Page 1 of 13 Original Research

A critical analysis of information and communications

technology adoption: The strategy-as-practice
perspective
Authors: Purpose: The ubiquitous pace of innovation is spawning a multitude of information and
Neelambal M. Govender1 communications technology (ICT) products that are both redefining the manner in which
Marius Pretorius1
organisations operate and have the potential to engender organisations with strategic
Affiliations: advantage through the adoption of these products. However, the challenges that this presents to
1
Faculty of Economic and organisations include developing agile strategies that cater for market instabilities, determining
Management Sciences,
what technology to adopt and ensuring that the appropriate technology is adopted. Thus, the
University of Pretoria,
South Africa purpose of this article is to perform a critical analysis of ICT adoption in an attempt to determine
the influence that the pace of technology has on organisations in their endeavour to stay abreast
Correspondence to: of their market environment and to develop a comprehensive ICT adoption framework.
Neelambal Govender
Design/methodology/approach: This is exploratory research that concentrates on ICT
Email: adoption studied through the strategy-as-practice lens. Through critical analysis, the scientific
[Link]@resbank.
[Link] literature was analysed to determine ICT adoption factors and to gain a better understanding
of ICT adoption in the modern context. The principles of grounded theory were applied where
Postal address: repetitive reading of selected articles made it possible to identify factors that are associated
PO Box 30532, Sunnyside with ICT adoption.
0132, South Africa
Findings: The study identified three key factors of ICT adoption, namely ‘external’, ‘innovation’
Dates:
and ‘organisational’. A number of ICT adoption characteristics were identified which were
Received: 03 Oct. 2013
Accepted: 09 Dec. 2014 categorised against the three factors. In addition, the study identified critical management
Published: 05 May 2015 challenges associated with ICT innovation and the adoption thereof in the modern business
context.
How to cite this article:
Govender, N.M. & Pretorius, Research limitations/implications: The proposed ICT adoption framework is based on
M., 2015, ‘A critical scientific literature only and no popular writings, blogs or forums were included.
analysis of information and
communications technology Practical implications: Strategists need to understand that developing agile strategies involves
adoption: The strategy-as-
more than discipline; it embraces an in-depth understanding of ICT adoption factors, insight
practice perspective’, Acta
Commercii 15(1), Art. #229, into the daily operations of managers and an awareness of innovations in ICT.
13 pages. [Link]
org/10.4102/ac.v15i1.229 Originality/value: The article aims to enable organisations to better understand the effects of
ICT innovation and the influence this has on management roles. Additionally, it presents a
Copyright: comprehensive ICT adoption framework that can aid strategists in understanding the factors
© 2015. The Authors.
that influence ICT adoption.
Licensee: AOSIS
OpenJournals. This work is
licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution Introduction
License.
Information and communications technology (ICT) is gaining prominence as a key contributor
that is revolutionising the way in which organisations conduct business. This is quite evident
from the manner in which ICT is shaping business outcomes through social media, big data,
mobile technology and cloud computing. The speed of technology advancement and the resulting
innovations are the main contributors to environmental change and the cause of its instability. If
technology innovations are seen as the fuel for change, then the adoption thereof may be viewed
as the vehicle used by management to participate in this world of constant change and its diffusion
accepted as the driver for success within organisations. ICT plays an enormous role in business
today and there is little disagreement about its strategic business importance (Adner 2004:25;
Bakos & Treacy 1986:107). Many authors have focused on the strategic importance of ICT and
the need to align both business and ICT strategies for optimal benefit realisation. Although ICT
Read online: and business strategy alignment is strategically important, of equal importance are the strategic
Scan this QR decisions pertaining to the adoption of ICT.
code with your
smart phone or
mobile device Strategy is a plan that organisations intend to follow in order to achieve certain desired objectives
to read online.
that provide an advantage over their rivals. More importantly, it refers to the organisation’s

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 Page 2 of 13 Original Research

intentions and the activities it pursues for sustained existence context, making use of the practice lens to expand on key
to embrace its market environment. Strategic management issues. This is followed by the findings on ICT adoption
deals with how organisations achieve advantage through factors, which are presented in the form of an adoption
these strategies (Bitar & Hafsi 2007:403). Since the early framework. The article concludes with a discussion on the
eighties, technology has been gaining momentum as findings and recommends future research opportunities.
a strategic variable and has since become a significant
contributor towards the field of strategic management, Research question
providing a dominant role in the creation of corporate
strategies (Friar & Horwitch 1985:147). The principal aim of this article is to focus on the challenges
that ICT adoption presents to organisations in the modern
Over the past decade, market environments have been business context, analyse current literature to identify ICT
disrupted mostly by ICT innovations and organisations adoption factors and to develop an ICT adoption framework.
need to evolve to adapt to these changes by creating organic The outcome of this is to improve the general understanding
structures that align with their environment (Andersen of how strategising for ICT adoption transpires in the modern
2001:105; Damanpour & Gopalakrishnan 1998). In order economy. In an endeavour to increase this understanding,
to develop robust strategies and ultimately sustain their the article focuses on the following research question:
survival, organisations are under extreme pressure to change
or adapt quickly to their environments (Ghobakhloo et al. What are the ICT adoption factors that shape decisions in the
2012:37). The question weighing heavily on executives’ contemporary business environment?
minds is whether to change or alter strategies (Ghobakhloo
et al. 2012). According to Dutta and Bilbao-Osorio (2012), Literature study
the global economy is not only experiencing turbulence but Activity theory lens
has also become increasingly hyperconnected. Complicating
matters even further is that traditional models used by Strategy-as-practice (s-as-p) provides a unique manner in
organisations to develop strategies that support business which to understand strategic management, managerial
operations have become inadequate to respond timeously activities and decision-making. It focuses on the micro level
to market stimuli. Thus, the strategy approach required for social activities, processes and practices that characterise
ICT adoption is one that can potentially address instability organisational strategy and strategising (Golsorkhi et al.
experienced in the contemporary environment, whilst being 2010:1). S-as-p, according to Jarzabkowski, Balogun and Seidl
agile and flexible to respond to the business needs. (2007:8), refers to strategising as the ‘doing of strategy’ and
focuses explicitly on human activities. Traditionally, strategy
The speed of change brought on by ICT innovation means was something that organisations had. However, strategy
faster business response is required to meet market changes. viewed from a practice perspective is viewed as something
In order for organisations to address this response, managers that people do (Chia & MacKay 2007:223; Jarzabkowski
who serve as thought leaders need to find new ways of meeting 2004:529). Drawing from the s-as-p perspective, ICT adoption
this challenge. Finding answers to this challenge may help activities can provide insight into adoption practices; more
organisations better prepare to handle the dynamics in their importantly, it can provide the basis for future reference in
market environment and in doing so develop advantageous determining how ICT adoption factors influence ICT adoption
strategies. Given that contemporary organisations are in decisions and how these decisions ultimately shape strategy.
uncharted waters, a paradigm shift is required where strategy-
making is concerned. A new school of thought provides The s-as-p field focuses on three building blocks that make
this paradigm shift by focusing on strategy as an ‘activity’ up strategising. These are the practitioners, practices and
rather than a ‘process’ (Jarratt & Stiles 2010:38; Whittington praxis. According to Whittington (2002:c1), practitioners
et al. 2006:618). The critical thinking this paradigm brings are the ‘workers’ (in the context of this study, the managers
to strategy-making is that unlike the traditional approach and implementers of technology adoption), practices are the
that focuses on the macro aspects of strategy, this approach ‘tools’ (in the context of this study, the adoption practices)
deals with the social human practices of strategy (Vaara & and praxis is the ‘work’ of strategy (in the context of this
Whittington 2012:2). Given the importance of ICT adoption as study, the work of ICT adoption). Practices are seen as the
a means to align business strategies with its environment, the ‘infrastructure through which micro-strategy and strategising
focus of this article is to analyse critically the aspects of ICT occurs’ (Jarzabkowski 2003:24). Strategy practitioners are
adoption, the outcome of which is to present a comprehensive ‘actors’, those individuals who do the work of strategy;
framework of ICT adoption factors. Drawing from the micro strategy practices are the ‘material tools’ through which the
lens of strategy-as-practice, the article examines these factors to work gets done and strategy praxis are the ‘actions’ that meet
gain insight into the activities of strategising for ICT adoption. the objective of the strategy (Jarzabkowski & Spee 2009:70).
S-as-p is concerned with the daily practices of individuals and
The article proceeds as follows: the next section presents identifies how these actions influence strategy (Jarzabkowski
the research question that is addressed in this article. This & Wilson 2002:358). It is this view that provides valuable
is followed by a literature review of ICT adoption and insight into the decisions of ICT adoption, which eventually
associated challenges experienced in the modern business contributes towards the organisation’s strategic objective.

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Management in the contemporary environment knowledgeable, informed and empowered with information.
They no longer want cookie-cut products. Customers are
Managers are those individuals who undertake to do
demanding a greater involvement and say in the products and
the work of strategy and are seen as ‘craftspeople’ in the
services they receive. Managers are faced with the challenge
process of strategy-making (Whittington et al. 2006:616).
of delivering more personalisation, better adaption, greater
Practitioner activities should not be taken lightly because it
customisation and increased value for their products and
is the activities of these individuals that contribute towards
services in much shorter time frames. This creates a vicious
the formulation of organisation strategies that determine
cycle because in catering for these requirements, managers
the organisation’s survival. Practitioners of strategy should
have to look to technology adoption as a possible solution.
not be viewed only as senior executives for whom strategy
These requirements have the potential to influence the
is the core focus of their work but rather the term should
manner in which activities are performed within the given
apply to a wider selection of actors. Although individuals
job context. If decision-making for ICT adoption is influenced
at lower levels within the organisation may not have a title
by job context then it makes sense that practitioners at
that is as important, nonetheless they are key in filtering
different levels may have different viewpoints on what
information that contributes towards strategising activities.
adoption factors are critical. Given this context, what are the
Managers’ decisions and activities contribute greatly
key factors that managers need to consider for ICT adoption
towards achieving the alignment between an organisation’s
and what demands does this place on managers’ day-to-day
strategies and the environment within which it operates
activities? This is the key objective that this study hopes to
(Goll, Johnson & Rasheed 2007:162). The traditional model of
address and in doing so develop a framework listing critical
strategy formulation is entrenched by a hierarchical structure
ICT adoption factors.
that is supported by predictable and stable environments,
whereas contemporary environments are dynamic, with
organisational structures that are supportive of middle and
Information and communications technology
lower level involvement (Mantere & Vaara 2008:342). When
adoption and adoption influences on
compared to the traditional model, distinct management
strategy-making
roles are becoming obsolete because of the impact of ICT Gartner (2008) defines innovation as something new to a
innovation on management’s decision-making abilities group or enterprise, something that is not currently done
(Drucker 1988:3; Kearns & Sabherwal 2006:136; Spanos, or produced, including new ways of working. Technology
Prastacos & Poulymenakou 2002:662). Understanding adoption refers to the stage at which the individual or the
how organisations react to change requires insight at an organisation selects technology for use, whereas diffusion
individual level (Christensen & Overdorf 2000:1; Stensaker refers the stage in which technology spreads to general use
& Falkenberg 2007:143). and application (Carr 2012). The success of ICT adoption is
therefore generally measured by the degree of diffusion of
Managers are involved in a wide range of decision-making the product within the organisation.
activities that are of strategic importance to the organisation
(Chapman 2001:63; Hendry 2000:958). Strategic issues ICT adoption can be viewed from the activity lens as a dual
become evident from the context within which managers sense of practice in social theory: firstly as something that
engage daily and can contribute towards the strategic is used to guide activity and secondly as the activity itself.
objectives of the organisation (Elter 2004:6). Technological Accordingly, ‘practices’ of ICT adoption refers to shared
advancement plays a pivotal role in determining activities and behaviours including the traditional norms,
organisational success and, as such, organisations have methods and procedures for sense-making in selecting the
increased their adoption of sophisticated technologies technology of choice for adoption. The more these norms
(Zahra & Covin 1993:451). Technology adoption serves as a become embedded within the organisation, the greater the
vehicle that allows management to participate in a world of opportunity for these norms to become practices that shape
constant innovation with strategic benefits. This highlights practitioner’s behaviour in accomplishing the day-to-day
the value and importance of understanding the context of activities. This practice may be evident when preference
ICT adoption activities that have the potential to become is always given to internally established technologies to
organisational practices, which eventually shape strategy. leverage off existing investments unless the organisation
The right technology adoption can contribute significantly intends to capitalise on emerging technologies by pursuing
towards the day-to-day activities of managers. Knowledge of strategic advantage (Khanagha et al. 2013:53). The rationale
the environment, the need that the technology will address for this behaviour is that the adoption of new technology
and the skills required for the use of the technology form the can radically affect organisations’ operations, especially
source of management decision-making. if the adopted technology is different from the internally
established core technologies (Khanagha et al. 2013:52).
Since the advent of technology, there have been many ‘latest
and greatest’ gadgets. Users appear to want the next new It is crucial that management has an understanding of the
thing and they want it now. This is the same for customers factors that can influence the adoption of new technologies
and their requirements that managers have to cater for. (Sultan & Chan 2000:106), as not every technology innovation
With the arrival of the Internet, customers are much more will be of strategic importance. Decision-making for ICT

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adoption by management is influenced by both the rate and adopters of innovations into various categories, namely
the speed of adoption. The rate of adoption relates to the innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority or
need to introduce innovativeness into the organisation. An laggards. Meade and Rabelo (2004:668) later modified this
organisation with a high adoption rate indicates a higher drive model to indicate the chasm that exists between the early
for innovation towards efficiency or competitive advantage. adopters and the early majority.
The speed of adoption relates to the timing of when the
innovation was introduced into the market. Organisations In addition to these models that track the progress of
may adopt a wait-and-see approach to determine the success technology, numerous authors have attempted to define
of the innovation. Management’s approach to ICT adoption is pertinent aspects of ICT adoption. However, most authors
early or delayed, depending on the organisational readiness have expanded their technology innovation and adoption
and need. These aspects of organisational behaviour are models on the seminal works of Rogers (1995), diffusion
usually dictated by the organisation’s risk appetite when of innovation (DOI) and Davis’s (1989) Technology
introducing something new to the organisation. This Acceptance Model (TAM), which forms the basis of the
behaviour is usually influenced by the organisational culture, study’s ICT adoption framework. Venkatesh and Davis
which ultimately stems from long-standing social practices (2000) expanded the TAM model to include ‘subject norms’
within the organisation. Organisational culture influences to determine the changes they bring with increased user
organisational readiness and can contribute either positively experience of the target system over time. This is referred
or negatively towards the adoption of technology (Johnson to as the TAM2 model. The DOI model posits that the
2010:161). Organisational readiness is also influenced by adoption of innovation occurs in stages and that the
factors such as organisational policies, capital investments adopters’ decision to adopt the technology is based on
available for adoptive technologies and internal practices their perceptions of the technology. The TAM and TAM2
and procedures, activities that shape the day-to-day work of models focus on adopters’ behaviours and posit that their
strategy-making. beliefs affect their attitude for the technology that, in turn,
influences their intentions and usage of the technology.
Table 3 contains the critical ICT adoption factors and lists
Strategy tools and their benefits
their characteristics. These models provide the formal
Managers need to understand where in the technology analysis in the practitioner’s search for rationality and logic
life cycle a particular innovation is and what the potential by minimising uncertainties in ICT adoption decision-
strategic benefits will be before they decide to adopt the making activities.
technology (Meade & Rabelo 2004:669). The value this
understanding brings to the work of managers is that
Drivers of information and communications
it prevents managers participating in lengthy decision-
technology adoption
making processes, only to adopt technology that becomes
obsolete soon after the decision was taken, thereby rendering Decision-makers in key leadership positions are well aware
the adoption useless. ICT adoption tools assist managers that in today’s contemporary environment, it is technology
in decision-making activities and aid in minimising that is the driving change and that change demands
uncertainties, thereby preventing poor decisions. The use of technology (Barba-Sanchez, Martinez-Ruiz & Jimenez-
tools from the practice lens aid in performing strategy praxis, Zarco 2007). Frambach and Schillewaert (2002:165) and
which is all about performing the actual work of strategy- Tarafdar and Vaidya (2006:428) assert that the degree to
making. Four pertinent models relating to ICT adoption which an organisation is responsive to new technology will
assist managers in activities relating to ICT adoption. influence its tendency to adopt new technology. According
These models are diffusion of innovation, technology to Sieber and Valor (2008:3), the main driving force behind
acceptance model, s-curve and technology adoption life technology adoption is no longer dependent on just the
cycle model. ‘cost-saving’ criteria or the ‘automation’ of tedious tasks
but rather on the strategic implication it offers. In a study
The technology s-curve is a model that is frequently done by Harindranath, Dyerson and Barnes (2008:92),
used by organisations to track the technological progress the leading strategic advantage of ICT adoption was
of an innovation. The model was so named because the ‘keeping abreast of competitors’ and benefits in operational
plot of technological progress often takes an ‘s’ shape. At efficiencies.
the start, progress for any new technology is slow, then
critical mass for the technology builds as expertise in the Technology adoptions are a combination of ‘push’ and
product increases. Eventually the technology matures and ‘pull’ influences. Thong (1999:190) suggests that technology
progress is again slow. This is followed by an ensuing innovations can occur as a result of ‘technology-push’ or
decline of the product or the start of an new innovation ‘market-pull’. In ‘market-pull’, he postulates that a social need
(Asthana 1995:49). is felt, which gives rise to a technical demand. In ‘technology-
push’ he asserts that a new technology is produced from an
The technology adoption life cycle model describes the opportunity in the market, which compels the market to
adoption or acceptance of a new product or innovation. absorb the innovation. Both ‘technology-push’ and ‘market-
Originally developed by Everett Rogers, this model classifies pull’ influence technology adoption. According to Gartner

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(2008:14), the ‘push’ approach to innovation is expedient concentrated on key constructs of strategy, management
when an organisation wants to ‘lead with technology’ as and ICT adoption, with the intention of understanding
opposed to the ‘pull’ approach which is business-led. Drivers ICT adoption in the ‘modern’ business context. Research
can be viewed as a ‘resource’, ‘process’ or ‘condition’ that on ICT adoption studies were critically analysed to identify
are essential for the sustained success and development the factors that influence ICT adoption and to understand
of the organisation. Critical drivers are the key motives how these factors influence activities of ICT adoption. The
or the main force behind the need for decision-makers to inventory of the articles examined is presented in Table 2.
adopt technology. These positive factors provide decision- Table 1 highlights the design components used in this
makers with the impetus to adopt technology. From practice article.
perspective, ICT adoption drivers provide the discourse
that precedes the decision-making activities of ICT adoption
Research process
decisions. These drivers shape the strategy decisions and
inform strategy objectives. The principal aim of this article was to identify ICT adoption
factors and improve the general understanding of the
Barriers to information and communications challenges that ICT adoption presents to organisations
technology adoption in the modern business context. The reason for this ‘thin
description’ is to guide future focus areas for in-depth
As much as the adoption of technology promises to bring research and development. The eventual proposed
value with strategic benefits to an organisation, past framework depends on the identification of the correct
failures in competitive organisations tend to make decision- elements.
makers risk averse to the adoption of the very technology
that promises strategic advantages. The most important Academic sources and databases were searched with
challenges of adopting technology are associated with
key words including strategising for ICT adoption, ICT
human factors. According to Russel and Hoag (2004:103),
adoption, Rogers diffusion theory, Davis adoption theory,
the implementation of technology adoption has mostly
strategy-as-practice disruptive technologies, emerging
failed because of issues associated with user awareness,
technologies, drivers and barriers to ICT adoption, factors
project management and the organisation’s culture.
influencing ICT adoption, strategy-making, technology
Corrocher and Fontana (2008:231) state that organisations
adoption, management and ICT adoption and ICT adoption
may view barriers to technology differently depending
factors and innovation challenges. Each article was screened
on individual characteristics, organisational function and
for relevance to determine if it contributed to ICT adoption,
market features, which may strongly influence adopters’
adoption factors or drivers and barriers to ICT adoption. If
behaviour. Barriers serve as inhibiting factors that either
it contributed, it was analysed further for relevant subject
prevent or delay decision-makers from adopting technology
released in their environment. Barriers have a tendency to matter and included in the tabularised findings. Factor
become more permanent practices that are often seen as characteristics influencing ICT adoption were extracted,
predisposing negative patterns of strategising activities. rationalised and classified against the three critical ICT
This may largely be as a result of conservative behaviours adoption categories. When a ‘seminal’ article was identified,
by practitioners in taking risky decisions that previously its reference for potential contributing articles was further
proved costly. explored.

The principles of grounded theory were adopted (Corbin

Research methodology & Strauss 1990; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2009:149)
Literature was analysed using principles of grounded such that the repetitive reading of the selected articles led
theory for articles reporting on strategy-making that the researchers to identify principal categories typically

TABLE 1: This article’s research design components.

Component Description
Research problem To identify the factors influencing ICT adoption and to improve the general understanding of the challenges that ICT adoption
presents to organisations in the modern business context.
Context Strategising for ICT adoption in the contemporary environment.
Propositions* P1 ICT adoption is not a choice for management.
P2 The relationship between ICT adoption and strategising is clear.
P3 Organisational culture directly influences ICT adoption.
P4 The factors influencing decision-making for ICT adoption are clear.
P5 Management roles are evolving in response to their environment.
Unit of investigation Factors influencing ICT adoption and strategising for ICT adoption.
Unit of analysis Scientific literature articles.
Logic linking the data to the propositions Literature identified key factors for ICT adoption, which form the framework for ICT adoption. Strategy-making was analysed
against this framework. The resulting information was analysed against the propositions.
Criteria for interpreting the findings Repeated mention in the literature of relevant factors of ICT adoption directed the focus of strategising for ICT adoption in the
modern context and formed the basis for identifying key issues (focus areas) and developing an ICT adoption framework.
Source: Yin, R.K., 2003, Case study research design and methods, 3rd edn., Sage Publications Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA
*, Propositions are set to structure the research process in support of the research question. Research questions are converted to statements for which support (or not) is sought.
ICT, information and communications technology.

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TABLE 2: Literature studies on ICT adoption.

Phenomenon investigated or unit of investigation Participation in strategising Type of study Author(s) and year
Generic study focus: Strategy, Strategising, Management
Moderating influence on the relationship between user perception Both Field Agarwal & Prasad 1998
about ICT innovation and adoption decisions.
UK retailers’ adoption of electronic data interchange. Both Empirical Bamfield 1994
Model for organisational structure – innovation relationships. Both Literature Damanpour & Gopalakrishnan 1998
ICT adoption factors in Australian small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Top down Empirical Fink 1998
ICT adoption within SMEs. Both Literature Ghobakhloo et al. 2012
ICT adoption in UK SMEs. Top down Empirical Harindranath et al. 2008
Factors of adoption and usage in industrial e-markets. Both Case Johnson 2010
Antecedent drivers of Internet technology adoption in small business. Top down Field Lee 2004
Factors impacting the adoption of new technology in Brazil. Both Case Nemoto, De Vasconcellos & Nelson 2010
Strategic importance of e-commerce adoption. Top down Literature Pires & Aisbett 2003
Business factors that influence ICT adoption in banks in Thailand. Both Empirical Ratanapoophun & Lee 2010
Management praxis of ICT adoption in SMEs. Both Case Ritchie & Brindley 2005
ICT adoption factors and its integration. Both Case Shiels, McIvor & O’Reilly 2003
ICT adoption criteria used by Spanish companies. Both Empirical Sieber & Valor 2008
Dynamic relationships between ICT adoption and management efforts Both Empirical Spanos et al. 2002
towards modernisation.
Resource-based view, new technology adoption attributed to sense and Top down Field, Empirical Srinivasan, Lilien & Rangaswamy 2002
response by firms’ capabilities.
Individual focus on adoption of new technologies within organisations. Both Case Sultan & Chan 2000
ICT adoption factors in small business. Top down Literature Thong 1999
Adoption factors of XBRL into an Australian company. Both Case Troshani & Doolin 2005
Innovation characteristics and implementation processes in the Both Case Yetton, Sharma & Southon 1999
implementation context.
Generic study focus: Strategy, Strategising
Drivers for ICT adoption in Nigerian SMEs. Both Case Apulu & Latham 2011
User concern and role of demographics in ICT adoption. Both Case Harris et al. 2004
Factors influencing adoption of technology in agriculture. Top down Case Rubas 2004
Generic study focus: Strategy, Management
E-business adoption factors in smaller firms. Top down Literature Fillis., Johannson & Wagner 2004
Management innovation and adoption of emerging technologies. Top down Case Khanagha et al. 2013
Generic study focus: Strategising, Management
Organisational structure and decision-making procedures in the adoption of Top down Case Cohn & Turyn 1984
innovation.
Interaction of managerial tasks with ICT and its effect on ICT adoption. Both Empirical Cooper & Zmud 1990
Influence of ICT adoption factors on local area network technologies on IT Top down Case Corrocher & Fontana 2008
managers of SMEs in Italy.
Organisation and intra-organisation adoption decisions in marketing and Bottom up Literature Frambach & Schillewaert 2002
management.
Timing and intensity factors of Swiss firms’ decision to adopt ICT. Both Empirical Hollenstein 2004
ICT adoption rate and implementation challenges in supply chain Top down Case Russel & Hoag 2004
management.
Organisational factors in e-commerce adoption in India. Top down Empirical Tarafdar & Vaidya 2006
Internet adoption by business in Singapore. Top down Empirical Teo, Tan & Buk 1998
Generic study focus: Strategy
Strategy-making in high-tech firms. Top down Case Meade & Rabelo 2004
Generic study focus: Strategising
IT adoption and job satisfaction in Jordanian firms. Bottom up Empirical Attar & Sweis 2010
ICT adoption in SMEs. Bottom up Literature Barba-Sanchez et al. 2007
Impact of ICT skill constraints on ICT adoption and utilisation. Both Empirical Forth & Mason 2004
Decision-making factors to adopt new technology. Both Empirical Gilbert, Balestrini & Littleboy 2004
Factors impacting the adoption of new technology. Both Literature Hall & Khan 2003
Internet users’ adoption of the Web for retail usage. Both Empirical O’Cass & Fenech 2003
Characteristics of innovation and adoption factors. Both Empirical Teng, Grover & Guttler 2002
UK, United Kingdom; ICT, information and communications technology; SMEs, small and medium enterprises.

associated with drivers or barriers of ICT adoption and Article contextualisation

more. As the researchers’ understanding developed and
The research question identified in this article is part of
when additional articles did not contribute any more to new a larger study concerning ICT adoption. Due to space
knowledge, it was decided that saturation was achieved. limitations, this article reports only on the theory of
A list of all articles that were analysed, found to be useful and strategising for ICT adoption in the ‘modern’ context,
used in the establishment of the ICT adoption framework is the organisational implications thereof and on the
presented in Table 2. identification of ICT adoption factors with the intention

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TABLE 3: Characteristics of factors related to ICT adoption.

Characteristics Description
Innovation factors
Relative advantage ‘Degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes’. The extent to which a potential adopter
views the innovations as offering an improvement over former ways of accomplishing the same tasks.
Compatibility ‘Degree to which an innovation is perceived to be consistent with the existing values, past experiences and needs of potential
adopters. Organisations have a tendency to avoid technologies that are incompatible with the already established internal technical
landscape.
Complexity ‘Degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to use’.
Observability ‘Degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others’. The extent to which its performance and related benefits are
evident and the results demonstrable to those adopting the technology.
Operational effectiveness ‘Perceived usefulness’ of the technology. Possible increase in individuals’ job performance and contribution towards overall
improved outputs.
Systems openness Compatibility of the technology features with other technology across diverse platforms and the ability to integrate with other
complementary technologies.
Resource intensiveness Peripheral technologies that are essential to derive the maximum value from the adopted technology. This may extend to the
hardware configuration, network topology and general system level characteristics such as security, reliability and scalability.
External factors
Product life cycle and market conditions Technologies that have achieved critical mass may be avoided as they are likely to be in the mature stage. Little added value can
be achieved and this is likely to trigger new innovation. Technologies experiencing constant innovation may be avoided due to
technology obsolescence occurring more frequently. Rapid changes and advancement in technology give rise to uncertainty in the
industry.
Competitive advantage and pressure The need to stay competitive and innovative as a means of survival to outperform competitors and the ability to create competitive
advantage.
Global interdependencies Is the technology able to provide faster communication, closer coordination across firms’ boundaries and cater for highly
decentralised networks?
Interconnectedness Value of the technology grows with the total number of users who adopt it, for example social media. When there is critical mass of
users then the technology has a tendency to influence the adoption of associated innovations.
Legislative Government policies and initiatives in the form of financial aid and technical expertise increase the adoption of ICT.
Unsuccessful adoptions Implementations plagued with failures regarding technologies will breed contempt for the adoption of such technologies.
Organisational factors
Culture Constructs of organisational culture, such as perceived norms, values and attitudes can affect the behaviour of employees towards
the adoption of ICT.
Degree of risk-taking Uncertainty or riskiness associated with the technology versus the organisations’ risk appetite. It is natural for organisations to avoid
obvious risks, which may lead them to ignore technologies that do not meet the required standards. However, certain technologies
may create potential competitive advantage, which may encourage organisations to adopt them despite the high levels of risk
associated with them.
Knowledge and expertise Preference is given to technologies that can leverage off internal knowledge and expertise.
Budget Investment available for technology adoption. Larger budgets allow decision-makers greater flexibility. Organisation size and type
exert influence on the ICT investment budget.
Top management support and attitude Studies indicate that success associated with technology adoption is directly linked to top management’s positive support and
attitude towards the technology.
Resources Technical and managerial resources available to support the adoption of the technology. An already established internal resource
base may positively influence the adoption of technology.
Size and type Size of the organisation as defined by its turnover and the number of employees are important determinants. Larger firms usually
have bigger investment budgets, which may encourage them to adopt new technology sooner. The type of organisation also dictates
the level of ICT adoption.
Maturity Business maturity in terms of the employee mindset towards technology adoption and the level of employee knowledge. A high
requirement for technology and technology savvy users will prefer adopting technologies that are more sophisticated.
End user behaviour Characteristics of ICT users, such as their knowledge of ICT, their attitude and intention towards ICT, their exposure in the use of ICT
and their industry awareness, could influence their attitude and acceptance towards the adoption of the technology.
Information intensity Organisations that rely on volumes of information either for their daily operations or for decision-making express a greater
propensity to adopt ICT.
Policies Organisation’s policies that are flexible for the adoption indicate that ICT decision-makers are aware of technology innovations and
are forward-looking in their strategic objectives.
Interconnectedness Systems integration with internal technology and the value derived from the adoption of new technology, which can leverage off
existing infrastructure. Preference is given to technologies that are not tightly coupled for easy integration.
Strategic objectives Strategic objectives and position of the organisation in relation to its competitors. Organisations that pursue an aggressive,
innovative market strategy are more likely to pursue the adoption of new technologies more regularly.
ICT awareness Innovations engender competitive advantage via practical benefits. However, a lack of cognisance for the technology is likely to fuel
concerns for adopting the technology.
Uncertainty of business benefits Decision-makers decline to adopt technology that does not contribute to benefits related to operational matters for improved
productivity, efficiency and response time.
Source: Adapted from the articles presented in Table 2.
ICT, information and communications technology.

of developing an ICT adoption framework. The proposed and Davis’s seminal works or adapted versions thereof.
framework should give structure to the scattered and The critical ICT adoption factors presented in Table 3 were
fragmented literature and thereby support detailed constructed from these studies and are a collaborative
analysis in future research. process, which included analysing discussions for relevance,
filtering for adoption factors that support literature theory
Findings and influences stemming from modern business context.
It is important to note that the analysis of the ICT adoption However, no one study made use of the comprehensive list
studies reported in Table 2 is largely based on Rogers of ICT adoption factors presented in Table 3.

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 Page 8 of 13 Original Research

Information and communications technology ability of the organisation to ‘predict and respond’ to changes
adoption factors in the industry. External factors refer to industry pressures
from the environment that influence decision-makers’
The ICT adoption factors listed in Table 3 are categorised
adoption choice regarding the technology.
into three key factors, namely innovation, external and
organisational. These three factors were selected based on
their common recurrence in literature articles on ICT adoption Organisational
and as an appropriate construct name for the characteristics Organisational factors refer to internal aspects that set the
of the attributes associated with the factor. These factors tone for ICT adoption. The type and size of the organisation
can be seen as drivers or barriers to ICT adoption decision- influence not only the strategies that practitioners develop
making activities depending on the context of whether the for market efficiencies but also the day-to-day activities and
practitioners decide to adopt the technology sooner or delay the type of ICT innovation adopted given the value of the
the adoption of technology. budget available.

Innovation Discussion and interpretation of the findings

Innovation factors are product-related characteristics that An analysis of the above research articles on ICT adoption, as
contribute towards ICT adoption. According to Garcia summarised in Table 2 and Table 3, leads to the development
and Calantone (2002:112), ‘innovation is an iterative of the proposed framework contextualising the three
process initiated by the perception of a new market ICT adoption factors with the current opportunities and
and/or new service opportunity for a technology-based uncertainties under which strategising for ICT adoption
invention which leads to development, production and occurs, which is illustrated in Figure 1. The contextual
marketing tasks striving for the commercial success of the framework of challenges in the modern business
invention’. environment features the three adoption factors and displays
the challenges and opportunities available to organisations
External in the context of each factor. The discussions of the findings
Tidd et al. (in Troshani & Doolin 2005:4) assert that a critical presented in this article, as well as the propositions, proceed
factor for the successful adoption of technology includes the in accordance with Figure 1 as a guideline.

Product life cycle Legislative Unsuccessful adoptions

Market conditions Vendor support

External
Competitive advantage/pressure
Global interdependencies
Interconnectedness
Mobile

Blogs
Facebook
Internal organisational structures
ICT innovation
Redundant
Twitter
Middle Executive
Complexity
Focus: Customer satisfaction Focus: Strategic objectives
Relative advantage
Observability Decision-making for
ICT Adoption
Innovation
Cloud Operational/Line Users
Internet Focus: Operational efficiency, Focus: Response to market,
Customer satisfaction Business objectives
Resource intensity

Compatibility

System openness Budget

Big data Knowledge/expertise Interconnectedness Culture

Strategic objectives
Social networking Established technologies ICT awareness
Policies
Information intensity Organisational End-user behaviour
Top management support and attitude Maturity Size/type Degree of risk taking

ICT, information and communications technology.

FIGURE 1: Framework of ICT adoption in the modern context.

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 Page 9 of 13 Original Research

ICT advancements have followed the projection that Gordon Used applicably, ICT adoption can enable management to
Moore made in 1965 and are evolving more swiftly than ever close strategic gaps that may exist between the organisation
before. The general trend of ICT is towards being smaller, and its environment. Strategising for ICT adoption can be
cheaper, more powerful and more integrated into the daily seen as the activity of choosing technology by selectively
operations of both individuals and organisations. Technology incorporating the organisation’s practices and contextual
continues to overwhelmingly influence the manner in which influences and, with the use of specialised tools, help make
organisations work, collaborate, communicate, interact, sound decisions. Although various tools can assist managers
learn, socialise and eventually operate in almost every aspect in determining the phase of a particular technology to better
of their dealings. understand the technology’s potential value, technology
adoption is dependent on many other factors, as indicated
In line with the escalating pressures experienced in the by the adoption framework that is presented in this article.
external environments, there exists a growing demand on The use of ICT is critical to the economic survival and bottom
managers to improve operational, tactical and strategic line of organisations. Failing to participate in technology
processes. As an ostensible choice, managers are relying adoption creates the risk of organisations being negatively
on ICT adoption as a means to this end (Cooper & Zmud marginalised (Spanos et al. 2002:659). Although technology is
1990:123). In order for organisations to exploit the strategic important in shaping strategic outcomes, extant literature is
benefit of ICT adoption, they should preferably align their not prescriptive on what technology to adopt. This remains
ICT strategy with their business strategies. However, with the prerogative of organisations as governed by the relevant
the rapid pace of technology advancement, it is becoming adoption factors. Therefore, there is partial support for
difficult to keep abreast of the latest trends to align these proposition 1, which states that ICT adoption is not a choice
strategies sufficiently. for management.

Over the past decade, technology has changed the modus Given the dynamic forces at play in the market environment,
operandi of organisations. The speed of technology managers cannot afford to delay decision-making by
innovations, coupled with increasing hyperconnectivity, having complicated decision structures. Customers and
has contributed towards environmental instability (Walsh, clients alike expect fast turnaround times for service
delivery. Hierarchical structures by their very nature
Kirchhoff & Newbert 2002:342). Thus, the traditional
imply longer turnaround times for decision-making. It is
models adopted by organisations to develop strategies and
evident that with increased uncertainty and environmental
conduct business operations have become ineffective to
challenges experienced through technological innovations
sufficiently and timeously respond to market stimuli that
and technology adoption, the approach to strategising is
affect strategic objectives. Extant research also indicates that
changing (Barkema, Baum & Mannix 2002:916; Hart &
the required approach to strategy formulation is one that
Banbury 1994:266). This occurs predominantly because of
can deal with the current environmental instability, whilst
management’s response to innovations in technology. In
being agile and flexible to respond to the adaptive business
the current economy, strategists will not always develop
needs. The greater the complexity facing organisations, the strategies behind closed doors or in secret meetings. In
more difficult it becomes to develop appropriate strategies. a study undertaken by Dameron and Torset (2009) on the
Thus if complexity becomes too extensive then organisation strategists’ discourse on their practices, it was found that
actions become paralysed (Seidl 2003:3). Complexity strategists rely on ‘social interactions, complementary
needs to be minimised to achieve workable actions. S-as-p collaborations, intuition and action’ to develop their
contributes towards this simplification by focusing on the strategies. Due to the contextual difference in organisations,
micro activities of strategising thereby providing insight insufficient support was found for proposition 2, which
into the work and practices of practitioners, which shape states that understanding the relationship between ICT
strategy-making. adoption and strategising is clear.

Technology adoption serves as a vehicle that allows The interplay that exists in an organisation amongst the
management to participate in a world of constant innovation. various actors sets the culture for the organisation, which
At the same time, it serves as a catalyst for fundamental inadvertently governs its structures, policies, practices and
changes within the organisation. However, the right strategising activities that shape strategy. Preference is always
technology needs to be adopted in order for organisations given to internally established technologies to leverage off
to reap the benefits of technological innovations. The existing investments, unless the organisation intends to
opportunity that technology adoption presents to capitalise on emerging technologies by pursuing strategic
managers is to understand the interdependence that exists advantage (Khanagha et al. 2013:53). Organisational culture
between business strategies, business rules, processes and influences organisational readiness and can contribute either
procedures and to determine how business can benefit from positively or negatively towards the adoption of technology
technology adoption. In capitalising on the s-as-p approach, (Johnson 2010:161). Management’s approach and response to
managers can benefit greatly from its building blocks in the speed of adoption is either early or delayed, depending
unpacking the day-to-day micro activities that contribute on the organisational readiness and need. There seems to
towards strategy. be sufficient support in literature to support proposition 3,

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 Page 10 of 13 Original Research

that organisational culture directly influences ICT adoption, External factors are largely a result of market influences
and for proposition 4, that the factors influencing decision- that shape the behaviour of organisational work and that
making for ICT adoption are clear. Despite the above, become embedded into everyday activities. Knowledge
how these factors influence decision-making warrants about specific types of technology, industry successes and
further investigation. Evidence of the factors influencing failures relating to a technology and reputational view about
ICT adoption decisions is provided in the form of the ICT a technology contributes to establishing patterns relating to
adoption framework, which was the outcome of this study. technology products. This pattern over time becomes practice
This is presented in Table 3 in this article. that practitioners look to for guidance, which influences
strategising for ICT adoption. However, differentiation and
Technology adoption, especially where major ICT innovation change in the use of technology become critical to achieve
is concerned, is not only pervasive but also influences many competitive advantage; recursive practices then present a
aspects of organisational activity (Pires & Aisbett 2003:293). challenge to strategic management if practitioners are largely
This trend is guaranteed to continue with the advancement reliant on past practices. Thus, it becomes imperative that
in technology. In addition to the advocacy needed to social practices embedded in organisations need to evolve
ensure the conditions necessary for technological adoption, and have adaptive characteristics that can appropriately
managers must compete with other organisational priorities. influence ICT adoption.
As technology advances, so too must the organisation to
ensure its strategic survival. The critical challenge facing In the context of a practitioner’s work, activities may become
management is to address these changes adequately. An localised to specific individuals who are responsible for
organisation’s structures and management’s roles must filtering information to decision-makers. In technology-
evolve to be flexible and agile to respond to the external centric industries these individuals maybe specialists who
environment. From the literature evidence, it is clear that may not occupy executive positions but still have the ability
organisations have no choice but to adjust accordingly. to shape strategy. Although an organisation’s culture
This is evident from the demise of those brick and mortar may to a large extent drive individual behaviours in work
organisations that refused to adapt their strategies to that of practices, sub-cultures amongst the user community are
the changing environment with the advent of the Internet. prone to like-minded thinking that can influence activities
Thus, proposition 5 is supported in that management’s roles in decision-making for ICT adoption.
are evolving in response to the organisation’s changing
environment. However further research is necessary to Conclusion
provide greater understanding on the impact this has on
organisational structures. The intention of this article was to analyse existing literature
on ICT adoption with the intention of developing an ICT
adoption framework and to strengthen the understanding
Analysis of factors from an s-as-p view of strategising in the context of ICT adoption. In doing so,
ICT adoption can be viewed through the activity lens as a the study revealed that formulating appropriate strategies is
dual sense of practice in social theory: firstly as something more important now than ever before. However, given the
that is used to guide activity and secondly as the activity uncertainty that exists in the current environment, market
itself. In the context of ‘guiding activity’, ICT adoption relates opportunities and risks have transformed the manner in
to associated practices involved in decision-making and which strategies are formulated (Courtney 2001:38). It
shaping managerial views on ICT adoption. In terms of the is necessary for strategies to be much more flexible and
‘activity itself’, ICT adoption is associated with actions taken adaptable to cater for the changing nature of and uncertainties
to accomplish the actual work of ICT adoption for example experienced in the external environment, as this ensures
setting up of workshops, drawing up of budget, making long-term organisational sustainability. It is clear from the
presentations on ICT adoption and the like. research that a more agile approach to strategy formulation is
required. New approaches to strategy-making are necessary
Using the practice lens the innovation factor is largely to reduce the complexity involved in strategy decisions. An
characterised by thinking and logical sense-making s-as-p perspective helps to reduce the complexity involved
stemming from the practitioners perception of the in strategy-making by focusing on the micro activities
technology being adopted. The rationale for this view of strategising. S-as-p provides invaluable insight into
may be a result of the practitioner’s praxis, which looks the understanding of strategic management, managerial
to technology as a means of improving their day-to-day activities and decision-making. In unveiling the micro
activities. This expectation becomes ingrained into the activities involved in strategising, a better understanding
fabric of the aggregate actor’s paradigm and as a result is achieved on how organisations deal with the day-to-day
over time may become established in organisational uncertainties of the contemporary environment.
policies and decision-making. Ultimately, the outcome of
this has the potential to shape strategising activities for Advancements in ICT innovations contribute towards the
ICT adoption. The drawback of this social thinking is that strategic challenges that managers have to endure on a
sometimes perceptions may be wrong and the result is daily basis and have a significant impact on management’s
poor performance or costly decisions. approach to strategising. Used appropriately, technology

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 Page 11 of 13 Original Research

adoption can enable management to close strategic gaps that determine the contemporary contribution of ICT adoption
may exist between the organisation and its environment. to an organisation’s strategic versus operational benefit.
In the context of technology adoption, strategising for ICT Empirical research needs to be conducted to determine
adoption can be seen as the activity of choosing appropriate the relevance of adoption factors listed in this study in
technology by selectively incorporating the organisation’s the contemporary context. Further research needs to be
practices and contextual influences into decision-making conducted to understand how the activities of ICT adoption
activities that culminate in the adoption of technology. This are performed and by whom.
article successfully compiled a comprehensive list of ICT
adoption factors that can assist practitioners in informing Acknowledgements
decision-making activities for ICT adoption. It provided
detailed characteristics of each factor and provided contextual
Competing interests
understanding of how these factors can influence the manner The authors declare that they have no financial or personal
in which practitioners view ICT adoption. ICT adoption relationship(s) which may have inappropriately influenced
factors can be further categorised into drivers and barriers them in writing this article.
that have the potential to predispose decision-making and
hence shape strategising activities. In addition, it considered Authors’ contributions
the drawbacks of past practices influencing decision-making
Both authors (University of Pretoria) contributed to the
activities in the modern context of strategy-making.
writing and research of this article.

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