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Wettability and Surface Tension Dynamics

The document discusses concepts related to wettability and capillary pressure in porous media. It defines wettability as the tendency of one fluid to adhere to a solid surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids, which can be measured by the contact angle. Capillary pressure is the pressure difference between two immiscible fluids in contact, and depends on factors like interfacial tension, pore size, and fluid saturations. Laboratory experiments like the USBM method are used to determine capillary pressure-saturation relationships in reservoirs.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

51 views169 pages

Wettability and Surface Tension Dynamics

Uploaded by

Nubasyer Qallinsman

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

 Definition: tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a solid

surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids.

 The tendency of a liquid to spread over the surface of a solid is
an indication of the wetting characteristics of the liquid for the
solid
 Can be measured by angle of contact at the liquid-solid
surface. This angle, which is always measured through the
liquid to the solid, is called the contact angle θ.
 What would be the angle for a complete wettability?
 What would be the angle for a complete non wetting?
 What would be the angle for a complete wettability?

Complete wettability would be evidenced by a zero contact angle

 What would be the angle for a complete non wetting?

Complete nonwetting would be evidenced by a contact angle of

180°
 Because of the attractive forces, the wetting phase tends to occupy
the smaller pores of the rock and the nonwetting phase occupies the
more open channels
 When these two fluids are liquid and gas, the term surface tension is used
to describe the forces acting on the interface.
 When the interface is between two liquids, the acting forces are called
interfacial tension. The physics and or chemistry that produces surface
tension also creates a clear interface between two non-miscible liquids
(liquids that do not mix). The strength of this plastic like sheet between the
liquids is called interfacial tension.
 Surfaces of liquids are usually blanketed with what acts as a thin film or thin
membrane and resists being broken. WHY?
 ----Property at the surface of a liquid that causes it to behave like a plastic
sheet. When you see an insect walking on the surface of a pool or pond, it is
because of the surface tension of the water.
 Resulting forces are unbalanced
and give rise to surface tension.
 The unbalanced attraction force
between the molecules creates a
membrane like surface with a
measurable tension, i.e., surface
tension.

 Has the units of force per unit of

length, e.g., dynes/cm, and is
usually denoted by the symbol σ.
The main difference between these two is the places where it occurs. Surface
tension is defined to a single liquid surface, whereas the interfacial tension is
defined to the interface of two immiscible liquids. Surface tension is actually a
derivation of interfacial tension where force from the second surface is
negligible or zero.
 If a glass capillary tube is placed
in a large open vessel containing
water, the combination of surface
tension and wettability of tube to
water will cause water to rise in
the tube above the water level in
the container outside the tube.
 water will rise in the tube until the
total force acting to pull the liquid
upward is balanced by the weight
of the column of liquid being
supported in the tube.
Assume radius of the capillary tube
is r,
 total upward force Fup,

,
 counteracted by the weight of the
water = downward force, Fdown of
mass time acceleration
 Because the density of air is
negligible in comparison with the
density of water
 Equating and solving for surface
tension:

 By applying them to the behavior

of two liquids, i.e., water and oil.
Since the density of oil is NOT
negligible, equation for
interfacial tension becomes
 When two immiscible fluids are in contact, a discontinuity in pressure
exists between the two fluids, which depends upon the curvature of
the interface separating the fluids. this pressure difference the
capillary pressure and it is referred to by pc
 The capillary forces in a petroleum reservoir are the result of the
combined effect of the surface and interfacial tensions of the rock
and fluids, the pore size and geometry, and the wetting
characteristics of the system.
 There are three types of capillary pressure:
 Water-oil capillary pressure (denoted as Pcwo)
 Gas-oil capillary pressure (denoted as Pcgo)
 Gas-water capillary pressure (denoted as Pcgw)
 The displacement of one fluid by another in the pores of a porous medium is
either aided or opposed by the surface forces of capillary pressure.

 Capillary pressure = (pressure of the nonwetting phase) − (pressure of the

wetting phase)

 three types of the capillary pressure can be written as:

 If all the three phases are continuous,

 pressure difference across the interface

between Points 1 and 2 is essentially the
capillary pressure:
 The pressure of the water phase at Point 2
is equal to the pressure at point 4 minus the
head of the water

 pressure just above the interface at Point 1

represents the pressure of the air and is
given by:
 Noted that pressure at Point 4 within the
capillary tube is the same as that at Point 3
outside the tube. Subtracting will give

 where Δρ is the density difference between

the wetting and nonwetting phase.
 The density of the air (gas) is negligible in
comparison with the water density.
 In practical units, can be expressed as:
 In the case of an oil-water system.

 In practical units, can be expressed as:

a) Gas liquid system
 In the case of gas liquid system.
Notes:
Capillary pressure equation
also can be expressed in
terms of the surface and
interfacial tension by
combining equation from
surface tension, interfacial
tension and capillary
pressure and give
a) Oil-water system
 Air – Water = 70 dyne/cm (mN.m)
 Air – mineral oil = 25-30 dyne/cm
 Air – mercury = 470 dyne/cm
 The lower the IFT – the closer the two phases are to ‘miscibly’ blending
 Low IFT considered to be <0.01 dyne/cm
 Water – Gas (2000 psi, 100 C, 85% C1) – 30-40 dyne/cm
 Water – CO2 Gas (2000 psi, 100 C) - < 2 dyne/cm
 Water – Live Oil - typically 5-25 dyne/cm
 Gas – Oil – typically 1-30 dyne/cm
 Additional of surfactants or miscible solvents can radically lower IFT
 Pendant Drop
 Spinning drop
 Du Nuoy Ring
q
q
q
 The size of the capillary (the smaller the capillary, the smaller the size of the
characteristic radius)
 The interfacial tension between the two fluids (the higher the IFT, the stiffer the
interface and the smaller the amount of the characteristic radius)
 As the size of the capillary decreases, the radius of curvature decreases and hence
the value of the capillary pressure increases
 As the IFT between the fluids increases the stiffness of the interface increases and
hence the capillary pressure increases
P Hydrostatic  gh 
Calculate capillary pressure,Pc and capillary rise, h at given
data:
θ =55°
ρw = 1.0 gm/cm3
Ρo = 0.75 gm/cm3
r = 10−6 cm
σow = 20 dynes/cm
 Three forces governing fluid flow in porous media:
- Capillary forces
- Gravitational forces
- Viscous forces
 The capillary pressure that exists within a porous medium between two
immiscible phases is a function of the interfacial tensions and the average
size of the capillaries, which, in turn, control the curvature of the interface.
 In addition, the curvature is also a function of the saturation distribution of
the fluids involved.

 Laboratory experiments have been developed to simulate the displacing

forces in a reservoir in order to determine the magnitude of the capillary
forces in a reservoir and, thereby, determine the fluid saturation distributions
and connate water saturation.
 Developed primarily to determine the
magnitude of the connate water saturation.
 Procedure:
1. Saturate core 100% with reservoir water
2. Place core on porous membrane, 100% saturated and
permeable to water only.
3. Air added into chamber, pressure increase until water
start to displace through semi perm membrane into
cylinder.
4. Pressure held const. until no more water displaced
5. Core removed and Sw determined by weighing
6. The core is then replaced in the apparatus, the pressure
is increased, and the procedure is repeated until the
water saturation is reduced to a minimum.
1. The pressure required to
displace the wetting phase from
the core = capillary forces
holding the remaining water
within the core after equilibrium
has been reached
2. Pressure data can be plotted as
capillary pressure data.
minimum capillary pressure is known as 3. A finite capillary pressure at
the displacement pressure, pd.
100% water saturation that is
necessary to force the
nonwetting phase into a
capillary filled with the wetting
phase. This minimum capillary
pressure is known as the
displacement pressure, pd.
 If the largest capillary opening is considered as circular with a
radius of r, the pressure needed for forcing the nonwetting
fluid out of the core is:

 This is the minimum pressure that is required to displace

the wetting phase from the largest capillary pore because
any capillary of smaller radius will require a higher pressure
 As the wetting phase is displaced, the second phenomenon of
any immiscible displacement process is encountered, that is,
the reaching of some finite minimum irreducible saturation.
This irreducible water saturation is referred to as connate
water.
 To calculate the average size of the pores making up a stated
fraction of the total pore space. Let pc be the average capillary
pressure for the 10% between saturation of 40 and 50%.
 All laboratory experiments are designed to duplicate the
saturation history of the reservoir

 Accumulation of hydrocarbon in a reservoir is a drainage

process and production by aquifer drive or waterflood is an
imbibition process.

 The process of saturating and desaturating a core with the

nonwetting phase is called capillary hysteresis.
 DRAINAGE- The process of forcing a nonwetting phase
into a porous rock. Oil migrates into most reservoirs as
the non-wetting phase, so initial charging of
the reservoir is a drainage process.

 The process of generating the capillary pressure curve by

displacing the wetting phase, i.e., water, with the
nonwetting phase (such as with gas or oil),
 IMBIBITION- The process of absorbing a wetting phase
into a porous rock. Spontaneous imbibition refers to the
process of absorption with no pressure driving the
phase into the rock.
 reversing the drainage process by displacing the
nonwetting phase (such as with oil) with the wetting phase,
(e.g., water)
The process of saturating
and desaturating a core
with the nonwetting phase
is called capillary
hysteresis.
With the aid of a diagram, describe the capillary pressure
hysteresis for each drainage and imbibition process.
 Observed in a capillary tube having variations in radius
along its length.
 Consider a capillary tube of axial symmetry having roughly
sinusoidal variations in radius
 When such a tube has its lower end immersed in water, the
water will rise in the tube until the hydrostatic fluid head in
the tube becomes equal to the capillary pressure
 If then the tube is lifted to a higher level in the water, some
water will drain out, establishing a new equilibrium level in
the tube.
 When the meniscus is advancing and it approaches a
constriction, it jumps through the neck, whereas when
receding, it halts without passing through the neck.
 This phenomenon explains why a given capillary pressure
corresponds to a higher saturation on the drainage curve
than on the imbibition curve.
 Controlled by
 Capillary pressure character
 Height above free water contact
 IFT
 Surface Wettability
W-O CONTACT
W-O CONTACT
W-O CONTACT
W-O CONTACT
W-O CONTACT
W-O CONTACT
 The capillary pressure-saturation data can be converted into
height-saturation data
Point 1
Vertical thickness over
which the water
saturation ranges from
100% saturation to
irreducible water
saturation Swc
 This figure serves
as a definition of
what is meant by
gas-oil and water-
FWL= zero oil contacts.
capillary pressure  The WOC is
defined as the
“uppermost depth
FWL≠ 100% Smum in the reservoir
depth at which a where a 100%
100% liquid, i.e., oil water saturation
exists.
+ water, saturation
 ” The GOC is
exists in defined as the
the reservoir.”w “minimum depth
at which a 100%
liquid, i.e., oil +
water, saturation
exists in he
reservoir.”
shows a schematic illustration
of a core that is represented
by five different pore sizes
and completely saturated
with water, i.e., wetting phase
subject the core to oil (the
nonwetting phase) with
increasing pressure until
some water is displaced
from the core, i.e.,
displacement pressure pd.
This water displacement
will occur from the largest
pore size. The oil pressure
will have to increase to
displace the water in the
second largest pore.
subject the core to oil (the
nonwetting phase) with
increasing pressure until
some water is displaced
from the core, i.e.,
displacement pressure pd
 There is a difference between the free water level (FWL)
and the depth at which 100% water saturation exists. Free
water level is defined by zero capillary pressure. If the
largest pore is so large that there is no capillary rise in this
size pore, then the free water level and 100% water
saturation level, i.e., WOC, will be the [Link] can be
expressed mathematically:
The reservoir capillary pressure-saturation data of the Marconna
Oil reservoir is shown graphically in Figure 4-11. Geophysical
log interpretations and core analysis establish the WOC at 5023
ft. The following additional data are available:
Oil density = 43.5 lb/ft3
Water density = 64.1 lb/ft3
Interfacial tension = 50 dynes/cm

Calculate Connate water saturation (Swc), Depth to FWL,

Thickness of the transition zone, depth to reach 50% water
saturation
 height above FWL increases with decreasing the density
difference Δρ.

 radius of the pore r increases the volume of h decreases.

Therefore, a reservoir rock system with small pore sizes
will have a longer transition zone than a reservoir rock
system comprised of large pore sizes.

 For gas reservoir which having a gas-water contact, the

thickness of the transition zone will be a minimum since Δρ
will be large.
P Hydrostatic  gh

 gh    1 
Pcap( h ) 
 Rc
GRAVITY FORCES
CAPILLARY FORCES
Water Contact – Location in the Reservoir Where a
Finite Free Gas or Oil Saturation Begins to be Apparent
 A graphical relationship that relates the apparent capillary
pressure to the average water saturation in a given
(assumed to be homogeneous) pore system
 Low API gravity oil
reservoir with an oil-water
contact will have a longer
transition zone than a high
API gravity oil reservoir.

Variation of transition zone with fluid

gravity. (After Cole, F., 1969.)
 reservoir pore size can often
be related approximately to
permeability which stated
that high permeability
reservoirs will have shorter
transition zones than low
permeability reservoirs

Variation of transition zone with

permeability.
The previous discussion of capillary forces
in reservoir rocks has assumed that the
reservoir pore sizes, i.e., permeabilities, are
essentially uniform.
 But Cole (1969) stated tilted water-oil
contact could be caused by a change
in permeability across the reservoir.
 It should be emphasized that the
factor responsible for this change in
the location of the water-oil contact is
actually a change in the size of the
pores in the reservoir rock system
 Cole (1969) – discussed effect
of reservoir non-uniformity on
the distribution of the fluid
saturation through the
formation
A four-layer oil reservoir is characterized by a set of
reservoir capillary pressure-saturation curves as shown. The
following additional data are also available.

100

90
 WOC = 4,060 ft
 Water density = 65.2 lb/ft3
 Oil density = 55.2 lb/ft3

Calculate and plot water saturation versus depth for this

reservoir.
 capillary pressure-saturation curves of nearly all naturally
porous materials have many features in common has led to
attempts to devise some general equation describing all
such curves.
 capillary pressure
should depend on the
porosity, interfacial
tension, and mean
pore radius
A laboratory capillary pressure test was conducted on a core sample
taken from the Nameless Field. The core has a porosity and
permeability of 16% and 80 md, respectively. The capillary pressure-
saturation data are given as follows:

Interfacial tension is measured at 50 dynes/cm. Further reservoir

engineering analysis indicated that the reservoir is better described
at a porosity value of 19% and an absolute permeability of 120 md.
Generate the capillary pressure data for the reservoir
 it is common in the laboratory determination of capillary
pressure to use air-mercury or air-brine systems, rather
than the actual water-oil system characteristic of the
reservoir
 By assuming that the Leverett J-function is a property of
rock and does not change from the laboratory to the
reservoir, we can calculate reservoir capillary pressure as
show below.
 necessary to make further corrections for permeability and
porosity.
 Lithostatic pressure is caused by the pressure of rock,
transmitted by grain-to-grain contact.
 Fluid pressure is caused by weight of column of fluids in
the pore spaces. Average = 0.465 psi/ft (saline water).
 Overburden pressure is the sum of the lithostatic and fluid
pressures
Overburden and hydrostatic
pressure regimes (FP = fluid
pressure; GP = grain pressure)
 A pressure distribution of
a reservoir contain both oil
and a free gas cap shown
as above figure.
 The composition of the
respective fluids gives rise
to different pressure
gradient. These gradient
will be determined by a
density of the fluid which
result from the specific
composition of the fluids.
 Pressure gradients for oil, gas and water in the formation can be measured using
RFT and MDT logs
 They provides info on fluid contacts
 Reconcile with info from PVT and core.
 Water is always present in reservoir rocks and the pressure in the water
phase Pw an the pressure in the hydrocarbon phase Po are different.
 If P is the pressure at the oil/water contact where the saturation 100%,
then the pressure above this contact for the hydrocarbon and water are :
 The different between these two pressure is the capillary pressure Pc.
 In the transition zone the phase pressure different is given by the capillary
pressure which is a function of the wetting phase saturation.
 The free water level, FWL is not coincident with the oil water contact.
OWC. The water contact corresponds to the depth at which the oil
saturation starts to increase from water zone.
 The free water level is the depth at which the capillary pressure is zero.
 The different in depth between the oil –water contact and the free water
level depends on the capillary pressure which is a function of
permeability, grain size etc
 Providing the phase is continuous the pressures in the respective phase
are:
 On the depth pressure diagram the intersection of the continuous phase
pressire line occurs at the free water level.
 The temperature of the earth increases from the surface to center.
 The heat flow outwards through the Earth’s crust generates a geothermal
gradient,gc
 In most petroleum basins the geothermal gradient is of the order of
1.6ºF/100ft.
 The thermal characteristics of the reservoir rock and overburden give
rise to large thermal capacity and with a large surface area in the porous
reservoir one can assume that flow processes in a reservoir occur at
constant reservoir temperature. The local geothermal gradient will be
influenced by associated geological features like volcanic intrusions etc.
 During drilling the local thermal gradient can be disturbed and by
analysis of the variation of temperature with time using a bottom hole
temperature (BHT) gauge the local undisturbed temperature can be
obtained.
 Porous Plate
 Clean State
 Native State

 Centrifuge
 Clean State
 Native State

 Mercury Injection
 Uses a ceramic wetted plate
 Plate is permeable to only the wetting phase in the porous media being evaluated
up to a certain ‘breakdown’ pressure level (typically 1000-1500 kPa)
 Two methods, single plate (capable of full reservoir conditions) and bulk porous
plate (non reservoir conditions)
Injection Head