Structural defect

Structural defect is the type of defect that affects the structural part and makes the pavement
incapable of sustaining the load imposed up on its surface.
Some of the Structural defect of a pavement structure are:
- Alligator cracking
- Block cracking
- Edge craking
- Longutdinal cracking
- Transverese cracking
- Reflection cracking
- Slipagge cracking
- Rutting
- Depression
- Corrugation
- Patch distress
Alligator Cracking
Alligator cracking is a load associated structural failure. It often starts in the wheel path as longitudinal
cracking and ends up as alligator cracking after severe [Link], alligator cracks are more serious
than they sound, especially if ignored. These interconnected cracks, often referred to as crocodile or
spider cracking, commonly occur on asphalt pavements. This form of surface damage usually indicates
some structural failure. Alligator cracks can occur due to several reasons:

- The traffic load exceeds the design threshold

- Poor base/sub-base (i.e. inadequate compaction)
- Poor drainage
- Stripping (i.e., the loss of adhesion between the asphalt and the base layer makes it susceptible to
moisture)
- Raveling – This leads to moisture entering through the pavement surface.

As the severity increases, the damage will extend across the width of the pavement. Severe
alligator cracking will form a well-developed pattern; street edges will splinter into pieces, and
some may even have missing chunks of pavement.
Severe alligator cracking can also occur locally (small regions) due to weak subsurfaces. This
usually looks like the pattern of a spider web or a shattered glass window. Since the problem is
localized, you might think that repairing it is not a high priority issue.
If the alligator cracking is localized, you will need to remove the damaged section, compact the
base, and then patch it up.
If they are widespread and distributed throughout a pavement section as shown above, a thick
overlay is recommended.
For roads with continuous heavy truck traffic, experts recommend reconstructing the road
entirely. Signs of alligator cracks, especially in highly concentrated areas, imply that there is a
deeper problem happening below the asphalt. A simple crack sealing will not be enough, which is
why reconstructing the entire pavement is suggested. It might seem tedious, but strengthening
the base will prevent premature failure. 
Longitudinal, or parallel, cracks are a precursor to alligator cracks. Seal those cracks as soon as
possible to prevent moisture from entering the pavement. If delayed, the alligator patterns begin
to emerge. At this point, it is already too late, and maintenance costs will drastically increase.
 Block Cracking

Block cracks look like large interconnected rectangles (roughly).They are called block cracks as
the patterns are rectangular, with the area they surround typically being over 1 sq ft. Block
cracking is not load-associated.
Block cracks are caused by
- shrinkage of the asphalt pavement due to an inability of asphalt binder to expand and contract
with temperature cycles. This can be because the mix was mixed and placed too dry
- Fine aggregate mix with low penetration asphalt & absorptive aggregates
- poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design
- aging dried out asphalt; Old and dry asphalt binders (the glue that binds the aggregate
together) become brittle, are more susceptible to temperature changes, and can increase
chances of block cracking.
- when asphalt shrinks. This occurs when there is a large difference between the maximum and
minimum temperature during the same day.

block cracks can be fixed by

Low Severity Block Cracks can be fixed by crack sealing.

For high severity block cracks it is recommended to remove the damaged layer and apply a thin
overlay.

block cracks can be prevented from forming by

To avoid them from forming, ensure that the asphalt binder is designed for the temperature
variations in the region. Early cracks must be sealed to prevent further deterioration.

Edge Cracking
Edge cracks are longitudinal cracks which develop within one or two feet of the outer edge of a
pavement.
As they get worse, they start from the edge and spread towards the center. Severe edge cracks
tend to look like alligator cracks, however, note that they have a crescent-shaped pattern.
There are several factors that lead to edge cracking. The most common ones are as follows:

- Lack of support on the edges to prevent sideways movement.

- Narrow roads, causing passing vehicles to drive on the edge, increasing tension.
- Soil expansion and shrinkage due to variation in moisture.
- Vegetation on the edges can also weaken the base.
- Heavy traffic and weak bases.

Edge cracks can be manintened by the following

- Replace shoulder material with more permeable material to ensure good drainage.
- Structural Overlay (one or more layers with good tack coats in-between layers)
- Thicker overlay (3” to 4”) is recommended to ensure heavy loads are supported.

Edge cracks can be prevented by the following

- Build proper drainage
- Build lateral support
- Ensure water never enters the soil below and maintain a state of “no shrink, no swell”

Longitudinal Cracking.
Longitudinal cracks occur parallel to the centerline of the [Link] cracks can
occur on both asphalt and concrete pavements.
They indicate the onset of alligator cracks (in the case of asphalt pavements) and possible
structural failure. These cracks are not load-related.
Longitudinal cracks typically form due to:

- A poorly constructed paving lane joint,

- A reflective crack from an underlying layer
- Shrinkage of the asphalt due to low temperatures
- longitudinal segregation due to improper paver operation
- Volume changes in subgrade (typically when the subgrade expands)

Longitudinal cracks can be fixed by

For low severity longitudinal cracking: Crack seal to prevent moisture from entering the cracks.
For high severity longitudinal cracking: Remove the cracked layer and replace with an overlay.

Longitudinal cracks can be prevented from forming by

During construction, ensure lane joints are sealed properly: Newly constructed roads must be
sealed properly at the joints, to prevent moisture from entering. In colder climate areas, if
moisture makes its way through, longitudinal cracks can form quickly.
During construction, ensure lane joints are not in the wheel path: Joints are weak and
susceptible to damage by loading. This can cause pavements to fail prematurely. When possible,
construct wider lanes, so that vehicles’ wheel paths are away from the edge/joint.

Transverse Cracking
Transverse cracks occur roughly perpendicular to the centerline of the [Link] are
Unconnected cracks that run across a pavement, perpendicular to the direction of the [Link]
are also known as intralaminar cracks or thermal [Link] cracks can occur on both
asphalt and concrete pavements. They are not load-related.
Transverse cracks typically form due to:

- cracks in the pavement layer beneath the asphalt layer (reflection cracks)
- Shrinkage of the asphalt due to low temperatures
- asphalt binder hardening due to age and high temperatures.

transverse cracks can be fixed by

For low severity transverse cracking: Crack seal to prevent moisture from entering the cracks.
For high severity transverse cracking: Remove the cracked layer and replace with an overlay.

transverse cracks can be prevented from forming by

Seal cracks as soon as they appear: This prevents moisture from entering the pavement and also
reduces chances of edge raveling on asphalt pavements (or edge spalling in the case of concrete)
During construction, ensure proper asphalt/concrete mix: As weather conditions can change
from place to place, good quality materials that have appropriate thermal properties must be
selected.

Reflection Cracking
Reflection cracks(reflective cracks) are cracks that form over joints or cracks in a concrete
pavement or in an overlay of a deteriorated asphalt pavement.
Reflective cracking is caused mainly by thermal- or moisture-induced horizontal and vertical
movement at the joints and cracks in the underlying pavements.
This distress is not load-related; however, traffic loading may cause a breakdown of the AC
surface near the crack.
reflection cracks can be fixed by

Low Severity: Crack seal to prevent moisture from entering the pavement through the cracks and
further raveling of the crack edges.
High severity: Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

Slippage Cracking.
Slippage cracks are crescent-shaped or half- moon shaped cracks, usually transverse to the
direction of travel.
Slippage cracks are formed because of
- When an HMA surface bonds poorly and has little to no adhesion to the adjacent layer below
the asphalt pavement surface, the top pavement layer may slide due to moving vehicles.
- Slippage cracking arises when the asphalt wearing course “slips” when braking or turning
vehicle wheels cause the pavement surface to slide or deform.

slippage cracks can be fixed by

Small section: Remove and replace the affected area with a patch.
Large section: Mill through the sliding pavement down to an undamaged depth, then overlay it
with new asphalt to the original thickness.

slippage cracks can be prevented from forming by

- By using high quality materials for better interlayer bonding.

- The bond between pavement layers cannot be improved once constructed, but increasing top
layer thickness will increase stiffness and help pavement resist slippage and related distress.
- Slippage can be minimized with sufficiently thick or stiff surface layers.

Rutting
Rutting is a linear, surface depression in the wheelpath. Ruts, due to their shape, hold water and
can cause hydroplaning leading to safety problems. Severe ruts can lock vehicles in the rutted
path and create difficulties for drivers from steering out of them (e.g. when trying to switch
lanes).Rutting can occur on asphalt, gravel and dirt roads.
Rutting is caused by deformation or consolidation of any of the pavement layers or subgrade. It
can be caused by insufficient pavement thickness, lack of compaction, and weak asphalt
mixtures.

rutting can be fixed by

First, identify the root cause of the rutting.

For low severity rutting: Fill the rut with asphalt, and then overlay with another layer of asphalt.
For moderate severity rutting: Mill the surface, restore the transverse slope (cross slope) and
resurface with a layer of asphalt.
For high severity rutting: As high severity rutting occurs due to deformation of the subbase, full
depth reconstruction may be required.

rutting can be prevented from forming by

Ensure proper asphalt mix during construction: A proper mix of different grades of rock,
Ensure sufficient compaction during construction: The subbase and subgrade layers must be
compacted adequately so that they don’t deform by heavy loading.

Depressions
Depressions, also call bird-baths, are localized low spots with slightly lower elevations than the
surrounding pavement. Depressions are very noticeable after a rain when they fill with water.
These flaws can be caused by settlement or other failure in the lower pavement layers or by poor
construction techniques.

depressions can be fixed by

Depending on the severity of the depression the asphalt may have to be removed and replaced
(severe). Less severe depressions can be fixed by applying a thin surface patch or infrared patch.

Corrugation
A form of plastic movement typified by ripples (corrugation) or an abrupt wave (shoving) across
the pavement surface. The distortion is perpendicular to the traffic direction. Usually occurs at
points where traffic starts and stops (corrugation) or areas where HMA abuts a rigid object
(shoving).
Corrugation is usually caused by traffic action (starting and stopping) combined with:

- An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA layer (caused by mix contamination, poor mix design, poor
HMA manufacturing, or lack of aeration of liquid asphalt emulsions)
- Excessive moisture in the subgrade

corrugation cracks can be fixed by

A heavily corrugated or shoved pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of
failure. Repair strategies generally fall into one of two categories:

- Small, localized areas of corrugation or shoving. Remove the distorted pavement and patch.
- Large corrugated or shoved areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the damaged
pavement and overlay.

Patch distress
Patch distress occurs when a patch repair is completed in one or more areas in an existing
asphalt parking lot. While attempting to bring the pavement back to like-new conditions, the
patch work may experience a combination of the other 8 distresses.

Patch distress can occur in asphalt removal and replacement applications as well with asphalt
overlays
Many patch distress instances occur due to improper drainage and load distress once the repair
is completed, due to the drainage problem not being properly resolved
May results in ponding of water along edges of patch
However, patch repair is still the more cost-effective solution in comparison to a more complete
rehab such as removal and replacement or resurfacing of the entire area.