carried out an action of some type, with both receiving the benefits or consequences
of that action simultaneously.

There are only two reciprocal pronouns. each other and one another. Both of them allow you to
make sentences simpler. They are especially useful when you need to express the same general
idea more than once.

Intensive Pronouns
An intensive pronoun is almost identical to a reflexive pronoun. It is defined as a pronoun that
ends in self or selves and places emphasis on its antecedent by referring back to another noun or
pronoun used earlier in the sentence. For this reason, intensive pronouns are sometimes called
emphatic pronouns.

Ben built a boat for himself. Reflexive pronoun

My mother bakes our family’s bread herself. Intensive pronoun

Generic Pronoun

Also known as common-gender pronoun.

In English grammar, a generic pronoun is a personal pronoun (such as one or they) that can refer
to both masculine and feminine entities. Also called a common gender pronoun, an epicene
pronoun, and a gender-neutral pronoun. One, you, we and they are generic personal pronouns.
We can use one, you, we and they to refer to ‘people in general’.

One should never go to sleep with an electric heating pad turned on.

One can use the Internet without understanding cookies. (or You can use … or We can use …)

You usually need a raincoat in Ireland. It rains a lot.

We tend to avoid talking about money.

Distributive pronoun
Distributive pronoun is a pronoun which denotes persons or things of group separately that's why
they always become singular and followed by the singular verbs.

This pronoun is used to indicate all the members of representative group. Some of the
distributive pronouns are like each, either, neither, everyone, any, none, no one, etc

• Each boy was given a prize.

• Either road leads to the railway station.
• Neither accusation is true.

3-Verb
A verb describes what a person or thing does or what happens. For example, verbs describe:

an action – run, hit, travel

an event – rain, occur

a situation – be, seem, have

a change – become, grow, develop

Stative and Dynamic Verbs

Verbs in English can be classified into two categories: Stative verbs and dynamic verbs.
Dynamic verbs (sometimes referred to as "action verbs") usually describe actions we can take,
or things that happen; Stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is not changing
or likely to change. The difference is important, because stative verbs cannot normally be used
in the continuous (BE + ING) forms. This will explain the differences between the two types
of verb, and give lots of examples of each kind.

There are many types of dynamic verbs, but most of them describe activities or events which
can begin and finish. Here are some examples:

Dynamic Verb Type Examples

Play: activity She plays tennis every Friday.

She's playing tennis right now.

Melt: process The snow melts every spring.

The snow is melting right now

Hit : momentary action When one boxer hits another, brain damage can result

When one boxer is hitting another, brain damage can result.

Dynamic verbs, as you can see from the examples above, can be used in the simple and perfect
forms (plays, played, has played, had played) as well as the continuous or progressive forms
(is playing, was playing, has been playing, had been playing).

Stative verbs
 Stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is quite static or unchanging. They can
be divided into verbs of perception or cognition (which refer to things in the mind), or verbs
of relation (which describe the relationships between things). Here are some examples:

Stative Verb Type Examples

hate perception I hate chocolate.

believe perception She believes in Allah.

contain relation The box contains 24 cans of soda.

own relation He owns three motorbikes.

Note that we can not use these verbs in the continuous (progressive) forms; you can’t say "*He
is owning three cars." Owning is a state, not an action, so it is always in the simple form.

Example verbs

Here some common stative and dynamic verbs. The lists may help you to understand what
types of verbs are likely to be stative and what types are commonly dynamic.

Stative Verbs: love; hate; like; see; hear; sound; think (meaning "have an opinion"); mind
(meaning "care about"); recognize; seem; have (meaning "own"); prefer; doubt; consist of;
mean

Dynamic Verbs:s eat; drink; go; type; read; write; listen; speak; watch; say; grow; work; sleep;
cook; talk

Dynamic verbs, as you can see from the examples above, can be used in the simple and perfect
forms (plays, played, has played, had played) as well as the continuous or progressive forms
(is playing, was playing, has been playing, had been playing).

Transitive and intransitive verbs

A transitive verb is one that is used with an object: a noun phrase, or pronoun that refers to the
person or thing that is affected by the action of the verb. In the following sentences,
admire, maintain, face, and love are transitive verbs:

I admire your courage.

We need to maintain product quality.

I couldn’t face him today.

She loves animals.

Some transitive verbs can be used with a direct object and an indirect object:

Liz brought Her a glass of water.

[indirect object] [direct object]
He sent Her a letter.
[indirect object] [direct object]
Intransitive verbs

An intransitive verb does not have an object. In the following sentences, cry, work, laugh, and
talk are intransitive verbs:

The baby was crying.

The boy is playing.

Finite and Non-finite verbs:

Finite verbs which has a subject and shows tense. Every sentence needs finite verb. Non-finite
verbs are verbs that do not describe a verb, not showing tense or verbs which are not acting like a
verb. There are three types of non -finite verbs

1-Gerunds: form of the verb which ends in ‘ing’ and has a function of noun e.g. painting,
writing

2-Participles: is verb form used as an adjective to modify noun and pronoun.

All present participles end in ‘ing’ the laughing lady, the falling temperature.

All regular verbs end in ‘ed’ tired dancer, the injured player

3-infinitives: The basic form of a verb is known as the infinitive. It’s often preceded by the
word ‘to’:

He decided to follow him.

He began to run back.

Active and passive verbs

Depending on the way in which you word a sentence, a verb can be either active or passive.

When the verb is active, the subject of the verb is doing the action, as in these examples:

Ali eats mangoes.

 [subject] [active verb]

When the verb is passive, the subject undergoes the action rather than doing it:

Mangoes are eaten by Ali.

[subject] [active verb]

Auxiliary verbs
Auxiliary verbs are so called because they help to form the various tenses, moods, and voices of
other verbs. The principal ones are be, do, and have. They are also called helping verbs.

Modal verbs

There is a further set of auxiliary verbs known as modal verbs or modal auxiliary verbs. These
combine with other verbs to express necessity, possibility, intention, or ability. The modal
auxiliary verbs are must, shall, will, should, would, ought (to), can, could, may, and might. For
example:

Phrasal verbs

A phrasal verb is a verb that is made up of a main verb together with an adverb or a preposition,
or both. Typically, their meaning is not obvious from the meanings of the individual words
themselves. For example:

She has always looked down on me.

Fighting broke out among a group of 40 men.

Regular and irregular verbs

An English verb can be regular or irregular. Regular verbs form their past and past participle
forms by adding –ed.
Examples are given below.

Walk – walked – walked

Paint – painted – painted
Work – worked – worked

Irregular verbs form their past and past participle forms in different ways. There are mainly three
types of irregular verbs.
Verbs in which all the three forms are the same (e.g. put – put – put)
Verbs in which two of the three forms are the same (e.g. sit – sat – sat)
Verbs in which all three forms are different (e.g. drink – drank – drunk)

Some verbs can be both regular and irregular. Examples are:

Burn – burnt – burnt (irregular)

Burn – burned – burned (regular)

Dream – dreamt – dreamt (irregular)

Dream – dreamed – dreamed (regular)

In the context of verbs, we use the term inflection to talk about the process of changing a verb
form to show tense, mood (the form of the verb that shows the mode or manner in which a thought
is expressed), number (i.e. singular or plural), and person (i.e. first person, second person, or third
person).

4-Adverb
An adverb is a word which we use to modify the meaning of adjective, verb or other parts of
speech. It is one of the parts of speech which tells us how, where, when, in what manner, and
to what extent an action is performed in the sentence. Some of the adverbs end with 'ly' (which
are used to express how an action is performed) such as carefully, gracefully, etc. However, some
are without 'ly' such as well, very, fast, never, now, most, far, least, more, less, there, etc.

She was singing beautifully (manner) at a concert (place) last Sunday (time)

Types of Adverb

Different kinds of adverbs, expressing different meaning, are described below with proper
definition and examples:

Adverb of Time

Adverb of time is an adverb which tells us about time of happenings or time of something is done
in the sentence. Adverbs of time are used in the beginning (as a form of emphasis) or end of the
sentence. Adverbs of time are like already, afterwards, immediately, always, last month, soon,
then, now, and yesterday.

For example:

• He admitted to hospital and died yesterday.

• My factory caught fire and burned down in the last month.
I have completed my homework already.

Adverb of Place
Adverb of place is an adverb which tells us about the place where something is done or happens
in the sentence. It is used generally after the verb, object or end of the sentence. Adverbs of place
are like below, here, above, inside, outside, there, over there, under, upstairs, etc.

For example:

• We need to stop here for dinner.

• He was eating under the table.
• A bird fly above in the sky.

Adverb of Manner

Adverb of manner is an adverb which tells us about manner of how something is done or happens
in the sentence. Such type of adverbs are generally end with 'ly' such as cheerfully, badly, quickly,
happily, angrily, sadly, slowly. However, some are simple like fast, well, hard, etc.

For example:

• I went to school cheerfully.

• He runs fast.
• We celebrated teacher's day happily.

Adverb of Degree or Quantity

Adverb of degree or quantity is an adverb which tells us about the level or extent of something is
done or happens in the sentence. It is used before the adjective or adverb. Adverbs of degree or
quantity are like almost, nearly, quite, much, really, too, very, so, etc.

For example:

• It was too hard task for us to complete. (adverb is used before adjective)
• I am feeling really sad for my friend's father death.

Adverb of Number
Adverb of number is used to show number of action of the verb in a sentence. Adverbs of number
are like firstly, secondly, once, yearly, never, twice, lastly, etc.

For example:
 • I eat food twice a day. (in this sentence, 'twice' is an adverb of number)
• He saw me once.

5. Adjective
Adjective is a word that describes or clarifies a noun. Adjectives describe nouns by giving some
information about an object’s size, shape, age, color, origin or material.

• It’s a big table. (size)

• It’s a round table. (shape)
• It’s an old table. (age)
• It’s a brown table. (color)
• It’s an English table. (origin)
• It’s a wooden table. (material)
• It’s a lovely table. (opinion)
• It’s a broken table. (observation)
• It’s a coffee table. (purpose)

Kinds of Adjectives:

All adjectives are not the same. They modify nouns and pronouns differently, and just like the
other parts of speech, there are different kinds of adjectives. These are:

1. Adjective of quality (Descriptive)

Among the different kinds of adjectives, descriptive adjectives are probably the most common
ones. They simply say something about the quality or the kind of the noun or pronoun they’re
referring [Link] of Quality answer the question : Of what kind ?

Examples:

• Saba is witty.
• She is tired.

2. Adjectives of Number or Adjectives of Quantity

As the name suggests, this kind of adjective answers the question, “How many?” or “How much?”
Examples:

• Twenty-one students failed the exam.

• The plants need more water.

3. Demonstrative Adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives point out pronouns and nouns, and always come before the words they
are referring to. Examples:

• I used to buy this kind of shirts.

• When the old man tripped over that wire, he dropped a whole bag of groceries.

4. Possessive Adjectives

Obviously, this kind of adjectives shows ownership or possession. Aside from that, possessive
adjectives always come before the noun. Examples:

• My dress is beautiful.
• Ali sold his house.

5. Interrogative Adjectives

Interrogative adjectives ask questions and are always followed by a noun.

Examples:

• What movie are you watching?

• Which plants should be placed over here?

6. Distributive Adjective

Distributive Adjective refer to each and every person / thing separately is called Distributive
Adjective. i.e. Each, Every, either, neither, any, one, both etc.

Examples
Each boy was gives a chocolate.
Every nation is proud of its culture
Neither of them got majority.
Either of you can collect the prize.
I love any song that Sakira sings.
Choose the one you like.
 Both of them are in the room.

What are the Degrees of Adjectives?

There are only three degrees or levels of adjectives (also known as degrees of comparison) namely,
positive, comparative, and superlative. When you talk about or describe only a single person,
place, or thing, you should use the positive degree.

Examples:

• She is a beautiful lady.

• It was a memorable trip.

If on the other hand, you are comparing two persons, places, or things, it is appropriate to use the
comparative degree of the word. Normally, you will need to add “-er” to transform the word into
its comparative form or add the word “more.” Also, the word “than” should be added after the
adjective in the comparative degree.

Examples:

• This swimming pool is bigger than that one.

• Ashley is more intelligent than Aldrin.

*Note: For words ending in “y,” you should first change the “y” into “i,” and then add “-er” (e.g.,
lovely-lovelier; pretty- prettier; tasty- tastier)

Lastly, if you are comparing more than two things, the superlative form of the adjectives should
be used and the word “the” should be added before the adjective. In order to transform the adjective
into its superlative form, you just have to add the suffix “-est” or the word “most.”

Examples:

• That is by far, the tallest tree I have ever seen in my entire life.
• This is the most crucial match of the season.

*Note: For words ending in “y,” you should first change the “y” into “i,” and then add “-est” (e.g.,
lovely-loveliest; pretty- prettiest; tasty- tastiest)

6. Preposition:
A word that is used before a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun, connecting it to another word:
The book is on the table. The cat is under the table.
Types of Prepositions

There are three types of prepositions, including time prepositions, place prepositions, and
direction prepositions.
Time prepositions are those such as before, after, during, and until;

Place prepositions are those indicating position, such as around, between, and against; and

Direction prepositions are those indicative of direction, such as across, up, and down. Each type
of preposition is important.

[Link]
Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases or clauses. There are three types of
conjunctions:

1-Coordinating conjunctions connect two words or groups of words with similar values. They
may connect two words, two phrases, two independent clauses or two dependent clauses.
Connects two words: John and Reggie stayed up all night practicing their guitars.
Connects two phrases: The squirrel scurried up the tree trunk and onto a low branch.
Connects two clauses: Several managers sat with their backs to us, and I could almost hear them
snickering at us lowly workers.
There are only seven coordinating conjunctions in the English language, and they are often
remembered by using the acronym “FANBOYS": for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so
2-Subordinating: conjunctions connect two groups of words by making one into a subordinating
clause. The subordinating clause acts as one huge adverb, answering the questions “when" or
“why" about the main clause, or imposing conditions or opposition on it.
Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions changing a clause into adverbial
subordinating clauses in different ways:
• I can go shopping after I finish studying for my exam. (when)
• Because the night was young, Gertrude decided to take a walk. (why)
• I’ll give you a dime if you give me a dollar. (condition)
• Although he never figured out why, Hanna winked on her way out the door. (opposition)

3-Correlative conjunctions: are always used in pairs. They are similar to coordinating
conjunctions because they join sentence elements that are similar in importance.
The following are some examples of coordinating conjunctions:
Both, and: Both Ali and Zia made the varsity team this year.
Neither, nor: Neither Ali and Zia made the varsity team this year.
Not only, but also: Not only did Ali make the strong team, but he also become one of the strongest
players
 8-Interjections
Interjections are words used to express strong feeling or sudden emotion. They are included in a
sentence (usually at the start) to express a sentiment such as surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, or
enthusiasm. An interjection is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.
Examples of interjection:
Aah, Ahh, Eh,Wow, Hey, Well, What, Hurrah, Hmph, Oh, Oops, Ouch, Uh oh, Yeah, Uh, Hush,
Hmm, Um, Bravo, Hello, Ugh, Ah, Ha ha, Well done, Alas, Fie, Hi, Yes, Ouch, Help, Happy
Birthday, Good morning, dear, oops, huh, yum, oy, etc. For example:

• Good! Now we can celebrate the party.

• Oh, what's a surprise
• Hey! Get out of the building!
• Yes! I can do it easily.
• No! I run so long.
• Well! I have a good news.

Types of Interjection
Interjection is divided into following types on the basis of way to express interjections in the
sentence such as greeting, joy, surprise, approval, sorrow, attention, and calling.

• Hey! Get off that floor!

• Oh, that is a surprise.
• Good! Now we can move on.

Interjections for Greeting

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to indicate the emotion of warmth to the person
meeting with such as hey, hello, hi, etc.

For example:

• Hey! Nice to see you here in the party.

• Hello! I am Ali.

Interjections for Joy

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to indicate immediate joy and happiness on any
happy occasion occurred such as hurrah, wow, hurray, etc.

For example:

• Wow! You are looking gorgeous.

• Hurray! We successfully won this football match.
 Interjections for Approval
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the strong sense of approval or
agreement for something that has happened such as well done, bravo, brilliant, etc.

For example:

Well done! You win the race. Bravo! You have got the first position.

Interjections for Attention

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to draw attention of someone such as look,
behold, listen, hush, etc.

For example:

• Look! You so arrogant.

• Listen! I have never copied you.
• Behold! Someone strange is there.

Interjections for Surprise

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the strong sense of surprise about
something that has happened such as ha, what, hey, ah, oh, eh, [Link] example:

• What! You failed.

• Oh! Really you completed the task, I can't believe.
• Ah! I got new job.

Interjections for Sorrow

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the emotion of sadness about
something unfortunate has happened such as alas, ouch, ah, oh, etc. For example:

• Alas! He is no more.
• Ouch! It's very paining.

Article
An article is a word used before a noun that indicates whether or not the reference is to a specific
entity or entities or an unspecific one.

There are only three articles, a, an and the. A and an, the indefinite articles, are used to refer to a
single and unspecified entity. A is used with nouns that start with a consonant sound, as in a battery,
while an is used with words that start with a vowel sound, as in an ink.
The, the definite article, refers to a specific entity or entities. The single entity may also be made
up of multiple individual entities, as in, for example, the class of 1999, the Hayyatians or the IEEE
(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers).

Articles are also considered adjectives, because they add information about nouns.

Phrases, Sentences and Clauses

Phrase:
A phrase is a group of words in English. A phrase can be short or long, but it does not include
the subject and verb.

Types of phases

Noun Phrase

A noun phrase is any noun or pronoun along with its modifiers:

The school children, Yesterday’s newspaper, An old man and a boy

Verb Phrase

A verb phrase is any number of verbs working together

Had been sleeping, Will contact, May have written

Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase always starts with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun

During the year, Despite complaints, In the summer

Adverb phrase
A simple adverb phrase usually contains an adverb and at least one other word before or after it.
Surprisingly well, Very carefully, Quite easily, Around the sun,
Yesterday afternoon, After a few minutes

Adjective phrase
An adjective phrase is a group of words that describe a noun or pronoun in a sentence. The
adjective in an adjective phrase can appear at the start, end, or in the middle of the phrase. The
adjective phrase can be placed before, or after, the noun or pronoun in the sentence.

The final exams were unbelievably difficult.

Mom said the cost of a car is way too high.
Your dress is extremely expensive.

Sentence
A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense, contains a main verb, and begins with
a capital letter. Sentences are used to convey complete thought.

Sentence pattern:

The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate

Subject and Predicate

Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is what (or
whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. In the following
sentences,

He reads.”

This is pretty simple, as there are only two words.

The subject is he, and the predicate is reads.

Can you still identify the subject and predicate with more words?

“He reads the book.”

The subject is still he, but the predicate has some extra words: reads the book. Since it’s still
modifying the subject and contains a verb, it’s still serving the same function.

“He reads the book in the park on Tuesdays.”

In this sentence,

It’s still he

The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any complete sentence. In
addition, there are other elements, contained within the subject or predicate, that add meaning or
detail. These elements include the direct object, indirect object, subject complement and object
complement. All of these elements can be expanded and further combined into simple, compound,
complex, or compound/complex sentences.

Object

Object
An object is a noun or pronoun that is governed by a verb or a preposition.
There are three kinds of object:
• Direct Object (e.g., I know him.)
• Indirect Object (e.g., Give her the prize.)
• Object of a Preposition (e.g., Sit with them.)

Direct Object:
A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the verb’s action. An easy trick is to know that
the direct object answers the questions “what?" Now, this sentence has no direct object:
She cooked.
Right now, we may be asking, “what did she cook?” By adding a direct object, we can add more
information to a sentence. Let’s add a direct object to answer that question:
She cooked rice.
In this sentence, the verb is “cooked.” So, the direct object should be what is receiving the verb’s
action—in other words, what is being cooked? “Rice” is the direct object, because it gets cooked
(verb). Here’s another example:
I wrapped a present.
What did you wrap? A present. “Present” is the direct object because you “wrapped” it.

Indirect Object
An indirect object is the noun or pronoun that receives the direct object. It answers the question
“to/for what?” or “to/for whom?” Let’s start with a sentence without a direct object:
She cooked rice.
Now, let’s ask, “for whom did the dog cook the popcorn?” Our answer is the indirect object, which
we can add to the sentence:

She cooked rice for me .

“me ” is the indirect object because it gets the rice. Here’s another example:

It was my birthday, so she bought me a present.

Here, “present” is the direct object, making “me” the indirect object, because she receives the
present that she bought.
Object of the Preposition
The object of the preposition is the object that is paired with the preposition in a sentence. It
answers the question “where or when did this all happen?” and follows the form preposition
+ object of the preposition. Here are a few examples:
▪ At home (place)
▪ During the week (time)
▪ In the car (place)
▪ After midnight (time)
▪ On the table (place)
▪ Within an hour (time)

Object Complement
An object complement (also called an objective complement) follows a direct object. It may be a
word or phrase that gives further meaning to the direct object. In a sense, it explains what the direct
object has become.
An object complement can be a noun, pronoun, or adjective.
Object Complement Examples:
• He made her happy.
• “her” is the direct object
• “happy” is the object compliment
• “happy” is what she, the direct object (“her”), has become.
An object complement gives further meaning to the object.

Object Complements as Nouns

A noun object complement can be a single word or a phrase.

• My mother brought me a new dress.

• “me” is the direct object
• “a new dress” is a noun phrase
• “a new dress” is the object compliment
• “a new dress” is what me, the direct object, has become
Object Complements as Pronouns
• They chose the candidate who was best.
• “the candidate” is the direct object
• “who was best” is a relative pronoun phrase
• “who was best” is the object compliment
• “who was best” is what the candidate, the direct object, has become
Object Complements as Adjectives
An adjective object complement can be a single word or a phrase.

• We considered him worthy.

• “him” is the direct object
 • “worthy” is an adjective
• “worthy” is the object compliment
• “worthy” is what he, the direct object (“him”), has become

Subject Complement

A subject complement is a word or phrase (usually an adjective phrase, noun phrase,

or pronoun) that follows a linking verb and describes or renames the subject of the
sentence. Also called a subjective complement.

In traditional grammar, a subject complement is usually identified as either a predicate

nominative or a predicate adjective.

Examples and Observations

• The light in the room was warm and soft.
• Mr. Ali was my fourth-grade teacher.
• My fourth-grade teacher was exceptionally kind.

Types of Sentences
There are four main types of sentences:

• Declarative or Affirmative Sentences

• Command or Imperative Sentence
• Question or Interrogative Sentences
• Exclamatory or optative Sentences

Simple or Declarative Sentence

to make statements. A Simple sentence is one which has only one Subject and one Predicate. It
ends with period (.)

• I took some money out of the bank.

• The shop stays open until 9 p.m.

There are three types of simple sentences

Compound Sentence

A compound sentence has two independent clauses joined by a linking word (and, but, or, so,
yet, however).

• I‘m happy, but my kids are always complaining.

• Robert doesn’t eat meat, so mom made a special vegetarian dish for him.
 • My brother and I went to the mall last night, but we didn’t buy anything.
• This new laptop computer has already crashed twice, and I have no idea why.

Note that each sentence has TWO subjects and TWO verb phrases.

Complex Sentence

A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

A dependent clause cannot be a complete sentence by itself.

• I’m happy, even though I don’t make much money.

• Robert, a friend I’ve known since high school, doesn’t eat meat.
• After getting home from work, my brother and I went to the mall last night.
• This new laptop computer, which I bought yesterday, has already crashed twice.

Compound-Complex Sentence

A compound-complex sentence contains 3 or more clauses: 2 independent and at least 1

dependent clause.

• I’m happy, even though I don’t make much money, but my kids are always
complaining since we can’t afford to buy the newest toys.

2-Question or Interrogative Sentence

to ask questions or make requests. It ends with question mark (?)

Can I help you?

Could you open the door?
3-Command or Imperative Sentence

to give orders or to express wish, Sharing an invitation, Giving instructions, Sharing a

request, Giving a demand. It ends with period (.) or exclamatory mark (!)

Come here at once!

Bring a glass of water.
Stop arguing!

4-Exclamatory Sentence
to express or share strong feelings or excitement. It ends with exclamation mark. (!) Alas!
We have lost the match. Hurrah! I have
got first position in the exam. . It’s so cold!
Clauses
A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. A clause may form part of a
sentence or it may be a complete sentence in itself. For example:

An independent clause can express a complete thought. An independent clause can stand alone in
a sentence. It contains a subject and a verb in its smallest form. A clause may also include modifiers
and a verb predicate. It is a complete thought and the smallest unit of grammar that is syntactically
accurate. Every sentence contains at least one main clause. A main clause may form part of
compound sentence or a complex sentence, but it also makes sense on its own, as in this example:

Example of Independent Clauses:

• I eat bananas in the kitchen.

• In the kitchen, I eat.

What is a Dependent Clauses?

Dependent clause definition: Dependent clauses contain a subject and verb. However, they
cannot stand alone as an independent thought. They must be joined with an independent clause to
be grammatically correct. A dependent clause is usually a supporting part of a sentence, and it
cannot stand by itself as a meaningful proposition (idea). A complete thought is also called a main
clause or independent clause

Example of Dependent Clause:

• Every night before I go to bed, I eat bananas.

This example contains the IC, “I eat bananas.” However, a dependent clause now opens the
sentence. While the dependent clause contains a subject and a verb (“I go”), the dependent clause
itself cannot stand alone a complete thought.

Example of Dependent Clause:

• Every night before I go to bed

This is not a complete thought and therefore not a sentence in English. Every night before I go to
bed…what happens? This idea must be joined with an independent clause to be grammatically
correct.

Conditional clause
A conditional clause is one that usually begins with if or unless and describes something that is
possible or probable:

If it looks like rain a simple shelter can be made out of a plastic sheet
[conditional clause] [main clause]
I'll be home tomorrow unless the plane's delayed for hours.
[main clause] [conditional clause]

Relative clause
A relative clause is one connected to a main clause by a word such as which, that, whom, whose,
when, where, or who:

I first saw her in Paris, where I lived in the early nineties.

[main clause] [relative clause]
She wants to be with Thomas, who is best suited to take care of her.
[main clause] [relative clause]
I was wearing the dress that I bought to wear to Jo's party.
[main clause] [relative clause]

Using relative clauses

Have you ever wondered about when to use that and when to use which or who in this type of
sentence? In fact, for much of the time that is interchangeable with either of these words. For
example:

You’re the only person who has ever listened to me.

You’re the only person that has ever listened to me.

It’s a film that should be seen by everyone.

It’s a film which should be seen by everyone

When referring to something, rather than someone, that tends to be the usual choice in everyday
writing and conversation in British English. However, there is one main case when you should
not use that to introduce a relative clause. This is related to the fact that there are two types of
relative clause: a restrictive relative clause and a non-restrictive relative clause.

Restrictive relative clause

A restrictive relative clause (also known as a defining relative clause) gives essential
information about a noun that comes before it: without this clause the sentence wouldn’t make
much sense. A restrictive relative clause can be introduced by that, which, whose, who, or
whom. You should not place a comma in front of a restrictive relative clause:

She held out the hand which was hurt.

She held out the hand that was hurt.
[main clause] [restrictive relative clause]

You can also leave out that or which in some restrictive relative clauses:

√ It reminded him of the house that he used to rent in Lahore.

√ It reminded him of the house which he used to rent in Lahore.
√ It reminded him of the house he used to rent in Lahore.
[main clause] [restrictive relative clause]

Non-restrictive relative clause

A non-restrictive relative clause (also called a non-defining relative clause) provides extra
information that could be left out without affecting the meaning or structure of the sentence.
Non-restrictive relative clauses are normally introduced by which, whose, who, or whom, but
never by that. You should place a comma in front of them:

The paint, which Mary bought at the hardware store, was bright red.

[Link], who lives next door, claims to be an artist.

She held out her hand, which her friend shook.

[main clause] [non-restrictive relative clause]

If a non-restrictive relative clause is in the middle of a sentence, you should put commas before
and after it:

Bill, who had fallen asleep on the sofa, suddenly roused himself.
[non-restrictive relative clause]

More Types of Clauses

Noun Clause
A noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun. Noun clauses begin with words such as
how, that, what, whatever, when, where, whether, which, whichever, gwho, whoever,
whom, whomever, and why. Noun clauses can act as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, or
objects of a preposition.

Example of Noun Clause:

• I remember what you said yesterday.

Here, the underlined portion is the independent clause that can stand alone. The italicized words,
“what you said yesterday,” serve as a dependent noun clause.

The noun clause is acting as the object of the sentence. In the noun clause “you said” is a subject
plus a verb. This creates the clause (a subject plus a verb). However, “what you said yesterday”
cannot stand alone and therefore must be paired with an independent clause.

• I thought what she wore was so stylish.

• Do you know what the weather will be?

Adjective Clause (Also called Relative Clause)

An adjective clause is a type of dependent clause that acts as an adjective in the sentence. An
adjective clause will always contain a subject and a verb. However, it cannot stand alone as a
complete thought. .An adjective clause will always begin with one of the following words:

Relative Pronouns List: That, where, who, whom, which

Relative Adverbs List: When, where, why

Example of Adjective Clause:

The boy whom you saw at the store committed a robbery.

The adjective clause is acting as an adjective in this sentence. The adjective clause describes the
boy. It contains a subject and a verb, “you saw.” However, it cannot stand alone as a complete
thought. “Who you saw at the robbery” is not a complete statement.

Additional adjective clause examples:

Pizza, which most people love, is not very healthy.

Those people whose names are on the list will go to camp.

Grandpa remembers the old days when there was no television.

Fruit that is grown organically is expensive.

The store that the boy robbed is on the corner.

The corner of the street where my family lives is surrounded by investigators.

What is an Adverbial Clause?

Adverbial clause definition: An adverbial clause is a type of dependent clause that acts as an
adverb in the sentence. An adverbial clause will always contain a subject and a verb. However, it
cannot stand alone as a complete thought. Adverb clauses are of many kinds and may be classified
as Adverb Clauses of:-
1. Time 2. Place. 3. Purpose. 4. Cause.5. Condition.
6. Result.7. Comparison. 8. Supposition or Concession

Whether you like it or not, you have to go to bed now.

She likes the red car more than her husband does.
If you pay your bills, you will have a good credit score.
Unless you run fast, you will miss the bus.
So that she would have a tan for her vacation, she went to a tanning salon.
John kept his schedule open, in case of emergencies.
Because he loved her, he didn’t believe she had an affair.
Once they saw the car coming, the birds flew away from the street.
Although she has a business degree, she is working as a retail clerk.
1. Adverb Clauses of time
Adverb Clauses of time are introduced by the Subordinating Conjunctions whenever,
while, after, before, since, as, etc.
When you have finished your work you may go home.
I will do it when I think fit.
2. Adverb Clauses of Place
Adverb Clauses of Place are introduced by the Subordinating Conjunctions where and whereas,
I have put it where I can find it again.
They can stay where they are.
3. Adverb Clauses of Purpose
Adverb clauses of purpose are introduced by the subordinateing conjunctions so that, in order
that and lest. (In order that and lest are used in a formal style.)
I will give you a map so that you can find the way.
We eat so that we may live.
4. Adverb Clauses of Cause or Reason
Adverb Clauses of Cause or Reason are introduced by the Subordinating conjunctions
because, as, since, that.
Because I like you, I shall help you.
I did it because I wanted to.
5. Adverb Clauses of Condition
Adverb Clauses of Condition are introduced by the Subordinating Conjunctions if
whether, unless.
If I like it, I shall buy it. Come if you wish to.
If it rains we shall stay al home.
6. Adverb Clauses of Result or Consequence
Adverb Clauses of Result or Consequence are introduced by the Subordinating
Conjunction that. Frequently so or such precedes it in the Principal Clause.
They fought so bravely that the enemies were driven off. / So bravely did they fight that
the enemy were driven off. (Literary),
He is such a good man that all respect him.
Adverb Clauses of Comparison
Adverb Clauses of Comparison are of two kinds:-
(i) Adverb Clauses of Comparison of Degree.
(ii) Adverb Clauses of Comparison of Manner.
Adverb Clauses of Comparison of Degree are introduced by the Subordinating
Conjunction than, or by the Relative Adverb as;
He is older than he looks.
He is as stupid as he is lazy.
He is not so clever as you think.
8. Adverb Clauses of Supposition
Adverb Clauses of Supposition are introduced by the Subordinating
Conjunctions though, although, even if.
Though I am poor I am honest.
Even if it rains I shall come.

Example of Adverbial Clause:

You will continue driving north until you see a stop sign.

After the movie ended, we ate ice cream.

She visits her grandfather whenever she is in town.