Fourier’s Law

and the
Heat Equation

Chapter Two
Fourier’s Law

Fourier’s Law
• A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium

• Its most general (vector) form for multidimensional conduction is:

→
q = −k  T
Implications:
– Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
(basis for minus sign).

– Fourier’s Law serves to define the thermal conductivity of the

 → 
medium  k  − q/  T 
 

– Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant

temperature (isotherms).

– Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.

Heat Flux Components

• Cartesian Coordinates: T ( x, y , z )
→ T → T → T →
q  = −k i −k j−k k (2.3)
x y z
qx q y qz

• Cylindrical Coordinates: T ( r, , z )

→ T → T → T →
q  = −k i −k j−k k (2.24)
r r  z
qr q qz

• Spherical Coordinates: T ( r ,  , )
→ T → T → T →
q  = −k i −k j−k k (2.27)
r r  r sin  
qr q q
Heat Flux Components (cont.)

• In angular coordinates ( or  , ) , the temperature gradient is still

based on temperature change over a length scale and hence has
units of C/m and not C/deg.

• Heat rate for one-dimensional, radial conduction in a cylinder or sphere:

– Cylinder
qr = Ar qr = 2 rLqr
or,

qr = Ar qr = 2 rqr

– Sphere
qr = Ar qr = 4 r 2 qr
Heat Equation

The Heat Equation

• A differential equation whose solution provides the temperature distribution in a
stationary medium.
• Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential control volume
through which energy transfer is exclusively by conduction.
• Cartesian Coordinates:

  T    T    T  T
 k  +  k  +  k  + q = c p
(2.19)
x  x  y  y  z  z  t

Net transfer of thermal energy into the Change in thermal

Thermal energy
control volume (inflow-outflow) energy storage
generation
Heat Equation (Radial Systems)

• Cylindrical Coordinates:

1   T  1   T    T  T
 kr + 2  k   + z  k z  + q =  c (2.26)
r r  r  r     
p
t

• Spherical Coordinates:

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
2 r 
kr +
 2 2  k +
 2  k sin   + q =  c (2.29)
 r sin      r sin     
p
r  r t
Heat Equation (Special Case)

• One-Dimensional Conduction in a Planar Medium with Constant Properties

and No Generation

  T  T
k  =  c p
x  x  t

becomes

 2T 1 T
=
x 2  t

k
 → thermal diffusivity of the medium  m 2 /s 
c p  
Boundary Conditions

Boundary and Initial Conditions

• For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution: T ( x,t )t=0 = T ( x,0 )
• Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions
must be specified. Some common cases:
Constant Surface Temperature:

T ( 0,t ) = Ts

Constant Heat Flux:

Applied Flux Insulated Surface

T T
-k |x=0= qs |x=0= 0
x x

Convection:

T
-k |x=0= h T - T ( 0,t ) 
x
Properties

Thermophysical Properties
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.

Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a material’s ability to respond to changes

in its thermal environment.
Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7
Properties (Micro- and Nanoscale Effects)

Micro- and Nanoscale Effects

• Conduction may be viewed as a consequence of energy carrier (electron or
phonon) motion.

• For the solid state:

1
k = Cc mfp (2.7)
3

energy carrier mean free path → average distance

specific heat per traveled by an energy carrier before
unit volume. a collision.
average energy carrier velocity, c < .

• Energy carriers also collide with

physical boundaries, affecting
their propagation.

➢ External boundaries of a film of material.

thick film (left) and thin film (right).
Properties (Micro- and Nanoscale Effects)

For L / mfp  1,
k x / k = 1 − mfp / ( 3L ) (2.9a)

k y / k = 1 − 2mfp / ( 3 L ) (2.9b)

where mfp is the average distance

traveled before experiencing a
collision with another energy carrier
or boundary (See Table 2.1 and Eq. 2.11).

➢ Grain boundaries within a solid

Measured thermal conductivity of a ceramic material vs. grain size, L. mfp at T  300 K = 25 nm.

• Fourier’s law does not accurately describe the finite energy carrier propagation
velocity. This limitation is not important except in problems involving extremely
small time scales.
Conduction Analysis

Typical Methodology of a Conduction Analysis

• Consider possible microscale or nanoscale effects in problems involving very
small physical dimensions or very rapid changes in heat or cooling rates.

• Solve appropriate form of heat equation to obtain the temperature

distribution.

• Knowing the temperature distribution, apply Fourier’s Law to obtain the

heat flux at any time, location and direction of interest.

• Applications:

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 5: Transient Conduction
Problem: Thermal Response of Plane Wall

Problem 2.57 Thermal response of a plane wall to convection heat transfer.

KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform temperature, is suddenly exposed to convective heating.

FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find the
temperature distribution, T(x,t); (b) Sketch T(x,t) for the following conditions: initial (t  0), steady-
state (t → ), and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of time at the two
surfaces; (d) Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume (J/m 3).

SCHEMATIC:
Problem: Thermal Response (cont).

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal

heat generation.
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional conduction with constant properties, the heat equation has the
form,

 2T 1 T <
=
x 2 a t

Initial: t  0 T ( x,0 ) = Ti uniform temperature



and the Boundaries: x = 0 T / x 0 = 0 adiabatic surface
conditions are: 

 x = L - k T /  x L = h T ( L,t ) - T  surface convection

(b) The temperature distributions are shown on the sketch.

<

Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is adiabatic. Note also that the
gradient at x = L decreases with time.
Problem: Thermal Response (Cont).

c) The heat flux, qx ( x,t ) , as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces x = 0 and
x = L.

<

d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as


Ein =  qconv
 As dt
0

Ein = hAs 
0
(T - T ( L,t ) )dt

Dividing both sides by AsL, the energy transferred per unit volume is

Ein h  <
=  T - T ( L,t ) dt  J/m3 
V L 0  
Problem: Non-uniform Generation due to Radiation Absorption

Problem 2.37 Surface heat fluxes, heat generation and total rate of radiation
absorption in an irradiated semi-transparent material with a
prescribed temperature distribution.

KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a semi-transparent medium subjected to radiative flux.

FIND: (a) Expressions for the heat flux at the front and rear surfaces, (b) The heat generation rate
q ( x ) , and (c) Expression for absorbed radiation per unit surface area.

SCHEMATIC:
Problem : Non-uniform Generation (cont.)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in medium, (3)

Constant properties, (4) All laser irradiation is absorbed and can be characterized by an internal
volumetric heat generation term q ( x ) .

ANALYSIS: (a) Knowing the temperature distribution, the surface heat fluxes are found using
Fourier’s law,
 dT   A 
qx = -k   = -k - 2 ( -a ) e-ax + B 
 dx   ka 
 A  A 
Front Surface, x=0: qx ( 0 ) = -k + 1+ B  = -  + kB  <
 ka  a 
 A  A 
Rear Surface, x=L: qx ( L ) = -k + e-aL + B  = -  e-aL + kB  <
 ka  a 

(b) The heat diffusion equation for the medium is

d  dT  q d  dT 
 + = 0 or q = -k  
dx  dx  k dx  dx 

d  A -ax 
q ( x ) = -k + e + B  = Ae-ax .
dx  ka 

( c ) Performing an energy balance on the medium,

Ein - Eout + Eg = 0
Problem : Non-uniform Generation (cont.)

On a unit area basis

Eg = -Ein  = -qx ( 0 ) + qx ( L ) = +

 + Eout
A
a
( )
1- e-aL . <

Alternatively, evaluate E g by integration over the volume of the medium,

Eg =  q ( x )dx =  Ae-ax dx = -

0
L
0
L A  -ax  L A
a
e (
= 1- e-aL .
0 a )