Motor Technologies

Motor Sizing 101

TN-2003 | REV 161221
PURPOSE
This technical note addresses basic motor sizing with simple calculations that can be done to generally size any
motor application. It will also provide a list of the main parameters to consider, and some very important criteria
that is most often overlooked. Technical note TN-9001 is closely related to this subject, and considers dynamic
attributes of a servo system and how they relate to motor power and heating.

The same fundamental sizing information works in both rotary and linear motors. For simplicity, we will stay in the
rotary domain using the metric system of units.

THEORY BEHIND MOTOR SIZING

Most rotary electromechanical systems have a need to accelerate, run at a constant speed, and decelerate. To
move any mechanical system with contacting elements, friction, damping, and any external loading must be
overcome by the motor. When accelerating, additional torque must be applied to overcome inertia. While
decelerating, friction and damping apply a negative torque and assist the motor with deceleration.

Motor sizing starts with a first pass estimation of all loading and a simple move profile defining the worst case
acceleration and velocity requirements. This process follows Newton’s Laws of Motion.

Sizing Steps
1. Define/calculate the key aspects of the motion profile required.
2. Calculate/estimate all of the torque loading in the system.
3. Estimate any additional torque required due to the environment or the system dynamics.
4. Check your results against an initial motor selection that fits within your desired size and physical
constraints.
a. This is typically done using a torque versus speed curve of the motor to see if the point falls within
the motor output.
b. Celera Motion has a torque-speed simulation tool that can predict motor performance under
customer specific unique power and thermal requirements.
5. Factor in the motor itself to the system and repeat step 4 if necessary.
6. Check the electrical input power requirements to see that they align with what’s available.

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Motion Profile
The fastest, most demanding method of moving from point to point is a triangular move. It brings the motor to the
highest speed and requires the highest overall power. It is common to use this as a first pass motion profile
iteration to hone in on motor selection.

Figure 1 below shows a velocity versus time profile. This is the most fundamental motion profile curve.

Figure 1

Triangular Motion Profile

12

10
Accleration is the slope of Deceleration is the slope of
this line this line
Velocity, Rad/sec

4
Area Under this curve is
2
the distance travelled

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time, Sec

Figure 1 above is a motion profile yielding the following;

1. Maximum velocity of 10 radians/sec
2. Acceleration rate of 20 radians/sec2
3. Deceleration rate of 20 radians/sec2

A more detailed look at the primary motion states yields the following:

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 Figure 2

Acceleration, Velocity & Position versus Time

25
20
15 Rad/Sec2
10 Rad/Sec Radians
5
0
-5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-10
-15
-20
-25
TIme, sec

Acceleration Velocity Position

In Figure 2, the acceleration is constant at 20 rad/sec2 and should represent a square wave. Position is shown in
green. Note that halfway through the move in time is not half way in distance. This plot is meant to be a pictorial
representation of all three motion states.

Servo systems generally do not like sharp changes or disturbances in any command. Therefore, it is important to
consider one of two options;
1. Select the motion profile that achieves the move in 80% of the allotted time, leaving time for overshoot
and settling. This safety factor can account for the dynamic torque required to meet servo loop conditions.
2. Size the motor within its continuous torque range, allowing it to use the intermittent torque to cover
overshoot and settling, which we are calling the dynamic torque requirement.

Sometimes, smoothing is done to this motion profile in order to minimize the rate of change of acceleration, or a
trapezoidal profile is used to minimize the overshoot and reduce maximum speed. All of these solutions work to
reduce the peak torque at speed and power required. They also lengthen the time of the move.

SIZING EXAMPLE
Step 1: Motion Profile
We will use the motion profile above in Figures 1 and 2. Acceleration of 20 rad/sec2 and required speed of 10
rad/sec2.

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Step 2: Calculate/Estimate Torque Required

Torque Required =
+ Torque required to Accel/Decel the load (pick the higher of the two), units of NM
+ Friction torque of the load, NM
+ Damping torque of the load, NM/radian/sec
+ Other Torque (externally applied load, dynamic load torque), NM
+ Internal motor friction, NM
+ Internal motor damping, NM/radian/sec
+ Torque required to Accel/Decel the motor itself, NM

Definitions:

Friction = Torque that opposes motion. Units, NM

Damping = Torque that is proportional to speed, Units, NM/rpm or NM/rad/sec

Acceleration Torque = Torque required to overcome inertia, friction and damping

Deceleration Torque = Torque required to slow down inertia. Friction and damping help you in this case.

Dynamic Torque = Additional torque required to achieve dynamic response and settling of the mechanical
system. This is driven by the system bandwidth goals.

Calculate Acceleration/Deceleration Torque

In this section we will utilize Newton’s 2nd law: 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀, or 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽 (in rotary form)

T = torque (NM)
J = inertia (Kg-M2)
A = Acceleration in radian/sec2

This calculation cannot be complete without some estimate of the system inertia, J. In most cases, there is a solid
model of the proposed system, and assigning material properties will yield an estimation of moving inertia about
the axis is question. There are a host of simple equations that can also be used for known objects, for example, J =
½ m r2 where m is mass and r is the radius of a spinning disk.

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Assuming our example system has an inertia of 0.03 Kg-M2 we can move on and calculate the acceleration
torque.

𝑇𝑇 = 𝐽𝐽 ∗ 𝐴𝐴 = 0.03 * 20 = 0.6 NM of torque required for acceleration and deceleration.

Add up all Friction Components of the assembly

Friction is mainly caused by the bearings. Deep groove industry standard bearings tend to have very low rolling
(dynamic) friction. As loading (axial or radial) increases, the friction increases. It is best to contact the bearing
supplier to confirm friction levels. Due to grease and other factors, many bearings also have a static friction
(stiction) that exceeds the rolling friction. This needs to be accounted for in your tally of the torque loading, and it
is a non-linear contribution that may depend on temperature.

Thin cross-section low profile bearings have significantly more drag or friction torque. Both static friction and
rolling friction is high in these bearings due to the smaller and higher quantity of balls and precision tolerances. It
is not common for a bearing supplier to know the friction characteristics of these bearing types because the
bearings can conform to the bearing journals in machined parts and take on new shapes. It is best to test these
types of bearings.

Most bearings do not have significant damping. This information is even less available with bearing suppliers.

In our example, let’s assume that the system has .25 NM of bearing friction and minimal static friction.

Add up all the Damping components of the assembly

Damping is very hard to simulate and predict. It comes in many forms, viscous damping in lubricated parts, eddy
currents in magnetic systems, and windage in rotating parts if the surface speed is high. Damping is a torque that
is proportional to speed. It is measured in NM/rpm or NM/radian/sec.

Let’s assume our example has damping torque of .01 NM/rad/sec.

Total Torque Required

Torque required = Acceleration (deceleration) Torque + Friction + Damping

What we know (from Figure 1 above):

1. The acceleration rate is 20 radian/sec2
2. The deceleration rate is also 20 radian/sec2
3. The friction torque from bearings is .25 NM
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 4. The damping torque from the bearings is 0.1 NM/rad/sec

Torque Required = 0.6 NM (accel) + 0.25 NM (friction) + 0.1 NM (damping @ 10 rad/sec) = 0.86 NM

Note: Deceleration is typically not considered because friction and damping help to slow down the system so the
dominant term is acceleration not deceleration. Of course, that would change if for some reason there was a rapid
deceleration required.

Step 3: Estimate/Consider Other Torque Loading

Dynamic Torque is an excess torque over and above acceleration, friction and damping that may be required to
handle high accelerations caused by a servo system trying to achieve high bandwidth dynamic response. It is
customary to add 20% to the required numbers as a safety factor to compensate for this.

Step 4: Look for Available Solutions

Motor performance is generally defined by a torque output versus speed curve. This curve provides an operating
envelope that the motor can achieve with a given set of electrical inputs and environmental thermal limits used
during its design verification phase.

Figure 3

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 Torque Speed Curve
1.2

1
Torque, NM

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed RPM

Torque Speed Curve Load Point

Figure 3 is a torque speed curve. Torque is on the Y axis and speed is on the X axis. The red data is the motor
output defined by the input power available and the thermal limits (ambient temperature and maximum allowed
motor winding temperature). Torque speed curves can be calculated for any motor using these electrical and
thermal limits. Thermal limits can also be altered by changing the motor environment or adding passive or active
cooling to the motor housing.

The blue dot in this curve represents the torque required at the speed required for our example application. For the
motor to operate without overheating, the requirement must be below the available output torque with some
safety margin as discussed above. Safety margin should cover system unknowns, low voltage conditions,
variability in motor parameters per the manufacturer’s datasheet, etc. Note: speed is normally observed in RPM,
but calculations are done in radians/sec.

It is customary to show two sets of data for a motor: continuous torque and intermittent (peak) torque. The
intermittent range is also limited by a duty cycle, meaning you cannot operate in that region unless you are below
the continuous torque for a portion of the time. Most rapid positioning moves utilize the intermittent region of the
motor performance.

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 Figure 4

Torque Speed Curve

2.5

2
Intermittent Peak Torque
Torque, NM

1.5

0.5

Continous Torque
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed RPM

Continuous Torque Load Point Peak Torque Output

Figure 4 adds the green data line to the plot showing a higher torque limit. This peak torque output requires
additional current and comes at the expense of extra heating so it can only be used intermittently with a duty
cycle. Notice that allowing for higher current only improves torque at lower speeds. The torque output at higher
speeds is governed by the available voltage and the motor winding resistance. To produce more torque at higher
speeds the voltage must be higher.

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 Figure 5

Torque Speed Curve

2.5

1.5
Area =
Torque, NM

Intermittent Peak Torque

0.5

Continous Torque

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Speed RPM

Continuous Torque Load Point Peak Torque Output

Figure 5 shows the same motor as Figure 4 operating at higher voltage. Higher voltage allows the motor to hold its
torque points out to a higher speed before becoming voltage limited. Peak torque is held to 2000 rpm and
maximum speed is now 7000 rpm.

The motor controller, feedback device, and power supply are very integral to the system performance. There may
be conditions that limit torque based on how well the components of this system are matched and electrically
aligned. For example; electronic phase alignment between the feedback and motor can impact the commutation
algorithms and torque output. Also, a power supply that cannot support the input power required for a given
output will choke the system and limit the motor output.

Step 5: Factoring in the Motor itself

As discussed previously, the motor is usually selected with a torque and speed point as well as mechanical size.
Every motor has inertia, friction and damping. All three terms must be considered as part of the system. They
should be factored back into the above calculations based on the sizing steps.

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Because this is an iterative process, one must pick the highest priority for this project. In most cases with Celera
Motion, mechanical size drives the selection process, torque output is next in line.

Estimation steps:
I. Find motor in the catalog/website that matches the initially desired form factor: Outside diameter, inside
diameter, (or shaft size if it is a motor assembly), and length.
II. Look at the torque speed curve for the motor selected.
a. Celera Motion has a torque speed simulation tool that can evaluate any motor at the power input
and thermal conditions of the application. Call Celera Motion for application assistance.
III. Check the “torque required” point against the curve. In our example we need .86 NM at 10 radian/sec
(95.5 rpm).
IV. Now, you must factor in the motor inertia. Compare the motor inertia to the load inertia above.
a. If its value is <10% of the load inertia, you are done.
b. If its value is >10% of the load inertia, an iterative step must be performed to adjust the required
torque by this amount. The extra torque required should be a direct ratio of additional inertia.
c. If this puts you into the intermittent zone then duty cycle must be evaluated, i.e. how long will you
be in the zone compared to time outside the zone below the continuous rating.
V. When selecting a motor you will find one of three results:
a. Your system fits well within the torque and speed of many motors in this size and you can select
based on size alone.
b. There are plenty of motors that meet the torque points you have in your selected size, but they
cannot run fast enough.
c. Plenty of motors meet the speed point, but within the size constraints, torque is a problem.
VI. Based on above 5b and 5c, you have two paths to take.
a. If speed is a problem, then consider increasing the voltage or looking for another winding selection
that has higher speed capability. Higher speed motors have lower impedance (resistance and
inductance). So a quick look at lower resistance values in the same motor family will give you the
answer. If one doesn’t exist, contact Celera Motion and see if there is another winding option.
b. If torque is a problem, you need to consider a larger diameter motor or better thermal conditions,
like special cooling. A longer motor should not be the first option unless your assembly can only
handle length. The only time a longer motor makes sense under these conditions is when the
motor inertia is higher than the load.

Repeat moves with duty cycle.

In most positioning applications, the moves repeat at some frequency. Multiple moves with dwell time in
between moves can be evaluated for the torque requirements, power requirements, and temperature impact
using duty cycle calculations.
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 Duty Cycle = 100 * (time on)/(time on + time off), units of %. The plot in Figure 6 shows repeat moves with
50% duty cycle.

Figure 6

Triangular Move Profile with 50% duty cycle

14
Cycle Time
12 Move Time Dwell Time

10
Accleration Deceleration
Velocity Rad/sec

2
Area = distance
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time, Sec

Figure 6 shows a repeated move with a 1 second dwell before the move repeats representing a 2 second cycle time
for a 50% duty cycle.

When doing multiple moves at a duty cycle, the RMS torque of the system can help you define the heating or allow
you to operate in the intermittent zone of the torque speed curve.
Using the move profile in Figure 6. The RMS torque can be calculated as follows:

Torquerms = �(Move Torque 2 ∗ move time + Dwell Torque2 ∗ dwell time)/cycle time

In this example; �(.73 + 0)/2 = .6 NM of RMS torque.

We know now that when this motor operates, it will only require an RMS torque of .6 NM. This will lower the
motor heating because the motor spends ½ the time off. An RMS value 70% of the torque will result in 50% of
the heating, which is mainly related to the square of the current.

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THE MOST OVERLOOKED ITEMS

1. Not having enough extra torque to meet the dynamic needs of the system. Most highly dynamic
systems used for rapid point to point moves require extra motor torque output well above the calculated
load point to achieve high stiffness and fast settling. For these systems, it is common to use much higher
voltage, so the motor is operating in the current controlled region in the event that the servo system
demands high torque. It is common to see 15-30% more instantaneous torque required to meet dynamic
stiffness and settling in high duty cycle rapid moves. See Technical Note 9001 for servo dynamic analysis
and how it impacts motor sizing. High bandwidth systems can put additional constraints on motor torque
and power.

2. Thermal environment and application thermal limits. Most motors have aggressive thermal ratings,
allowing the inside temperatures to approach 150C. Manufacturers take advantage of the best test
conditions, low ambient temperatures, large mounting surfaces, and high temperature insulation systems.
This makes the motor torque high, but if these conditions are not duplicated by the customer, the available
torque output will be lower. Also, many applications cannot handle high temperatures because of
limitations on surrounding components or thermal expansion. If this is the case, the motor may need to be
de-rated.

3. Unknown loading in the system that was not accounted for in the design. It comes in two forms,
friction torque from the bearings and dynamic instability caused by low natural resonance frequencies that
cause vibration to be excited in the structure. These unwanted dynamic conditions can cause very high
torque requirements. Also, most every application ends up with higher inertia than predicted. So plan for
extra torque.

4. Electrical miss-match between the motor controller and motor. Most modern motor controllers use
PWM (pulse width modulation) switching when applying voltage to the motor. When motor inductance is
low, the motor is not a very good filter. High frequency voltage will create a corresponding current ripple in
the motor. This heats up the motor and motor controller. It also creates electrical noise in the system.
Most motor controllers now offer adjustable PWM frequency for compatibility with a wide range of motor
inductance. Low voltage applications with small motors usually drive this high current ripple condition.
Reference Celera TN-2002 for more on achieving optimum performance with low inductance motors.

5. Cogging torque and its impact on overall torque ripple the motor induces on the system. This is
prevalent in motors and can really impact smoothness on lightly loaded systems. If smoothness is
paramount, the ideal option is to use a slotless motor, where cogging torque is zero. See Celera Motion TN
2001 on slotless versus slotted motors.

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 6. Torque ripple (not cogging torque related). Brushless permanent magnet motors are also known as
synchronous motors (most are of the three phase variety). Driving a synchronous motor with a sinusoidal
current is the most common approach. Sinusoidal theory of a constant rotating flux vector in the motor
requires that sine waves from the motor and the controller are balanced in amplitude, if not, a torque ripple
will be induced in the system.

7. Referring to TN-9001, there is a condition when the motor is trying to track another system with high
bandwidth and with high frequency disturbances where motor power could get very high. This translates
to high requirements for torque and speed. This type of system is not easy to select a motor for. One must
look at the frequency and the highest disturbance, then calculate the dynamic torque required from the
inertia. This will usually put you at a point on the torque speed curve that you didn’t expect form the static
sizing discussed in this paper above.

CONCLUSION
Sizing a motor is really a lesson in how much you really know about your load. The key principals are simple and
based on Newton’s laws of motion. The complicated aspects are driven by real world estimations of some
complicated non-linear mechanical systems.

The best rule of thumb is to select a motor that can meet all of your known conditions within its continuous
thermal rating and a speed region where torque is constant. This leaves is higher intermittent torque and speed for
conditions to cover things that were not planned for. Things like dynamic torque required for servo compensation,
higher friction or temperature extremes, and the inevitable higher inertia than you calculated can be mitigated
using this method.

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