ECOLOGY

This is the study of inter-relations between an organism /group of organisms and their
environment.
Terms used in eology
a. Biosphere: Is the part of the earth and the atmosphere where life can exist. This
ranges from deep water bodies, land and few meters in the atmosphere.
b. Species: Is a group of organisms that can interbreed to give rise to viable off springs.
c. Population: A group of organisms of the same species occupying the same area at a
given time eg a population of elephants in Queen Elizabeth national park
d. Habitat: Is a place where an organism lives eg land habitat is known as terrestrial and
water habitat is called aquatic.
e. Ecosystem: is the basic functional unit capable of sustaining its self and consisting of
plants and animals interacting with each other and the nonliving environment
examples of ecosystem include Grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem. An ecosystem
must have producers, consumers and decomposer.

f. Community: Is a collection of populations of different organism occupying the same

area or a group of different species of organism in the same area.
g. Ecology niche: This is a term used in relation to a particular organism. It refers to the
role/profession of an organism in a given habitat eg the niche of spirogyra in a pond is
to photosynthesis /to produce food.
h. Biome: These are very large ecological divisions found all over the world they have
characteristic plant and animal communities eg equatorial rainforests biome, Amazon,
Savannah woodland and grasslands, temperate forests etc.
i. Environment: Surrounding of an organism. It’s divided into 2 groups:
The Biotic environment:
Consists of animal and plant communities. Therefore biotic is considered to be the living
component whether micro or macro in size. These form a vital part of an environment of
and are in constant interaction with it. The plant community is known as flora and animal
community is fauna.
The Abiotic Environment: These are nonliving components of an ecosystem. They are
supposed to be natural. These include;
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1. Climatic elements of the atmosphere such as rainfall, light, temperature, Humidity, air
currents (wind), atmospheric pressure, cloud cover etc.
2. Water bodies of all sizes. Some are fresh water bodies other are marine (high salt
condition)
Features of these water bodies include:
Water temperature, water salinity, water currents/ waves, water pH etc
3. Edaphic (soil) factors, include soil structure, profile, texture, PH, temperature etc.
4. Lithosphere (rock types) factors or land forms eg metamorphic rocks, sedimentary
rocks and igneous rocks.

RELATIONSHIPS WITH AN ECOSYSTEM

Food relationships in an ecosystem
Food is a source of energy in a chemical form. Food in an ecosystem exists as organic
matter (Biomass). Biomass is the measure of the amount of living or organic materials in
an organism. It considers the dry weight (minus water and other fluids in the body).
Food relations are a common form of interaction which consists of eating (consuming)
and (being eaten).
Within the relation there are different modes of feeding. The modes of feeding depend
on;
a. the nature of food
b. the feeding level
Green plants/Autotrophs make their own food using sunlight energy .They incorporate
water and carbon dioxide into organic materials (starch) and the process is known as
photosynthesis. Some of the food energy is used by the plant for its own metabolic
activities eg respiration. Some of the energy is lost during transpiration in form of heat.
The lost heat energy becomes part of the abiotic environment once it enters the
atmosphere.

The balance of energy in the plant is available to the next trophic level made up of the
herbivores, omnivores,--- lower carnivores,----top carnivores ----scavengers.
Scavengers, feed on carcasses of the animals killed by the carnivores.

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From herbivores to scavengers are heterotrophs because they can’t manufacture their own
food. Trophic level refers to energy levels (usually in terms of food).

Within an ecosystem green plants are referred to as producers since energy enters the
ecosystem through these plants
NB: since consumers do not eat all parts of the plant, it means that all the available
energy is not utilized

FOOD CHAINS
A food chain is a simple method of representing food relationships existing in an
ecosystem by showing organisms eating and those being eaten.
The organisms eating (eater) is the consumer. There are various levels of consumers
namely:
Primary consumers 1°( herbivores)
Secondary consumer 2°( lower carnivores)
Tertiary consumers 3°( higher consumer)
Quaternary consumer 4°( scavengers)
In construction of a food chain an arrow is used to link the different levels of organisms
and the direction in which the arrow points is from the organism that is being consumed
to the next consumer.
Eg Tilapia Nile perch Crocodiles Bacteria
1ST trophic level 2nd trophic level 3rd trophic level 4th trophic level

From one level to the next level food energy is being transferred. The different levels are
referred to as energy levels. Some of the food energy is utilized by respiration while some
of the energy is lost through various processes namely;

a. In form of heat through defecation

b. In form of heat through urination
c. In form of heat through sweat
d. In form of heat through panting
e. In form of heat through exhalation

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 The amount of energy gained by the higher trophic levels keep on decreasing such that
at the final level (decomposes) the amount of energy is negligible.

NB: Assuming there were no decomposers in an ecosystem, the ecosystem would be full
of dead undecomposed matter.
Other examples of food chains include;
Green plant herbivores lower carnivores top carnivores scavenger
Producer 1° consumer 2°consumer 3°consumer 4°consumer (Energy
levels trophic levels)
Land Food Chain
Grass Zebra Lion Vulture Bacteria
Tree leaves Girraffe lion Vulture
Aquatic food chain
Water woods mosquito larvae Tilapia Nile perch Crocodile Bacteria
Food chain on both land and water
Water weed Tilapia Nile perch Vulture Bacteria
NB. Man should not be included in any ecosystem because he belongs to ecosystem
FOOD WEBS
This is a complex way of representing food relations in an ecosystem. Its complex
because it consists of very many food chains. This means that arrows form a network
which resembles a spider web hence the term food web. (In a natural community, several
food chains are interlinked to form a food web).
Several herbivores may feed on one plant. Similarly, a given herbivore may be eaten by
different carnivores.
Food web of savannah woodland
Grass
Antelopes Zebra
Insects
Snakes
Lion heron
Vultures

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 An aquatic food web

Water weed
Mosquito
Larvae Tilapia fish
Water snakes Toads
Nile Parch
Crocodiles
Micro Org. decomposers

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of food relations in an ecosystem.
The graph looks/ resembles a pyramid because one end is broad and another is narrow.
There are 3 types of ecological pyramid which depend on what has been considered i.e
i. Pyramid of energy where the energy content at each level is considered
ii. Pyramid of number where the number of organisms at each level is considered
iii. Pyramid of biomass where the amount of organic matter at different trophic levels is
considered.
An ecological pyramid is constructed from a food chain because it shows the different
energy levels.
The producers are at the base then the successive trophic levels come one after another

NB: Decomposers are excluded from an ecological pyramid because;

i. In terms of numbers, they are too many
ii. The energy at this level is negligible too.
Its only the pyramid of energy that is always upright because in an ecosystem the amount
of energy is greatest at the producer level but keeps decreasing as the trophic levels
continue.
Pyramid of numbers / biomass may be upright, inverted, partly inverted or partly upright.
Construction of ecological pyramids
1. Form a food chain. Indicate various trophic levels which constitute different levels of
the ecological pyramid
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2. Use of horizontal bar. The length of the bar must be proportional to the quantity
representing.
3. The producers form the base, while the other trophic levels come one after another.
NB. Decomposers are excluded
4. A complete ecological pyramid should have organism at each trophic level indicated
on the bar. The various trophic levels indicated to the left ie. Producers 1consumer.
The quantity presented at each level on the right hand side. This could be number of
organisms, the amount of energy or the biomass.
5. A complete pyramid must have a title. It must indicate the type of pyramid, state the
ecosystem
The pyramid must not be shaded and must be drawn in pencil
Pyramid of Nos for a partly aquatic / terrestrial ecosystem
Trophic levels Numbers
Quaternary consumers Vulture 80
Crocodile
Tertiary consumer 160
Nile parch
Secondary consumer 300
Tilapia
10 consumer 800
Producer Water wood 5000

COMPETITION AMONG ORGANISMS

Limited resources shared by many organisms result into competition. Limited resources
may be due to presence of physical barriers
i. Over exploitation (dependence)
ii. Bad weather
iii. Natural hazards e.g fire outbreak, diseases outbreak, pest attacks, etc
iv. Migrations
There are two types of competition
1) Intraspecific competition: which is the competition between organisms of the same
species
2) Inter specific competition which is the competition between organisms of different
species.
Both types are found among animals and plants

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 In case of animals, resources competed include;
Food, mates, habitats, space, gasses, water

Plants can compete for nutrients, space, gases, water and light
Results of competition
1) Emigration: Moving out of the population
2) Extinction of some species
3) Elimination of weak and un healthy from the population
4) Low output / yields
Carrying capacity
Is the maximum number of organisms an ecosystem can support.

No of organisms

Time
Prey – predator relationship
Prey is the animal eaten and the predator is the animal consumer e.g herbivorous and
carnivorous. Predators depend on live prey and the prey has to be ambushed, seized,
killed and then eaten.

NB. Scavengers keep close to the predator e.g Hyena, Vulture, and Marabustock.
These feed on carcasses (dead body/ remains of animals)

Changes in prey/ predator population with time (In different ecosystems where
there is no competition)

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 Prey

Predator
Numbers

No of prey increases faster

Time than of predators

Where there is competition

No. of preys higher than that of predaors

Numbers
Fewer predators feed on
the higher no of preys

Time

Prey

Predator

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ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Is the gradual replacement of the community of organisms in one area or another. It may
take millions of years. Once the plants have established themselves eg will attract animals
since they are the producers. Succession occurs in stages known as SERAL STAGES.
The first community of plants is referred to as the PIONEER COMMUNITY. This keeps
its self under harsh conditions. This place has very low rainfall, very high temperature,
nutrients are scarce and the surface on which it grows lacks soil (rocks) eg lichens which
are highly adapted to these un favourable conditions. As the successive communities
colonize the area, the previous community has made the conditions more favourable for
growth.
They break/weather the surface rock to form soil. They conserve and trap moisture and as
they die, they decay and contribute nutrients to the soil. In the process of succession there
is a transition from simpler communities to more complex communities and this occurs
through the process of colonization.
Colonization is mainly by disposal of seeds, spores, fruits and any vegetative part of a
plant.
Types of succession
1) Primary succession
The primary community colonizes and establishes on a bare surface which has never had
any community existing. It has got several stages
First stage (Gutose lichen’s stage). It is a thin layer of lichens on the surface.
Stage two. (Foliase lichen) .This means leafy
Stage three. (The moss). It is plenty with a lot of rain
Stage four (Herb) its made up of non woody plants eg dodo, commelina etc
Stage five (shrub) it’s made up of woody plants.
Stage six (climax forest community) it’s made up of highly developed big trees. It starts
with few trees which are scattered and have stunted growth due to unfertile soils. Their
leaves fall and decay and this increase the soil fertility. The forests trap rain water using
their leaves. Invertebrates and rodents are attracted hence braking down the litter. New
species of trees colonize the area and have a faster rate of growth. The trees grow closer
to form a forest. A typical forest has got a number of layers. The big trees form the

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 emergent layer followed by the canopy layer and then the under growth (shrubs and
herbs).
The temperatures are moderate with enough rainfall and high humidity. The litter
becomes a habitat for invertebrates e.g. earth worms and termites which improve the soil
with their droppings. When they die, decay and add humus to the soil. They create
tunnels in the soil improving the soil drainage and aeration. They mix the soil, earth
worms break down plant materials as they feed.
2) Secondary Succession:
It occurs when a previously existing community is completely destroyed and a new
community re-establish its self.
Natural pests attacks, fire outbreak, volcanic eruption, flooding, droughts.
Human hazards include; - Bush clearing and burning
Wars,
Deforestation
Excavations (mining and constructions)
POPULATION
A population is a group of organism of the same species (able to breed among
themselves) occupying the same area.
Characteristics of a Population
i. It must have a specified number of organisms (population size) which can be
expressed as; -
Total Population: Includes number of all organisms e.g. 1200 elephants in queen
Elizabeth National park.
Population density: Number of organisms per unit space i.e. area or volume (cubic
units)
1200 Elephants in 40 km2
Therefore; population density = 1200/ 40 = 30 Elephants per km2
The population size can be determined using various methods;
a) Direct method.
Drive and count. Used on big mammals in a park, here animals are counted from a
moving track/ land rover using binoculars; you can also use an air craft and keep
counting in a sample space.

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 Total: average no. per sample space x number of samples in the area.
Challenges / weatness
 This method is very expensive and tiresome
 Its risky especially working with dangerous animals
 The animals may tend to run away from noisy items like an aircraft.
 Method work best in an open area.
b) Capture, Mark, release and recapture method.
It can be used for rodents, birds, fish and insects. These organisms must have a confined
movement i.e there should be minimum movement in animals into and out of the
population. There is little change in the population i.e. few are born and few die.
Steps
i. Capture by trapping without killing by various evenly distributed traps.
ii. Mark using ink that cannot be rubbed/ erased, tag / ring and count.
iii. Release and allow them to freely mix with other organisms
iv. Recapture by trapping and record,
i.e. Total recapture = N2
Marked among N2 = N3
Apply Lincoln index. Where, Population in an area = N1 x N2
N3
e.g.
40 in an area
20 captured = N1
Marked and recaptured = 08 – N3
Total recapture = 18 – N2
Therefore, N1 x N2 = 20 x 18
N3 8
= 45
Flying insects: use light traps mainly carried out at night
 The light is suspended at night
 A large white sheet of cloth spread underneath. The sheet attracts large number of
them which fall on the cloth.
c) Collect and count

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Crawling insects - use a water trap
- use a pit fall trap
Water trap is mainly used for aphid
 Water is placed in large trough
 The trough is placed under a plant so that the insects keep falling in the water
where they are collected and then counted.
Pit fall trap is mainly used for insects like ants and termites.
 Dig a pit in the path of insects
 Put a beaker into the pit. The top of the beaker should be at the same level as the
ground and count them.
SOIL ORGANISMS (EARTHWORMS)
Dig to loosen the soil where the animals are spray with potassium permanganate solution.
It irritates the earth worms which move to surface. They are picked and counted.

PLANTS
Use of quadrant: A quadrant is a square area randomly chosen and usually of size one
square meter (1m2) and used for studies on population of organisms. Such an area is
determined using a square wooden frame known as a quadrant. It can be randomly
thrown to mark a square metre of an area. The area is divided into small squares. The %
coverage of each vegetation type is determined.

10squares.

100sq. in all

10squares
Read about a belt transect/ transect line.
2. Sex – age Population structure
A population may be divided by age and sex into 3 categories

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  Pre reproductive (the young)
 Reproductive (mature)
 Post reproductive (old)
Age The proportion of males and females in
age groups determined and rep. as
Groups shown

30 – 39

20 – 29
% male 0 0 % female

3. Population is dynamic
i. Increase/ rise
Population increase by,
 Birth of new individuals (increase in natality rate in case of animals) or seed
germination / Veg. propagation.
 Movement of organisms into the population (Immigration)
ii. Decrease / decline
1. Death of organisms (increase in mortality)
2. Movement of organisms out of the population (Emigration) / seeds and fruits
disposed out of the area.
4. Population Disposal
Describes the movement (daily/ seasonal) of animals into (Immigration) or out of
(Emigration) the population
These movements are referred to as migrations;
Reasons for migration
 A biotic factors e.g. change in climate
 Biotic factors .i.e. human activities like wars, hunting etc
5. Population distribution pattern
There are three main population distribution patterns. These depend on the distribution of
resources in the area and physical factors.

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 Organism spaced out and evenly distributed – sparsely distributed

Crowded in particular areas – clumped / aggregated

Uniform (mixture of 1 and 2)

Factors affecting population of organisms

1. Food a nutrients: Availability of food and nutrients loads to rapid population growth
2. Diseases: May cause death of many organisms hence reducing the population
3. Pests: May destroy large plantations leaving the ground bear. Such as the army
worms.
4. Factors of human diseases and animal diseases may result into emigrational such as
miombo woodland in Tanzania which has very high population of tsetse flies.
5. Arow readily available water will be highly colonized by plants and animals.
6. Natural hazards such as flooding, fire outbreak, earth quakes, volcanic activities may
wipe out a community in a given area. They may also lead to emigration in case of
animals.
7. Competition for nutrients among organisms will also affect the population. Plants
compete for water, carbon dioxide, sunlight, mineral salts, space, etc. These which
can’t compete favorably will die off. In case of animals emigration will take place.
8. Pre predators relationships (covered)

Factors for exponential human population growth

1. High fertility rate especially in the human female. The human female has got the
potential for conceiving every month and is easily to receive a male at any time.
2. Sufficient resources
3. Improved maternity facilities and sanitation leads to low death rates.
4. Improvement in technology especially in Agriculture
5. Early marriages.
6. Traditional beliefs since children are a source of prestige and wealth (practice of
polygamy).

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7. No observation of birth control methods.
8. Political stability which has led to decrease mortality rate.

Ways in which population is being controlled include;

 Use of birth control methods
 Abortion
 Use of spermicidal
 Vasectomy
 Tube ligature
 Use of diaphragm
 Practice of monogamy
 Outbreak of incurable diseases which are not by chance e.g. Aids, Cholera etc
 Government policies which limits number of children per family
 Formal education. Some can’t get married until they are through with education

HUMAN POPULATION STUDIES: (Man and his environment)

The world population at present stands at about 6 billion, the most exponential growth
has been in the past century (20th). This population has exceeded the resources available.
This is a big challenge to most countries.
There are two types of resources; -
i) Non – Renewable resources.
These are resources that can’t be replaced once exhausted e.g. Minerals.
ii) Renewable.
These can be replaced / they can’t be exhausted e.g. water replaced through
the water ayole, forests through a forestation.
However, the rate at which the resources are being exploited is faster than the
rate at which they are replaced. This is due to over exploitation of resources
and it has resulted into extinction of certain species of plants and animals.
In order to cater for the demands of the over increasing population, man has
carried out various activities such as industrialization which has led to
pollution.

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 POLLUTION
In any undesirable change in the environment caused by human activities/ naturally.
Pollutants are substances that cause pollution. Pollutants include; - Smoke, (exhausted
fumes), Domestic wastes, Agriculture wastes, Industrial wastes and noise.

Types of Pollution
1. Air Pollution
Occurs when pollutants are released into the air, Pollutants can occur naturally and
natural pollutants include; - dust, smoke and ash occurred by bush fire, insect droppings
etc.
A major source of human caused pollution is the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and
natural gas, petrol for transport, electricity generation and industrial use).
Pollutants given off include; -
i. Sulphur dioxide which is formed from combustion of fossil fuels containing sulphur.
High levels of Sulphur dioxide may reduce lung function and causes respiratory
illness. In the atmosphere, sulphurous acid is easily converted to sulphric acid which
is the major acid component of acid rains and irritates the respiratory system.
ii. Lead. It mainly comes from combustion of leaded petrol. It causes anaemia and
damages the nervous system especially in children.

2. Deforestation
Is the cutting down of forests, Trees use C02 as a raw material for photosynthesis and
give out 02 and. High concentration of gas such as C02, Nitrogen oxides, and methane
leads to greenhouse effect (global warming).
Global warming: Heat energy from the sun fall on earth, some is absorbed by the earth,
then reflected back into space. Gases such as C02, N02 and CH4 form a thick layer which
insulates the earth hence trapping heat energy. Therefore causing a rise in the earth’s
temperature (Global warming)
Other causes of air pollution include bombs which emit gases into the atmosphere
2. Noise pollution
Is un wanted sound . Offensive noises include road traffic, aircraft, air conditioners,
bombs etc. It can result into stress, pressure, deafness etc
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3. Water pollution.
Is due to the discharge of untreated agricultural, industrial and domestic wastes into water
bodies.
Agricultural wastes include:
Inorganic fertilizers which contain phosphates and nitrates which serve as nutrients for
Algae. Algae blocks penetration of light into water bodies. Water plants die, fish and
other organisms die of suffocation.
Pesticides transported by rain water from farms to nearby water bodies is absorbed by
aquatic plants. Non-biodegradable chemicals accumulate along the food chain. Top
consumers reproductive ability is affected or may cause death.
Industrial wastes include:
Crude oil spilled from wrecked tankers or seeping from ships reduces light penetration
hence killing water plants. It also reduces dissolved water in water killing aquatic
animals.
Soluble heavy metals which are poisonous accumulate in food chains eg (mercury, lead
etc)
Hot water discharged from power stations raise the metabolic rate of fish and oxygen
consumption.
Textile factories discharge dye into water bodies, polluted water bodies become coloured.
The dye may be acidic or alkaline hence changing the water PH. This affects aquatic life.
Domestic waste such as detergent discharged at as surface of rivers and lakes thereby
reducing the amount of oxygen in water.
4. Soil Pollution
Improper disposal of domestic solid wastes such as garbage ,metals, cans, plastic
containers and polythene materials cause soil pollution. Plastic and polythene materials
are non biodegradable.
The sewage we produce at home may also cause harmful effects to the soil such as
bleaching solution that may change the pH level of the soil and its toxic. Man’s activities
such as deforestation, bush burning, poor farming methods ( zero grazing ,monoculture)
may lead to soil erosion ,flooding etc.
Exercise
[Link] the causes of air pollution (not less than 15 points)

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[Link] the causes of soil pollution
[Link] the causes of water pollution
4. a) How has the continued use of polythene bags caused soil pollution.
b) list any steps taken to prevent pollution caused by polythene material.
5. With examples explain the economic importance of bacteria ( not less than 10
points)
CONSERVATION
These are activities aimed at maintaining the atmosphere .habitats ,wild life and and to
ensure that the natural resources are used in such a way that provides sustainable yield.
Afforestation
Re-afforestation
Good farming methods such as crop rotation, mulching terracing
Treating industrial wastes before discharging them into water bodies.
Burning of polythene and plastic materials.

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