CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The focus of this review of related literature is to

cite related articles by different authors in Carousel

Brainstorming and Students’ Assertiveness to support or

contrast the study of the researchers.

Assertiveness

Assertiveness is the ability to express one’s point of

views, feelings, thoughts and needs while keeping the rights

of other people in mind. An assertive individual learns

which response to select, whether it can be acting non-

assertively, aggressive or assertive on a case by case

basis. Nevertheless, acting assertively is not usually the

best selection in accomplishing the best possible results.

An assertive individual has the capacity to stop and think

what is in his or her best interest as well as the interest

of others (Peneva, 2013).

People who are assertive has characteristics such;

emotionality of speech, expressiveness of speech, potential

to oppose and counter others suggestions, accepting praises,

and impulsive in own actions and refusal. On the other hand,

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individuals who are non-assertive lack the ability to

maintain adequate boundaries between his or her rights and

those of others. Non-assertiveness happens when one permits

his or her boundaries to be restricted. A non-assertive

person tends to internalize tensions and feelings and to

experience such emotions as anxiety, fear, fatigue,

nervousness and depression (Ames, 2008).

The review on assertiveness brought about other

associated concepts such as professional light, assertive

communication, self-confidence and conflict management.

Assertiveness has been claimed as the background for

understanding concepts and independence in assertiveness.

Assertiveness refer to an individual capability to express

and advocate interests, ideas and feelings easily without

anxiety, but maintaining respect for other people (Lizarraga

et al, 2003).

Assertiveness as a means of "reciprocal inhibition" of

anxiety, on treating neurosis; and it has since been

commonly employed as an intervention in behavior therapy. A

person could not be both assertive and anxious at the same

time, and thus being assertive would inhibit anxiety (Wolpe,

2008).
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Wolpe’s theory is related to this research study,

because their students’ assertiveness will be developing by

carousel brainstorming. It will include how the students’

will interact to each other in order for them to influence

others that will identify their personal boundaries. The

pre-test and post-test will presumes their interest, needs,

and desires of fulfillment which was essential to their

assertiveness that should be attained in increasing their

performance in an active way that determine their social

relationships with others (Wolpe, 2008).

Personal assertiveness is one interpersonal variable

that theoretically could enhance the beneficial aspects of

social support among people in one society (Elliott &

Gramling, 2016).

Assertive mode is a method of communication which

enables a person to maintain self-respect, clearly

communicate and pursue their needs, and defend their rights

and personal space without abusing or dominating others. It

confirms one’s right to be in the world and put forward

needs, desires, ideas, and feelings. He agrees also that

assertiveness usually fosters better relationships by making

a person more comfortable with themselves and therefore more

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comfortable to be around. Assertiveness greatly reduces fear

and anxiety and enables people to release positive energy

towards each other. Healthy and mutual satisfaction of needs

in any relationship can only occur between assertive people.

The biggest benefit of assertiveness is the feeling of

living one’s own life (Firstein, 2010).

According to Lazarow (year) as cited by Palmer (2017)

said “Who has the confidence in himself will gain the

confidence in others.” An assertive person is confident and

direct in dealing with others. Assertive communications

promote fairness and equality in human interactions, based

on a positive sense of respect for self and others. It is

the direct communication of a person’s needs, wants, and

opinions without punishing, threatening, or putting down

another person. Assertive behavior includes the ability to

stand up for a person’s legitimate rights – without

violating the rights of others or being overly fearful in

the process. A skill that can be learned, assertive behavior

is situationally specific; meaning different types of

assertive behavior can be used in different situations.

According to Hermes (2016) learning assertive

communication skills benefit oneself and not to change

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others. It is the choice when and where to be assertive. If

someone resists being assertive, conflict could be avoided

by restating its own assertiveness. How others respond

cannot be controlled to what someone have to say. What could

be done is to talk to others respectfully and with their

feelings in mind. When someone learn how to be assertive,

part of the discomfort may be related to messages that heard

growing up about how should or should not communicate.

Non-assertiveness is characterized by communicating

one’s viewpoints and feelings in such an over-apologetic,

timid, and self-deprecating fashion, that it leads others to

easily ignore or dismiss them (Lange & Jakubowski, 1976) as

cited by Kirst (2011).

Categories of Assertiveness

Behavior is typical for shy persons, not always capable

of asserting their interests or explicitly to declare their

intentions. Often one cannot resist the rules imposed on

one’s self or other obligations by the ways of asserting

oneself.

In Communication with others, they declare their

intentions explicitly. They do not hesitate to assert their

rights. They respect the opinions of other people. At the

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same time the basic intention of their actions is not the

wish to please anybody. They do not hesitate to express

publicly their opinions on any question. In communication

with a person of the opposite sex, they are capable of

taking the initiative and telling their partners about their

feelings towards them. Asserting themselves in

communication, they are sufficiently assertive in

interaction with people, it is worthwhile for them to master

some methods which will help them to feel more confident in

communication.

In Conflict, they are ready to compromise on some

points in order to achieve agreement but going this way they

sometimes forced to renounce a part of what they wanted to

defend. They tend to give in to an aggressive opponent. They

are not always capable of asserting their point of views,

especially when they are under pressure. Sometimes they do

not have the necessary arguments, especially in dispute with

an aggressive opponent. Their reasons when arguing are not

always convincing. Asserting themselves in conflict, since

it is difficult for them to assert their point of view it is

desirable to master some techniques which will help them to

affirm their position.

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One of the basic approaches to increase confidence of

behavior in a conflict is to master methods of building up

self-esteem. High enough level of self-esteem allows them to

assert their point of view persuasively in a conflict, not

resorting to passive-aggressive nor aggressive behavior.

In Resistance of Influence, they are capable of

resisting pressure on them. They have no problem to refuse

the importunate seller or other person whose service they

did not request, although sometimes it is unpleasant for

them. As a rule, they are ready to go on their chosen path,

even if opinion of the majority is against it. They are also

capable of resisting pressure when other people use their

weakness or flattery to force them to a decision necessary

for them. Asserting themselves against influence, they are

able to resist pressure on them, it is also worthwhile for

them to enrich their skills in neutralizing attempts to

influence, in scrutinizing the intent of favor-giving

activity, and controlling those who use manipulative or

high-pressure tactics.

In Coping with Criticism, they are too easily offended

by criticism, it strongly upsets them. Critical remarks

towards them reduce their energy potential. They are not

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really successful in using constructive critical remarks for

improvement of their work. In critique they pay more

attention to the negative aspects than to those which can be

pragmatically used.

It is difficult for them to protect their self against

charges towards them. Asserting their self in coping with

criticism, strongly upsets them, it is desirable for them to

learn some methods which will help them to feel more

assertive when they are criticized. Assertive Behavior

letting others know about their needs and wants, considering

the needs and wants of other people and standing up for

their rights while respecting others (Melton, 2012).

Carousel Brainstorming

The effectiveness of using carousel brainstorming

technique to teach writing viewed from students’ self-

actualization. Carousel brainstorming technique as a way in

teaching writing. Carousel Brainstorm is a technique to

activate prior knowledge or reviewing newly acquired

information, this organizer allows them to identify and

study subtopics within a larger topic (McKnight, 2010).

Heaton (1975) states a view that the writing skills are

complex and sometimes difficult to teach, requiring mastery

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not only of grammatical and rhetorical devices but also of

conceptual and judgmental elements.

Carousel brainstorm technique is part of graphic

organizer. It is effective pedagogical tool for organizing

content and ideas and facilitating learners’ comprehension

of newly acquired information (Heaton 1975).

According to Lipton and Wellman (1998) Carousel

brainstorm technique is a powerful summarizing activity that

engages all learners. As students “carousel” from chart to

chart, they record ideas, details, and illustration that

show their understanding of a particular concept. In using

carousel brainstorming, students brainstorm together for a

few minutes about a question or topic before them “carousel”

to the next chart. By using this technique, students

collaborate and discuss with their group, so it will help

them in brainstorming idea for their essay. Besides, mind

mapping technique is also part of graphic organizer.

Cooperative Learning in
Developing Students’
Assertiveness

Cooperative learning became a commonly used form of

active pedagogy in the 1980’s, and continues to be a

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valuable tool for learning in academic institutions today

(Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 2007), as it provides benefits

for both students and instructors (Shimazoe and Aldrich,

2010).

According to Erdem, et al., (2009) as cited by

Goreyshi, et al., (2013) cooperative method of education has

several advantages over traditional method (i.e., lecture-

based teaching, assessments of the individuals and

competitive rankings), including more academic achievement,

particularly in mathematics and science, completion of

education, advanced skills of critical thinking and

reasoning, in-depth knowledge of the learned materials, less

harmful activities in class, focus on the homework, less

anxiety and stress, stronger motivation for learning and

achievement, enhanced ability to see situations from other

peoples’ perspectives, positive and supportive communication

with the peers, more positive attitudes to the courses and

higher self-esteem. It is due to its emphasis on conceptual

homework, problem solving, decision making and creative

responses.

A study was conducted by Tsay and Brady (2010) that

cooperative learning have indicated its positive

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relationship with student achievement and attitudes about

learning (Slavin, 1989; Johnson and Johnson, 1989; Johnson

et al., 2007). Cooperative learning has also been found to

enhance social and intellectual development (Cohen, 1984;

Burton, 1987) and help students build interpersonal skills

while promoting a sense of achievement, productivity, and

psychological well-being (Nilson, 1998).

Felder and Brent (2007) stated that cooperative

learning is an approach to group work that minimizes the

occurrence of those unpleasant situations and maximizes

the learning and satisfaction that result from

working on a high-performance team. A large and rapidly

growing body of research confirms the effectiveness of

cooperative learning in higher education. Relative to

students taught traditionally—i.e., with instructor-centered

lectures, individual assignments, and competitive

grading—cooperatively taught students tend to exhibit

higher academic achievement, greater persistence

through graduation, better high-level reasoning and

critical thinking skills, deeper understanding of learned

material, greater time on task and less disruptive behavior

in class, lower levels of anxiety and stress, greater

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intrinsic motivation to learn and achieve, greater ability

to view situations from others’ perspectives, more positive

and supportive relationships with peers, more positive

attitudes toward subject areas, and higher self-esteem.

Walters (2004) stated that cooperative learning has

demonstrated its positive effect on social development.

Cooperative learning encourages social and interpersonal

development as students learn how to work together and to

appreciate diversity. Many studies credit the approach with

improved cooperative attitudes (Ferrer, 2004).

In addition, cooperative learning and training

activities in the learning process will teach students in

order to express their thoughts logically, express their

thoughts against dissent ones, try to give their opinions on

the basis of reason and defend the logic of their ideas

courageously. The results of this research are in the line

of the research results of Malekan, et al., of 2012, as

cited by Hashemi & Karimi (2015).

Hendrix (1999) stated in his study that cooperative

learning strategies employ many of the following

characteristics and strategies in the classroom: positive

interdependence, face-to-face interaction, individual

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accountability, social skills, and group processing.

Positive interdependence is the belief that students are

linked together with other students in such a way that one

cannot succeed unless the group members also succeed (Adams

(2013). Some studies show large numbers of children and

young adults do not possess the skills needed to establish

and maintain positive relationships with their peers. Social

skills are skills necessary in all aspects of life. When you

talk, play, interact, and work with others, these skills are

the connections among people (Johnson, Johnson & Holubec,

1991). Vygotsky's social development theory suggests that

social interaction is critical in the development of

cognition. He states that higher functioning originates

between individuals. When children are able to interact with

their peers, they exchange information and insights, correct

one another, and adjust their understanding on the basis of

others' understanding as well (Johnson, Johnson & Holubec,

1998). This indicates that children value and learn from

others and their surroundings. Vygotsky's theory describes

social skills as being essential to helping students work

and interact effectively with peers (Vygotsky, 1962).

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Dollman, et al., (2007) conducted an action research

study in 2007 to improve student social skills through the

use of cooperative learning, in order to develop a positive

classroom environment conducive to learning. The action

research project involved approximately 95 students, 95

parents, and 200 teachers. It was the intent of the teacher

researchers to improve students' social skills through the

strategies of role-playing, jig sawing, think-pair-share,

and graphic organizers.