UET PESHWAR
Environmental Engineering Lab Manual
PREPARED BY:
Engr Syed Najam Ul Saqib
Grading Criteria
Sessional—25%
Viva—25%
Mid Term Examination—25%
Final Term Examination—25%
Course Outline
Spring 2014 Prepared By: Engr Syed Shujaat Ali
Week Hours Activity Sessional
plan
1 3
To Determine the Turbidity of Water sample Using
Nephelometric Method
2 3 To Determine The Total Hardness Of Water Using EDTA
Method
3 3 To Find the Alkalinity of Water Sample by Indicator Method
4 3
To Determine the pH Value Of A Given Water Sample.
5 3 To Determine the Chloride Content in the given water
sample
6 3
To Find Coliform Bacteria By Multiple Tubes Fermentation
Techniques
7 3 Data Discussion/Calculation Lab Project
Submission
8 3 -Do- Quiz# 01
MID TERM EXAMINATION
9 3
To determine the Total Dissolved Solids in a given Water
Sample
10 3 To determine the Total Suspended Solids in a given Water
Sample by Spectrophotometric Method
11 3 Data Discussion/Calculation
12 3
To Determine Dissolved Oxygen in a Water Sample.
13 3 To determine BOD in a given water sample
14 3 Assignment
#2
To determine determine the COD of a given water simple.
15 3 To Determine the Sulphide content in a given water sample
16 3 Lab Notebooks Submission Quiz# 02
FINAL TERM EXAMINATION
EXPERIMENT NO.1:
To Determine the Turbidity of Water sample Using Nephelometric Method
Theory:
Water is said to be turbid when it is seen containing materials of suspension inside it. While
turbidity may be defined as the measure of visible material in suspension in water,turbidity may
be caused by algae or other organisms. it is generally caused by silt or clay.
The amount and character of turbidity depends upon two things:
1. Type of soil over which flows
2. The velocity of flowing water
When water becomes stationary, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle down
quickly and the lighter and finely divided particles settles very slowly and even takes months.
Ground water is less turbid because of low velocity of water. turbidity may be helpful for
controlling growth of paganisms by not allowing proper sunlight to water which is necessary for
their growth on the other hand it is harmful as the organisms are handling to the suspended
particles.
When water becomes stationary, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle down
quickly and the lighter and finely divided particles settles very slowly and even takes months.
Ground water is less turbid because of low velocity of water. turbidity may be helpful for
controlling growth of paganisms by not allowing proper sunlight to water which is necessary for
their growth on the other hand it is harmful as the organisms are handling to the suspended
particles.
There are Various units for the measurement of turbidity which are:
1. Standard turbidity unit[mg/lit or ppm]
2. Jackson turbidity unit [J.T.U]
3. Nephelometric turbidity unit [N.T.U]
A device called nephelometric turbidity meter measures the turbidity of water in N.T.U the
intensity of light after passing through the water gives a measure of turbidity of water.
WHO guideline value:
WHO suggested a guideline value for turbidity as 5 [Link] disinfection the turbidity of water
should be less than 1 N.T.U.
Apparatus:
W.H.O Nephelometric turbidity meter formazine solution, test tubes and water samples.
Procedure:
1. Switch on the power supply and check the battery of the turbidity meter,
2. Press the 1 N.T.U button and coincide the scale with zero by using focusing template.
3. Again press 1 N.T.U button and coincide the scale with zero using the focusing template.
4. A Standard formazine solution of 9 N.T.U is placed on tubidity meter in the path of rays
and scale is brought to 9 N.T.U.
5. The Water sample is taken in a test tube and is placed in turbidity meter.
6. Use A Cell rise if the turbidity is more than 100 N.T.U and get the turbidity dilution
factor.
[Link] Sample Turbidity
EXPERIMENT NO.2:
To Determine The Total Hardness Of Water Using EDTA Method
Theory:
Hard water is generally considered to be one which requires considerable amount of soap to
produce foam or lather. Hard water causes scale formation in boilers heaters and hot water
pipes.
The rain water catches CO2 from the atmosphere when the water pass through CaCO3 rock in
the Soil, these compounds make the water hard.
Calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulphates also cause hardness
There are two types of hardness:
1. Temporary Hardness
2. Permanent Hardness
Temporary Hardness:
This type of hardness is mostly caused by Ca(HCO3)2 or Mg(HCO3)2 OR both, therefore it is also
called carbonate hardness, these compounds dissolve in water and form Ca+2, Mg+2 and
HCO3-1ions which cause hardness
H2O+ CO2--> H2CO3
CaCO3 + H2CO3 --> Ca(HCO3)2
Temporary hardness can be removed by Clark's method by adding limewater,Ca(OH)2 to the
hard water.
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 -->2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 --> Mg CO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
As the magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate are insoluble in water and settle down,
Permanent Hardness:
It is also known as non carbonate hardness and it is caused by CaCl2.MgCl2, CaSO4 and MgSO4,
the ion exchange method is used for the removal of the permanent [Link] zeolite is
added to hard water due to which calcium or magnesium zeolite is formed which is insoluble in
water.
Ca + 2Na (zeolite) --> Ca (Zeolite ) + 2Na+ 2
The following values give the type of hard water:
Hardness mg/lit as CaCO3 Hardness (mg/lit Type of water
0 - 75 Soft water
75 - 150 Moderately hand water
150 - 300 Hard water
above 300 Very hard water
W.H.O guideline values:
W.H.O guideline value of hardness is 500mg/lit as CaCO3
DISADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER:
1. Greater amount of soap is used.
2. Scale formation reduces the life of boilers.
3. Affects the digestive system as it contains MgSO4
Apparatus:
o Conical Flask
o Funnel
o Burette
o Stand
o Beaker
Chemicals:
Buffer solution of hardness, eriochrome black tea indicator, EDTA solution of 0.02normality.
Procedure:
1. Take 50ml of water sample in conical flask.
2. Add 1ml of buffer solution (Aluminum Hydroxide and Ammonium Chloride) of
hardness1.
3. Add 3 drops of eriochrome black tea to the flask and shake well.
4. Place the flask below the burette containing EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid)
solution of 0.02 normality.
5. Note the initial reading of the burette and open the tap of the burette to allow the
solution to flow in the flask.
1.6. Note The Final Reading when the color of the water in the flask turns bluish.
2.7. The total harness (temporary + permanent hardness) is found by using the following
formula.
Total hardness = (Final reading - Initial reading) * 1000/50.
[Link] Sample Hardness
EXPERIMENT NO.3:
To Find the Alkalinity of Water Sample by Indicator Method
Importance:
Alkalinity is an important determination to the water treatment plant operator because some
of the coagulants used to clarify water and prepare it for filtration required sufficient alkalinity
to insure a proper reaction. The alkalinity may be increased by adding lime or NA2CO3.
Excessive alkalinity may however interfere with coagulants.
WHO Guideline Value:
World health organization suggested a guideline value for alkalinity:
o Low alkalinity < 50mg/lit as CaCO3
o Medium alkalinity 50 - 250 mg/lit as CaCO3
o High alkalinity > 250 mg/lit as CaCO3
Relationship Table of Alkalinity:
Result of titration Hydroxide (OH-1) Carbonate (CO3+2) Bicarbonate (HCO3-1)
p=0 Nil Nil T
p > t/2 2p - T 2(T - p) Nil
p = t/2 Nil 2p Nil
p < t/2 Nil 2p T - 2p
p=T p Nil Nil
Where P= phenolphthalein alkalinity, T= Total alkalinity
Apparatus:
Stand, burette, funnel, conical flask, beaker etc.
Chemicals:
Phenolphthalein indicator solution, brome cresel green, methyl orange solution, standard
solution (H2SO4) having normality 0.02
Procedure:
1. Take 50 ml of water sample in a flask. Add six drops of phenophthalein indicator in the
sample (water), note the initial reading of the buretle containing H2SO4 (N=0.02)
2. Start the titration till the color changes and note the reading of the buretle, Calculate
the phenolphthalein alkalinity using the formula alkalinity = (final reading - initial reading) X
1000/50
3. Now add six drops of brome cresol green in the methyle solution which turns the color
to greenish one. note the initial reading of the buretle and start the titration till the color
changes to gray and note the final reading.
4. Calculate total alkalinity by using the formula,
Total alkalinity = (final reading - initial reading) x 1000/50
[Link] Sample Alkalinity
EXPERIMENT NO.4:
To Determine the pH Value Of A Given Water Sample.
Theory:
"PH" value is the measure of concentration of hydrogen in water it shows the alkanity or acidity
of water.
Mathematically PH may be defined as:
The negative log of hydrogen ion concentration
pH= - log [H]
Sorenson in 1909 introduced this scale for the first time.
H20 <--> H+1 + OH-1
This reaction shows that the number of H+1 and OH-1 ions are equal experimentally it has been
proved that the product of concentration of H+1 and OH-1 is a constant quality K , whose value
was found to be 10 - 14 i.e
[H][OH = K--> [H4][OH] -10
Log [H] + Log [OH] = -14
--> - Log [H4] - Log [OH] = 14
-->ph 4 poh =14
But for what pH = POH
2PH = 14-->pH = 7
for acids pH ranges from 1 to 7 and for base pH ranges from8 to 14 There Are Two methods to
determine the PH values of given water sample,
1. Colorimetric method
2. Electrometric method
Importance of pH:
PH is very important in the control of number of water and waste water treatment processes
and in the control of corrosion.
W.H.O guide line value:
World organization suggested a guideline value of (6.5) to (8.5) for pH of water.
Apparatus & Chemicals:
Standard pH solution, pH meter, stand , colorimetric paper and water sample
Procedure:
1. Colorimetric Method:
.Dip the colorimetric paper in water sample.
.Compute the color of paper with color from the table and note the PH of water against this
color, This is the PH of the sample.
2. Electrometric Method:
1. Press "01" key of PH meter to bring the meter in working condition.
2. Press the PH key and calibrate key so that the screen shows "00.00" reading.
3. Dip the problem into standard solution of PH - 7 and press "standard" key so that the
screen gives 7.00 reading.
4. Dip the probe in water sample and press "disperser" key and PH key to get the PH of the
sample.
5. Read the value of PH from Screen.
[Link] Sample PH Value
EXPERIMENT NO. 5:
To Determine the Chloride Content in the given water sample
Theory:
Chlorides are present in all portable water supplies and in sewage, usually as a metallic
salt. The excess presence of NaCl in water indicates pollution of water due to sewage. Main
source of Chloride is water in contact with sedimentary rocks thus dissolving Cl salts in Water.
Significance:
• Chloride is essential in human diet and is not known to have toxic effects on humans.
• Large amounts act corrosively on metal pipes and are harmful to plant life.
• Higher concentrations may indicate leakage of sewage system.
Standard:
According to WHO and EU Standard:
Higher desirable value = 250 mg/L
Apparatus:
Burette, stand, conical flask, graduated cylinder, pipette and water sample
Chemicals:
Silver Nitrate AgNO3 titrant of 0.0141 Normality and Potassium Chromate K2CrO4
indicator.
Procedure:
1. Take 50ml of water sample in a conical flask.
2. Add 1ml (15 drops) of indicator solution in it.
3. Fill the burette with Silver Nitrate solution and adjust the initial reading of the burette to
zero.
4. Titrate the contents of the flask with Silver Nitrate, continuously shake the flask till the
colour changes to pinkish yellow.
5. Note down the final reading of the burette at this point.
6. Calculate the chloride content as:
Chloride = [(Final reading – Initial reading)x(0.0141)x(1000)x35.5]/50
Precautions:
• Prepare and use the solutions carefully
• Any spills should be washed immediately with water.
[Link] Sample Chloride Content
EXPERIMENT NO. 6:
To Find Coliform Bacteria By Multiple Tubes Fermentation Techniques
Theory:
Many bacteria are found in water. Most of them are totally harmless (non pathogenic) and few
are harmful (pathogenic), which causes diseases e.g. typhoid, fever, paratyphoid, dysentery,
and cholera etc.
The ground water at great depths is free from these bacteria. The sanitary engineer is not
concerning all of them. The Coliform group is one of the most important types and includes
aerogenes, Acrobatic Cloacae, eschroica coli.
Therefore Coliform may be defined in part as including all of the aerobic and facultative green
non-spore bacilli, which form lagtode with gas formation within 48 hours at 35 ºC. Coliform
themselves are harmless bacteria. But they are not indication of bacteria pollution of water ,
but also because their absence or presence and their number can be determined by routine
laboratory test.
The number of Coliform May be found by following test:
Pour plate total amount method
Membrane filter method
Multiple tube fermentation method
The last method based on the Coliform ferment lactose with gas formation. Appropriate
quantity of water to be tested is placed in sterile tube containing lactose. The Tubes are
incubated for 24 hours and then examined and the presence or absence of gas is noted and
recorded. If no gas is formed within 24 hours then wait for 48 hours. If the gas is formed then
Coliform is confirmed.
To find the number of Coliform from this method, the result from various size of portion of the
sample are noted. The most probable number (MPN) of the Coliform in the water is obtained
by applying the laws of the statistics to the result of the test. For this purpose the most
probable number charts are available.
WHO Guideline Value for Bacteria Coliform
According to WHO, water is divided into the following classes depending upon the amount of
Coliform bacteria present in it.
Class Status Coliform per 100ml
01 Excellent 0
02 Satisfactory 1-3
03 Suspicious 4-10
Apparatus:
Durham’s tubes, Cotton, Beakers, autoclave (steam sterilizer), incubator.
Chemicals:
Water samples, lactose.
Procedure:
This test is carried in three stages:
We will confine ourselves to the first stage (Presumptive test) which is performed in the
following steps.
1. Take 15 test tubes and make 3 sorts of them each having 5 test tubes
2. Fill each of them with 10ml of lactose broth solution
3. Insert Durham’s tubes upside down in all test tubes and they are gently shaken to
remove air.
4. Clog all the test tubes with cotton
5. Sterilize all the test tubes at 121 ºC in autoclave for 1 hour, then sterilize them in oven
at 170ºC.
6. Take out the tube after sterilization and the tube is cooled down
7. 1ml and 0.1 ml of sample is added respectively to 2nd and 3rd set of tubes.
8. Incubate all these test tubes at 35ºC for 24 hours in an incubator.
9. After 24 hours each test tube it is said to be positive presumptive test otherwise
negative.
EXPERIMENT NO. 7:
To determine the Total Dissolved Solids in a given Water Sample
Theory:
The term Total Dissolved Solids refer to the materials that are completely dissolved in
water. These solids are filterable in nature, it is defined as the residue upon evaporation of
filterable sample
Scope and Significance:
• Dissolved minerals, gases and organic constituents may produce aesthetically
displeasing colour, taste and odour.
• Water with higher solids content often has a laxative effect.
• In industries, the use of water with high amount of dissolved solids may lead to scaling
in boilers, corrosion and degraded quality of the product.
• Estimation of total dissolved solids is useful to determine whether the water is suitable
for drinking, agricultural and industrial purposes.
Standards:
Maximum desirable limit of TDS = 500 mg/L
Maximum permissible limit of TDS = 1500 mg/L
WHO Guideline value = 1000 mg/L as TDS
Apparatus:
Evaporating dish, Water bath, Electric oven, Dessicators, Analytical Balance, Filter paper,
Funnel.
Procedure:
1. Take a clean porcelain dish and weigh it in analytical balance.i.e., W1.
2. Mix the sample well and pour it into a funnel with filter paper.
3. Set the oven at 103 to 105ºC and place the evaporating dish in it for an hour.
4. Cool the dish in dessicator, dessicators are provided for standard dryness.
5. Weigh the dish as soon as it cools to avoid absorption of moisture due to its hygroscopic
nature.
The Total Dissolved Solids can be measured as:
TDS =[(Wt. of dish + TDS) – (Wt. of dish) x 1000]/100
Precautions:
• The water sample which contains high concentrations of Calcium, Chloride, Magnesium
or Sulphate can rapidly absorb moisture from the air, such samples may need to be dried for a
longer period of time, cooled under proper desiccation and weighed rapidly in order to achieve
reasonable weight.
• Prolonged heating may result in loss of constituents.
• Volume of sample should be adjusted to have residue left after drying as 100 to 200 mg.
It is mainly to prevent large amount of residue in entrapping water during evaporation.
• Filter paper and china dish should be clean and dry.
• Water sample container should be clean.
[Link] Sample Dissolved Solids (mg/liter)
EXPERIMENT NO.8:
To determine the Total Suspended Solids in a given Water Sample by
Spectrophotometric Method
Apparatus:
Spectrophotometric machine, Distilled Water, Water Sample
Procedure:
1. Turn on the machine and enter the programme number for Total Suspended Solids.
Adjust the wavelength and make the scale zero with distilled water.
2. Put the test tube of the given water sample in the machine and note the reading on the
machine.
3. If the reading crosses the range of the machine, make a dilution and then find the
dilution factor from which determine the actual and suspended solids in the given.
Precautions:
• Spectrophotometer should be working properly.
• Test tubes should be clean.
• Machine should be protected from water.
Experiment # 9
To Determine Dissolved Oxygen in a Water Sample.
Apparatus and chemicals:
1- 2ml manganese sulphate
2- 2ml alkali-iodide –azide
3- 2ml concentrated sulfuric acid
4- 2ml starch solution
5- Sodium thiosulfate
6- Burette
7- Stand
8- Conical flask
Theory :
The winkler method is a technique used to measure dissolved oxygen in freshwater
systems. Dissolved oxygen is used as an indicator of a water body, where higher
dissolved oxygen concentrations are correlated with high productivity and little
pollution.
Procedure:
1- Add 2ml of MNSO4 and 2ml of sodium iodide azide to 300ml of water sample and
shake.
2- Add 2ml of H2SO4 and mix by inverting the bottle several times.
3- Add 2ml of starch solution so a blue color forms.
4- In a glass flask,titrate 201 ml of the sample with sodium thiosulfate of 0.025N.
5- Continue slowly titrating until the sample turns clear
6- The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the simple is equivalent to the number
of milliliters of titrant used.
Practical application:
Dissolved oxygen analysis can be used to determine:
1. the health or cleanliness of a lake or stream,
2. The amount and type of biomass a freshwater system can support,
3. the amount of decomposition occurring in the lake or stream.
Table 2- observation and calculation
[Link] Sample Dissolved oxygen (mg/lit)
Experiment # 10
To determine BOD in a given water sample
Apparatus:
1. Burette
2. Pippet
3. Graduated cylinder
4. Manganese sulphate
5 .Alkali iodide Azide
6 . Starch indicator
7 . Standard sodium thiosulphate
Theory:
Bio oxygen demand (B.O.D) is the amount of oxygen required for the microorganisms
(bacteria) present in the waste water to convert the organic substances to simpler compounds
such as CO2 and H2O.o
Procedure:
1. take two B.O. D tubes and half fill it with distilled water
2. add 3ml of waste water (polluted water)to the B .O.D tubes with the help of pippot
3. fill the tubes with distilled water and place one of the tubes in an incubator at 20 C
4. add 2 ml of alkali iodide azide and shake well if oxygen is present the colour will be
brown otherwise white,add 2 ml of MNSO4 too.
5. Add 2ml of concentrated H2SO4 and shake well which will give a color which is in
resemblance to mustard oil
6. Take 200ml from this solution in a graduated cylinder and add 1ml of starch indicator to
it which will gave a yellowish color
7. Titrate the 200ml sample against a standard solution thiosulphate solution and find the
1st day dissolved oxygen,then find the DO for the tube in incubator after 5 days
8. BOD(mg/lit)=(zero day BOD-5 day BOD) 300/ml of sample.
Practical application
It gives the measure of organic waste present in a water body
S No Sample 0 Day BOD 5 Day BOD
Experiment # 11
To determine determine the COD of a given water simple.
Apparatus:
1. Digestion vessels (vial)
2. COD reactor
3. Spectrophtometer
4. Premixed reagentsin digestion vessel
5. K2g2O4
6. Concentrated H2SO4
7. HgSO4
8. Ag2SO4
Theory:
The standard method for indirect measurement of the amount of the follution (that
cannot be oxidized biologically )in a sample of water.
Procedure:
1. place approximately 500ml of sample in a clean blender bowl and homogenize at high
speed for two minutes
2. pipet 2ml of sample into COD digestion reagent cial
3. mix the contents of the vial by inverting several [Link] makes the vial very hot
4. place the vial in COD reactor for 2hourse at 148c
5. repeat the same process to prepare a reagent blank by substituting the sample by
distilled water
6. incubate the vials for 2 hours
7. cool the vials to room temperature and calculate the COD using spectrophotometer
Practical Applications:
most applications of COD determine the amount of organic pollutants found in surface water
(e.g. lakes and rivers)or wastewater, making COD a useful measure of water quality.
[Link] Sample COD
Experiment # 12
To Determine the Sulphide content in a given water sample
APPARATUS
1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Hydrochloric acid
4. Standard Iodine Solution (0.025 N)
5. Standard Sodium thiosulphate solution(0.025N)
6. Starach solution
Principle:
Iodine reacts with sulphide in acid solution ,oxidizing it to sulphur: a titration based on this
reaction is an accurate method or determining sulphides at concentration above 1mg/lit if
interferences are absent and if loss of H2S is avoided.
Procedure:
1. Measure from burette 10ml of iodine into a 500ml flask.
2. Add distilled water and bring the volume to 20 ml.
3. Add 2ml of 6 NHCL.
4. Pippet 200ml sample into the flask, discharging the sample under the surface of
solution.
5. If the iodine colour disappears,add more iodine so that the colour remains.
6. Titrate with sodium thiosuphate solution ,adding a few drops of starch solution,as
the end point is approachd and continuing until the blue colour disappears.
Practical application:
Sulphides often occur in ground water especially in hot springs,in wastewater and polluted
[Link] sulphide escaping into the air from sulphide containing wastewater causes
odour nuisance. It is highly toxic and cause corrosion of sewers and pipes.
Table 5- observations and calculation
[Link] Sample Initial reading Final reading Sulphide
content(mg/lit)