Types of signals used for communication

1. Traditional 4-20 mA.

2. (4 - 20) mA superimposed with HART signals.
3. Foundation field bus signals.

1. 4-20 mA signal
SCALING OF 4-20 mA
4 mA=0%
8 mA=25%
12 mA=50%
16 mA=75%
20 mA=100%
Why are we using 4-20 mA signal instead of 0-20 mA in
industries?
 4mA is used to identify whether the measured variable is actually zero or
there is problem in instrument or cable. Based on the value of current
below 4 mA, we can identify the problem.
For example, if the current is zero, the possible reason might be cable
open or instrument fault. If the current is greater than zero but less than
3.6 mA, then there might be problem in cable insulation. If the current is
equal to 3.6 mA, there might be a problem in sensor. 3.6mA is used by
all instrument manufacturers for identifying the transmitter faults. This
explanation will be clear after reading about transmitters.
 We are not using (1-20) mA, (2-20) mA because it is easy to convert 4-20
mA to (1- 5) V easily using 250Ω resistance. This (1-5) v is used by the
A/D converter to convert it into digital signal for further processing of
signal.
 20ma is used as maximum because the human heart can withstand up to
30ma of current only. For safety reason 20ma chosen as maximum value.

What are the advantages of 4-20ma signal comparing to voltage signal (1-5v,
0-5v)?
According to ohm’s law 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅. Here R varies depending on the length of cable.
So, the voltage received at the receiver will vary depending on the cable
resistance. To avoid this current signal is used.

How to calculate percentage signal corresponding to mA signal?

Let MV be measured value
URV be upper range value
LRV be low range value
SPAN= URV-LRV
In 4-20 mA signal, SPAN = 20 mA- 4 mA=16 mA
Formula to calculate percentage signal:
MV − LRV MV − LRV
% = × 100 = × 100
URV − LRV SPAN
The below given problems are commonly used in instrumentation maintenance.
Though they are simple, many people face difficulty in understanding them.

Example 1:
In a tank of 5m height, if the level of liquid is 4m, then what is the percentage of
level?
If 5m=100% then 4m =80%
Similarly, if,
0% = 0m
100% = 5m,
4 −0
Then for 4m, % = × 100 = 80%
5−0

Example 2:
In 4-20 mA signal, if 4 mA corresponds to 0%, 20 mA corresponds to 100%.
What is the percentage for 13 mA?
4 mA→0%
20 mA→100%
13mA→?
SOLUTION:
Given MV=13 mA
LRV= 4 mA
URV= 20 mA
Therefore,
MV−LRV
% = × 100
URV−LRV

13 − 4
% = × 100 = 56.25%
20 − 4

Example 3: Using the data in the above problem, find the current for 60%?
SOLUTION:
0%→ 4 mA
100%→ 20 mA
Since span is 16 mA, 100% →16mA
60% →?
Therefore, 60*16/100=9.6 mA
Since LRV is 4mA, it will be added to the solution.
Therefore for 60% current is 9.6 mA + 4 mA= 12.6 mA.
Example 4: Transmitter is transmitting the temperature of vessel in the range of
(100 - 500) °C to DCS. What is the current send by the transmitter for 300 °C?
SOLUTION:
4 mA→100 °C
20 mA→500 °C
16 mA→ 400 °C
? ← (300-100) °C
? = 200*16/400 =8mA.
Since lower range value of current i.e., 4 mA is always present, current send by
the transmitter is 8mA + 4 mA = 12 mA.
Example 5:
In addition to the data in the above problem, In Distributed control system (DCS)
the lower range i.e. 4 mA is configured as 100 °C but higher range i.e. 20 mA is
configured for 600 °C. What is the value of temperature shown in DCS for 300
°C?
SOLUTION:
In the above problem, current send by the transmitter is 12 mA i.e., 50 % of
current range. In DCS, span is 600 °C -100 °C = 500 °C.
50% of DCS span i.e., 500 °C = 250 °C.
Lower range value in DCS is 100 °C, so that temperature will be added to 250°C.
So, the temperature shown in DCS= 250 + 100 = 350 °C
Conclusion:
Due to wrong configuration of range in DCS, temperature shown in DCS is
350°C instead of 300°C. Due to that 50°C error is present in measurement. So,
always configure correct ranges in both transmitter and in DCS.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCER
Definition of Transducer:
1. A transducer is a sensing device that converts physical phenomenon into
electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic output signal. Now-a-days the output is
only electrical because of development in electronics.
2. It is also defined as a device which when actuated by one form of energy, is
capable of converting it to another form of energy.
It’s input-output, output-time relationships being predictable to a known
degree of accuracy at specified environmental conditions.
Classification of transducer:
1. Based on physical effect employed: The basic principle of operation of a
transducer is the physical effect or effects employed to convert the physical
quantity into electrical quantity.
a. Variation of resistance:
It is designed in such a way that variation of resistance is converted into
electrical output.
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝑎
R = 𝑓(𝜌, 𝐿, 𝑎)
i.e., resistance depends on (𝜌, 𝐿, 𝑎) and temperature.
Examples:
Thermo resistive effect: change in electrical resistivity of a metal or
semiconductor due to change in temperature coefficient of resistivity.
Ex: RTD
Photo conductive effect: change in electrical conductivity due to incident light.
Ex: photoconductive cell
b. Variation of inductance:
𝑑∅
L = N.
𝑑𝑡
𝑁 2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
L=
𝐿

L = f(N, 𝜇𝑟 ,A,L)
N= Number of coils
𝜇𝑟 = relative permeability
𝜇𝑜 = Permeability in air
A = Area of coil
L = Length of coil
Ex: Induction potentiometer, Linear variable differential transformer, Synchros
c. Variation of capacitance:
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
C=
𝑑

C = 𝑓(𝜀𝑟 , 𝐴, 𝑑)
Ex:
Capacitor microphone: converts sound pressure into an electrical signal.
d. Piezo electric effect:
Whenever a piezoelectric crystal-like quartz or Rochelle salt is subjected to a
mechanic stress, an electric charge is generated.
e. Magneto-strictive effect:
Villari effect:
The permeability of a magnetic material changes when it is subjected to a
mechanical stress.
Wertheim effect:
Development of a transient voltage between the ends of a wire twisted in a
longitudinal magnetic field.
f. Hall effect:
The development of a transverse electric potential gradient in a current-carrying
conductor, upon the application of a magnetic field at a right angle to the
direction of current.
2. Classification based on quantity converted
a. Temperature Transducers
b. Pressure Transducers
c. Flow Transducers
d. Liquid Level Transducers
e. Humidity Transducers
f. Displacement Transducers
g. Velocity/Speed Transducers
h. Acceleration/Vibration Transducers
i. Force/Torque Transducers
3. Classification based on source of energy for the outputs:
Passive transducer: It absorbs energy from input medium and converts it
directly into the output signal. It is of self-generating type

Ex: Thermocouple: Which extracts heat energy from the input medium and
converts it into an electrical voltage.
Active transducer: It uses the energy it absorbs from the input medium as a
control signal to transfer energy from the power supply to produce a
proportional output.
Ex:
Strain gauge: In this the energy extracted from strained member is very small.

Characteristics of instruments and measurements system (or)

characteristics of transducer
 Performance characteristics:
1. Static characteristics: give a meaningful description of the quality of
measurement while the measured quantities are either constant or vary
slowly with time.
2. Dynamic characteristics: measurements concerning with rapidly
varying quantities with time.

▪ Dynamic relation which exist between the input and output is

described by linear D.E.
▪ Static characteristics do not affect the dynamic behavior of the
transducer.
Why two classification of performance characteristics is necessary?
Because when static characteristics are taken into account, linear
differential equation become non-linear and unmanageable to deal with.
Static calibration: It refers to a situation in which all inputs except the desired
one are kept constant value at some particular value. The desired input is varied
over some range in steps and the output values are noted. The input-output
relationship thus developed is called the static calibration.
We know that inputs are
Desired inputs
Modifying inputs
Interfering inputs
Desired Inputs: It is defined as quantities for which instrument or the
measurement system is specifically designed to measure and respond.
Interfering Inputs: It represents the quantities to which an instrument or a
measurement system becomes unintentionally sensitive. The measurement
systems are not desired to respond to interfering inputs on account of their
principle of working, design and many other factors.
Modifying Inputs: Modifying inputs are defined as inputs which cause a
change in input-output relationships for either desired inputs or interfering
inputs or for both.
Static characteristics:
1. Static sensitivity
2. Linearity
3. Precision/accuracy
4. Threshold
5. Resolution
6. Hysteresis
7. Range and span
8. Input impedance and loading effects
All these calibrations are obtained in one form or another through static
calibration.
Static sensitivity:
It is the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal (or) response to the
magnitude of input signal (or) the quantity being measured.
𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
Units:
𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒

Consider a pressure gauge:

Zero drift: temperature can cause a relative expansion and contraction that will
result in a change in output reading even though the pressure has not changed.
Temperature – interfering input
How to find zero drift?
The pressure is held at zero while the temperature is varied over a range
and the output reading recorded. For reasonable small temperature ranges, the
effect is often nearly linearly then we can quote the zero drift as say 0.01
angular degree/°c.

Sensitivity drift or Scale factor drift:

Temperature can alter the modulus of elasticity of the pressure gauge spring,
thereby affecting the pressure sensitivity.
Temperature – modifying input
How to find sensitivity drift?
Fixing the temperature and running a pressure calibration to determine
pressure sensitivity.
Repeating this for various temperatures should show the effect of
temperature on pressure sensitivity.
If this is nearly linear, we can specify sensitivity drift as say, 0.0005
(angular degree|kpa)|°c

Instrument’s sensitivity primary concern: desired input interfering |

modifying inputs are also of interest
Linearity: Linearity is a measure of the maximum deviation of the plotted
transducer response from a specified straight line.
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
Non linearity = × 100
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

= ×
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
100
Linearity = % of actual reading
= % of FSR
Advantages of linear behavior:
1. Conversion from a scale reading to the corresponding measured value of
input quantity is most convenient if the one merely has to multiply by a
fixed constant rather than consult a non-linear calibration curve.
2. If instrument is part of a large data or control system, linear behavior of the
part often simplifies the design and analysis of the whole system.

Example: Consider an instrument measuring temperature(T) of a room in the

range of (0-50) °C in terms of voltage (𝑣). The relation between temperature
and voltage is given by 𝑣 = 0.08𝑇 + 1. Voltage is measured using multimeter
and it is 4V. Find the temperature of room?
Sol: Given 𝑣 = 4
Substituting 𝑣 = 4 in 𝑣 = 0.08𝑇 + 1, we get 𝑇 = 37.5 °𝐶
Example:

Ways of selecting a specified straight line:

1. The straight line connecting the calibration points at zero input to that at
full-scale input.
2. The straight line may be drawn through as many calibration points as
possible.
3. The straight line may be determined by the least square fit method
mathematically.
i/p and o/p relation: y = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + … … + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
Method of least squares:
y =(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) , y: output n: total no. of measurements x:input
a, b: determined using least – square fit.
The deviation of 𝑖 𝑡ℎ reading from the straight line specified by y = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is
= 𝑦𝑖 − (𝑎𝑥𝑖 + 𝑏)
Sum of squares of the deviation
S = ∑𝑛𝑖=1[𝑦𝑖 − (𝑎𝑥𝑖 + 𝑏)]2
𝜕𝑠
= 0 = ∑𝑛𝑖=𝑛1(𝑏𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎𝑥𝑖2 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ) => 𝑏 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝜕𝑎
𝜕𝑠
= 0 = (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 ) => n b + 𝑎 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝜕𝑏
Solving the above equations
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 − ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
a=
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 − (∑ 𝑥𝑖 )2

∑ 𝑦𝑖 . ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 − (∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑦𝑖 )(∑ 𝑥𝑖 )
b=
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 − (∑ 𝑥𝑖 )2

Note:
1. Non-linear behavior does not essentially lead to inaccuracy.
2. In instruments essentially considered linear, the specification of non-
linear is equivalent to a specification of overall inaccuracy.

ACCURACY:
 Accuracy is defined as degree of closeness with which an instrument
reading approaches the true value.
𝑬𝑹𝑹𝑶𝑹
ACCURACY = ×100
𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑼𝑨𝑳

FOR EXAMPLE:
In a shop, we are measuring the weight in a weighing machine,
If we are measuring the weight of rice is 1 Kg
Actual rice = 1 kg = 1000gm
Measured using the Load cell = 1100gm Therefore,
Error = Measured -Actual
= 1100 -1000
= +100 gm
𝑬𝑹𝑹𝑶𝑹
Accuracy = ×100
𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑼𝑨𝑳
+100
= × 100
1000

= + 10%
Consider a D.P Transmitter of range 10000 mmH2O
Actual pressure = 5000 mmH2O
Measured pressure by the transmitter = 5100 mmH2O
Error = Measured -Actual
= 5100 - 5000
= +100 mmH2O
𝑬𝑹𝑹𝑶𝑹
Accuracy = ×100
𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑼𝑨𝑳
+100
= × 100
10000

= +1%
Hysteresis: It is a phenomenon which depicts different output effects when
loading and unloading whether it is a mechanical system or an electrical system
and for that matter any system.
Why we do not obtain same output for both increasing and decreasing
values of the input?
Energy put into the stressed parts when loading cannot be recovered back
when unloading.
Numerical value of hysteresis: Specified in terms of either output or input and
usually is given as a percentage of full scale.
Threshold: The smallest measurable input (or) for the output change the input
change is called threshold. If the instrument(transducer) input is increased very
gradually from zero, there will be some minimum value below which no output
change can be detected. This minimum value defines the threshold of the
instrument.
Numerical value: The first detectible output change is often described as being
any “noticeable measurable change” (or) state for output change, find the
corresponding input change. This input change can be called the threshold.
Resolution or discrimination: The smallest measurable input change (or) the
input increment that gives a small but definite numerical change in output.
When the input to a transducer is increased slowly from some non-zero arbitrary
value, the change in output is not detected at all until a certain input increment
is exceeded. This increment is defined as the resolution.
Both threshold and resolution may be given either in absolute terms or as a
percentage of full-scale reading.
Dead band: Largest input change in the input quantity to which the
measurement system does not respond.
Range: The range of the transducer is specified as from the lower value of input
to higher value of input.
Span: The span of the transducer is specified as the difference between the
higher and lower limits of recommended input values.
Ex: If a thermocouple is recommended to be used between 100 and 600°c.
Range: 100-600°c
Span: 500°c