Chapter 4

Electric Heating

OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
OO know the requirements of heating elements OO understand the different methods of
OO understand the causes of the failure of electrical welding
heating elements

4.1  Introduction
Heat plays a major role in everyday life. All heating requirements in domestic purposes
such as cooking, room heater, immersion water heaters, and electric toasters and also in
industrial purposes such as welding, melting of metals, tempering, hardening, and ­drying
can be met easily by electric heating, over the other forms of conventional heating. Heat and
electricity are interchangeable. Heat also can be produced by passing the current through
material to be heated. This is called electric heating; there are various methods of heating
a material but electric heating is considered far superior compared to the heat produced by
coal, oil, and natural gas.

4.2  Advantages Of Electric Heating

The various advantages of electric heating over other the types of heating are:

(i)  Economical
Electric heating equipment is cheaper; they do not require much skilled persons; therefore,
­maintenance cost is less.

(ii)  Cleanliness
Since dust and ash are completely eliminated in the electric heating, it keeps surroundings
cleanly.

(iii)  Pollution free

As there are no flue gases in the electric heating, atmosphere around is pollution free; no
need of providing space for their exit.

(iv)  Ease of control

In this heating, temperature can be controlled and regulated accurately either manually
or automatically.
138

(v)  Uniform heating

With electric heating, the substance can be heated uniformly, throughout whether it may be
conducting or non-conducting material.

(vi)  High efficiency

In non-electric heating, only 40—60%of heat is utilized but in electric heating 75—100%of
heat can be successfully utilized. So, overall efficiency of electric heating is very high.
(vii)  Automatic protection
Protection against over current and over heating can be provided by using fast control devices.

(viii)  Heating of non-conducting materials

The heat developed in the non-conducting materials such as wood and porcelain is possible
only through the electric heating.

(ix)  Better working conditions

No irritating noise is produced with electric heating and also radiating losses are low.

(x)  Less floor area

Due to the compactness of electric furnace, floor area required is less.

(xi)  High temperature

High temperature can be obtained by the electric heating except the ability of the material
to withstand the heat.

(xii)  Safety
The electric heating is quite safe.

4.3  Modes of Transfer of Heat

The transmission of the heat energy from one body to another because of the temperature
­gradient takes place by any of the following methods:
1. conduction,
2. convection, or
3. radiation.

4.3.1 Conduction
In this mode, the heat transfers from one part of substance to another part without the
movement in the molecules of substance. The rate of the conduction of heat along the
­substance depends upon the temperature gradient.
The amount of heat passed through a cubic body with two parallel faces with ­thickness
t meters, having the cross-sectional area of A square meters and the temperature of its
two faces T1¡C and T2¡C, during T  hours is given by:
kA
Q= (T1 − T2 ) T MJ,
t
where k is the coefficient of the thermal conductivity for the material and it is measured in
MJ/m3/¡C /hr.
Ex: Refractory heating, the heating of insulating materials, etc.
 Electric Heating 139

4.3.2 Convection
In this mode, the heat transfer takes place from one part to another part of substance or fluid
due to the actual motion of the molecules. The rate of conduction of heat depends mainly
on the difference in the fluid density at different temperatures.
Ex: Immersion water heater.
The mount of heat absorbed by the water from heater through convection depends
mainly upon the temperature of heating element and also depends partly on the position of
the heater.
Heat dissipation is given by the following expression.
H = a (T1 —T2)b W/m2,
where a and b are the constants whose values are depend upon the heating surface and
T1 and T2 are the temperatures of heating element and fluid in °C, respectively.

4.3.3 Radiation
In this mode, the heat transfers from source to the substance to be heated without heating
the medium in between. It is dependent on surface.
Ex: Solar heaters.
The rate of heat dissipation through radiation is given by Stefan s Law.
 T 4  T 4 
Heat dissipation, H = 5.72×104 k e  1  −  2   W/m 2 , (4.1)
1, 000  1, 000  
where T1 is the temperature of the source in kelvin, T2 is the temperature of the substance
to be heated in kelvin, and k is the radiant efficiency:
= 1, for single element
= 0.5—0.8, for several elements
e = emissivity = 1, for black body
= 0.9, for resistance heating element.
From Equation (4.1), the radiant heat is proportional to the difference of fourth power of
the temperature, so it is very efficient heating at high temperature.

4.4 Essential Requirements of Good Heating Element

The materials used for heating element should have the following properties:
• High-specific resistance
Material should have high-specific resistance so that small length of wire may be
required to provide given amount of heat.
• High-melting point
It should have high-melting point so that it can withstand for high temperature,
a small increase in temperature will not destroy the element.
• Low temperature coefficient of resistance
From Equation (4.1), the radiant heat is proportional to fourth powers of the
­temperatures, it is very efficient heating at high temperature.
For accurate temperature control, the variation of resistance with the operat-
ing temperature should be very low. This can be obtained only if the material has
low temperature coefficient of resistance.
140

• Free from oxidation

The element material should not be oxidized when it is subjected to high
­temperatures; otherwise the formation of oxidized layers will shorten its life.
• High-mechanical strength
The material should have high-mechanical strength and should withstand for
mechanical vibrations.
• Non-corrosive
The element should not corrode when exposed to atmosphere or any other chemi-
cal fumes.
• Economical
The cost of material should not be so high.

4.5  Material for Heating Elements

The selection of a material for heating element is depending upon the service conditions such
as maximum operating temperature and the amount of charge to be heated, but no single
element will not satisfy all the requirements of the heating elements. The materials normally
used as heating elements are either alloys of nickel— chromium, nickel— ­chromium— iron,
nickel—chromium—aluminum, or nickel—copper .
Nickel—chromium—iron alloy is cheaper when compared to simple nickel—chromium
alloy. The use of iron in the alloy reduces the cost of final product but, reduces the life of
the alloy, as it gets oxidized soon. We have different types of alloys for heating elements.
Table 4.1 gives the relevant properties of some of the commercial heating elements.
The properties of some commercial heating element materials commonly employed for
low and medium temperatures up to 1,200¡C are Ni— Cr and an alloy of Ni—
Cr— Fe ­composition

TABLE 4.1  Properties of some heating elements

S. Commercial Max. operating Resistivity at Specific
No. Type of alloy Composition name temperature 20°C gravity
1 Nickel 80% Ni Nichrome 1,150¡C 1.03 μΩ-m 8.35
chromium 20% Cr
(Ni—Cr)
2 Nickel 60% Ni 950¡C 1.06 μΩ-m 8.27
chromium 16% Cr
iron 24% Fe
(Ni—Cr—Fe)
3 Nickel 45% Ni Eureka or 400¡C 0.49 μΩ-m 8.88
constantan
Copper 55% Cu
(Ni—Cu)
4 Iron 70% Fe Kanthal 1,200¡C 1.4 μΩ-m 7.20
chromium 25% Cr
aluminum   5% Al
(Fe—Cr—Al)
 Electric Heating 141

of these alloys are given in Table 4.1. For operating temperatures above 1,200¡C, the heating
elements are made up of silicon carbide, molebdenum, tungsten, and graphite. (Ni— Cu alloy
is frequently used for heating elements operating at low temperatures. Its most ­important
property is that it has virtually zero resistance and temperature coefficient.)

4.6 Causes of Failure of Heating Elements

Heating element may fail due to any one of the following reasons.
1. Formation of hot spots.
2. Oxidation of the element and intermittency of operation.
3. Embrittlement caused by gain growth.
4. Contamination and corrosion.

4.6.1 Formation of hotspots
Hotspots are the points on the heating element generally at a higher temperature than
the main body. The main reasons of the formation of hotspot in the heating element
are the high rate of the local oxidation causing reduction in the area of cross-section of
the element leading to the increase in the resistance at that spot. It gives rise to the dam-
age of heating element due to the generation of more heat at spot. Another reason is the
shielding of element by supports, etc., which reduces the local heat loss by radiation
and hence the temperature of the shielded portion of the element will increase. So that
the minimum number of supports should be used without producing the distortion of the
element. The sagging and wrapping of the material arise due to the insufficient support
for the element (or) selection of wrong fuse material may lead to the uneven spacing of
sections thereby developing the hotspots on the element.

4.6.2 Oxidation and intermittency of operation

A continuous oxide layer is formed on the surface of the element at very high temperatures
such layer is so strong that it prevents further oxidation of the inner metal of the element.
If the element is used quite often, the oxide layer is subjected to thermal stresses; thus,
the layer cracks and flakes off, thereby exposing fresh metal to oxidation. Thus, the local
oxidation of the metal increases producing the hotspots.

4.6.3 Embrittlement causing grain growth

In general, most of the alloys containing iron tend to form large brittle grains at high
­temperatures. When cold, the elements are very brittle and liable to rupture easily on the
slightest handling and jerks.

4.6.4 Contamination and corrosion

The heating elements may be subjected to dry corrosion produced by their contamination
with the gases of the controlled atmosphere prevailing in annealing furnaces.

4.7 Design of Heating Elements

By knowing the voltage and electrical energy input, the design of the heating element for an
electric furnace is required to determine the size and length of the heating element. The wire
employed may be circular or rectangular like a ribbon. The ribbon-type heating element
permits the use of higher wattage per unit area compared to the circular-type e­ lement.
142

Circular-type heating element

Initially when the heating element is connected to the supply, the temperature goes on
increasing and finally reaches high temperature.
Let V be the supply voltage of the system and R be the resistance of the element, then
V2
electric power input, P = W.
R
If ρ is the resistivity of the element, l is the length, a is the area, and d is the diameter
of the element, then:
l ρl
R=ρ = .
a πd 2
4
V 2π d 2
Therefore, power input, P = . (4.2)
4 ρl
By rearranging the above equation, we get:
l πV 2
= , (4.3)
d 2 4P ρ
where P is the electrical power input per phase (watt), V is the operating voltage per phase
(volts), R is the resistance of the element (Ω), l is the length of the element (m), a is the area
of cross-section (m2), d is the diameter of the element (m), and ρ is the specific resistance
(Ω-m).
According to Stefan s law, heat dissipated per unit area is:
 T 4  T 4 
H = 5.72 ×10 k e  1  −  2   W/m 2 , 
4
(4.4)
 
1, 000  1, 000  
where T1 is the absolute temperature of the element (K), T2 is the absolute temperature of
the charge (K), e is the emissivity, and k is the radiant efficiency.
The surface area of the circular heating element:
S = πdl.
∴ Total heat dissipated = surface area × H
           = Hπdl.
Under thermal equilibrium,
Power input = heat dissipated
     P = H × πdl.
Substituting P from Equation (4.2) in above equation:
V 2 π d 2 
  = H ×π dl
ρ l  4 

d 4ρH
∴ = . (4.5)
l2 V2
By solving Equations (4.3) and (4.4), the length and diameter of the wire can be
­determined.
 Electric Heating 143

Ribbon-type element
Let w be the width and t be the thickness of the ribbon-type heating element.
V2
Electrical power input P = . (4.6)
R
ρl ρl
We know that, R = = (for ribbon or rectangular element, a = w × t)
a w×t
V2
∴ P=
 ρ l 

 w×t 

l V2 t
∴ = . (4.7)
w Pρ
The surface area of the rectangular element (S) = 2 l × w.
∴ Total heat dissipated = H × S
           = H × 2 lw.
∴ Under the thermal equilibrium,
Electrical power input = heat dissipated
              P = H × 2 lw
P
lw = . (4.8)
2H
By solving Equations (4.7) and (4.8), the length and width of the heating element can
be determined.
Example 4.1:  A 4.5-kW, 200-V, and 1-φ resistance oven is to have nichrome wire heating
elements. If the wire temperature is to be 1,000¡C and that of the charge 500¡C. Estimate the
diameter and length of the wire. The resistivy of the nichrome alloy is 42.5 μΩ-m. Assume
the radiating efficiency and the emissivity of the element as 1.0 and 0.9, respectively.
Solution:
Given data
Power input (P) = 4.5 kW
Supply voltage (V) = 200 V
Temperature of the source (T1) = 1,000 + 273
                   = 1,273 K.
Temperature of the charge T2 = 500 + 273
                  = 773 K.
According to the Stefan s law,
 T 4  T 4 
The amount of heat dissipation ( H ) = 5.72 × 104 × k e  1  −  2   W/m 2
1, 000  1, 000  
1, 273 4  773 4 
H = 5.72 × 104 × 0.1 × 0.9   − 

 
 
1, 000  1, 000  
                  = 11.68 × 103 W/m2.
144

V2
Power, P =
R
V2  
=     R = ρ l 
ρl  A 
A

V2A
=
ρl

V 2 πd 2  π 2
=     ∴ The area of circular type element = d 
4ρl  4 

d 2 4 Pρ
= 2
l V π
4 × 42.5 × 10−6 × 4.5 × 103
=
2
(200) 3.14

= 6.09 × 10−9.  (1)

The heat dissipation is given by:

 P = H × S   (S = circular full-face area)
   = H × πdl
P 4.5 × 103
dl = =
H π 3.14 × 11.68 × 103

  l = 0.1226. (2)

By solving Equations (1) and (2):
d 3 = 0.7466
  d = 0.907 mm.
Substitute the value of d  in Equation (2):
l = 135.14 m.

Example 4.2:  A 20-kW, 230-V, and single-phase resistance oven employs nickel—chrome
strip 25-mm thick is used, for its heating elements. If the wire temperature is not to exceed
1,200¡C and the temperature of the charge is to be 700¡C. Calculate the width and length
of the wire. Assume the radiating efficiency as 0.6 and emissivity as 0.9. Determine also
the temperature of the wire when the charge is cold.
Solution:
Power supplied, P = 20 × 103 W.
Let w be the width in meters, t be the thickness in meters, and l be the length also
in meters. Then:
 Electric Heating 145

V2
 P =
R
V2
=
ρl
 
A

V 2 × wt
     = ρl
(since A = w × t )

w Pρ
= 2
l V t
20 × 103 × 1.016 × 10−6
  = (230) 2 × 0.25 × 10−3

−3
  = 1.536 × 10 .  (1)

According to the Stefan s law of heat radiation:

 T 4  T 4 
H = 5.72 × 104 × ke  1  −  2   W/m 2
1, 000  1, 000  
1, 200 + 273 4  700 + 273 4 
H = 5.72 × 104 × 0.6 × 0.9   − 

 
 
 1, 000   1, 000  

(∵ T1 = 1,200 + 273 = 1,473 K,   T2 = 700 + 273= 973 K)

H = 117.714 kW/m2.
The total amount of the heat dissipation × the surface area of strip = power supplied
   P = H × S
    = H × 2 lw   (S = surface area of strip = 2lw)
P
lw =
2H
20 × 103
  = 2 × 117.714 × 103
  = 0.0849. (2)
From Equations (1) and (2):
w
× lw = 1.536 × 10−3 × 0.0849
l
   w2 = 1.304 × 10—4
     w = 11.42 mm.
146

Substitute the value of w in Equation (2) then:

l = 7.435 m.
When the charge is cold, it would be at normal temperature, say 25¡C.
 T 4  273 + 25 4 
117.714 × 103 = 5.72 × 104 × 0.6 × 0.9  1  −   
 
1, 000   1, 000  
4
 T1 
  − 0.00788 = 3.8109
1, 000 
4
 T1 
  = 3.818
1, 000 
             T1 = 1,397.9169 K absolute
Or,           T1 = 1,124.9¡C.
Example 4.3  Determine the diameter and length of the wire, if a 17-kW, 220-V, and 1-φ
resistance oven employs nickel— chrome wire for its heating elements. The temperature is
not exceeding to 1,100¡C and the temperature of the charge is to be 500¡C. Assume the
radiating efficiency as 0.5 and the emissivity as 0.9, respectively.
Solution:
For a circular element:
V2
  P=
R
V2
=
ρl
    
A
V2A
=
      ρl

V 2 πd 2  π 
=  ∵ The area of circular element A = d 2 
     ρl 4  4 

d 2 4 Pρ
= 2
l V π
4 × 17 × 103 × 1.016 × 10−6
    = 2
(220) × 3.14
−7
    = 4.545×10 .  (1)

According to Stefan s law of heat dissipation:

 T 4  T 4 
H = 5.72 × 104 ke  1  −  2   W/m 2
1, 000  1, 000  
 Electric Heating 147

1,100 + 273 4  500 + 273 4 

H = 5.72 × 104 × 0.5 × 0.9   − 

 
 
 1,000   1,000  
  = 82.28 kW/m2.
At steady temperature, crucial power input = heat output:
  P = H × πdl
P
dl =
H ×π
7 × 103
=
3.14 × 62.28 × 103
  
     = 0.0658.
Solving Equations (1) and (2), we get:
d2
× dl = 4.545 × 10−7 × 0.0658
l
    d 3 = 2.99 × 10—8
       d = 3.1 mm.
Substitute the value of d  in Equation (2) gives:
l = 21.198 m.
Example 4.4:  A 40-kW, 3-phase, and 400-V resistance oven is to employ Ni—Crstrip
of 0.3 mm thickness. The heating elements are star commuted. If the temperature of the
wire is to be 1,200¡C and that of the charge is 700¡C. Determine the length and width
of the wire. Take the radiation efficiency 0.5 and the emissivity as 0.9. Take the specific
resistance of Ni—Cr= 1.03 × 10—6Ω-m.
Solution:
For the star connection, VL = 3 Vph
400
Vph = = 230.94 V.
3
V2
Power, P =
R
V2A
=
ρl

V2 × w × t
=
ρl
w Pρ
= 2
l V t
40 × 10 3 × 1.03 × 10−6
=
(230.94)2 × 0.3 × 10−6
= 2.575.
148

According to the Stefan s law of heat dissipation:

 T   T 
4 4 
H = 5.72 × 104 K e  1  −  2   W/m 2

1,000  1,000  
1, 200 + 273 4  700 + 273 4 
= 5.72 × 104 × 0.5 × 0.9   − 

 
 
    1, 000   1, 000  
= 98.09 kW/m2.
At steady state:
Electrical power input = heat output
  P = H × S
     = H × 2 wl   (S = the area of the strip = 2 wl)
P
wl =
2H
40 × 103
  =
2 × 98.09 × 103
        = 0.2038. (2)
Solving Equations (1) and (2):
w
= × wl = 2.575 × 0.2038
l
w2 = 0.5247
   w = 0.724 m.
Substitute the value of w in Equation (2):
l = 0.2812 m.

4.8  Methods of Electric Heating

Heat can be generated by passing the current through a resistance or induced currents. The
initiation of an arc between two electrodes also develops heat. The bombardment by some
heat energy particles such as α, γ, β, and x-rays or accelerating ion can produce heat on a
surface.
Electric heating can be broadly classified as follows.

(i)  Direct resistance heating

In this method, the electric current is made to pass through the charge (or) substance to be
heated. This principle of heating is employed in electrode boiler.

(ii)  Indirect resistance heating

In this method, the electric current is made to pass through a wire or high-resistance
heating element, the heat so developed is transferred to charge from the heating element
by convection or radiation. This method of heating is employed in immersion water
heaters.
 Electric Heating 149

Electrical heating

Power frequency High frequency

heating heating

Resistance Arc Election Induction Dielectric

heating heating bombardment heating heating
heating

Direct Indirect Direct Indirect

arc arc induction induction
heating heating heating heating

Direct Indirect Intrared

resistance resistance (or)
heating heating radiant heating

FIG. 4.1  Classification of electrical heating

Infrared (or) radiant heating

In this method of heating, the heat energy is transferred from source (incandescent lamp) and
focused upon the body to be heated up in the form of electromagnetic radiations. Normally, this
method is used for drying clothes in the textile industry and to dry the wet paints on an object.

Direct arc heating

In this method, by striking the arc between the charge and the electrode or electrodes, the
heat so developed is directly conducted and taken by the charge. The furnace operating on
this principle is known as direct arc furnaces. The main application of this type of heating
is production of steel.

Indirect arc heating

In this method, arc is established between the two electrodes, the heat so developed is transferred
to the charge (or) substance by radiation. The furnaces operating on this principle are known as
indirect arc furnaces. This method is generally used in the melting of non-ferrous metals.

Direct induction heating

In this method of heating, the currents are induced by electromagnetic action in the charge
to be heated. These induced currents are used to melt the charge in induction furnace.

Indirect induction heating

In this method, eddy currents are induced in the heating element by electromagnetic action.
Thus, the developed heat in the heating element is transferred to the body (or) charge to
be heated by radiation (or) convection. This principle of heating is employed in induction
furnaces used for the heat treatment of metals.

Dielectric heating
In this method of electric heating, the heat developed in a non-metallic material due to
inter-atomic friction, known as dielectric loss. This principle of heating usually employed
for preheating of plastic performs, baking foundry cores, etc.
150

4.9 Resistance Heating
When the electric current is made to pass through a high-resistive body (or) substance, a
power loss takes place in it, which results in the form of heat energy, i.e., resistance heating
is passed upon the I 2R effect. This method of heating has wide applications such as drying,
baking of potteries, commercial and domestic cooking, and the heat treatment of metals
such as annealing and hardening. In oven where wire resistances are employed for heating,
­temperature up to about 1,000¡C can be obtained.
The resistance heating is further classified as:
1. direct resistance heating,
2. indirect resistance heating, and
3. infrared (or) radiant heating.

4.9.1 Direct resistance heating

In this method, electrodes are immersed in a material or charge to be heated. The charge may
be in the form of powder, pieces, or liquid. The electrodes are connected to AC or DC sup-
ply as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). In case of DC or 1-φ AC, two electrodes are immersed and three
­electrodes are immersed in the charge and connected to supply in case of availability of 3-φ
supply. When metal pieces are to be heated, the powder of lightly resistive is sprinkled over
the surface of the charge (or) pieces to avoid direct short circuit. The current flows through
the charge and heat is produced in the charge itself. So, this method has high efficiency. As the
cur­rent in this case is not variable, so that automatic temperature control is not possible. This
method of heating is employed in salt bath furnace and electrode boiler for heating water.

(i)  Salt bath furnace

This type of furnace consists of a bath and containing some salt such as molten sodium
chloride and two electrodes immersed in it.
Such salt have a fusing point of about 1,000—1,500¡Cdepending upon the type of
salt used. When the current is passed between the electrodes immersed in the salt, heat is
developed and the temperature of the salt bath may be increased. Such an arrangement is
known as a salt bath furnace.
In this bath, the material or  job to be heated is dipped. The electrodes should be care-
fully immersed in the bath in such a way that the current flows through the salt and not

+ or Ph
DC (or) AC
Electrodes
supply
− or N

High-resistive
powder

Charge

FIG. 4.1(a)  Direct resistance heating

 Electric Heating 151

through the job being heated. As DC will cause electrolysis so, low-voltage AC up to 20 V
and current up to 3,000 A is adopted depending upon the type of furnaces.
The resistance of the salt decreases with increase in the temperature of the salt, there-
fore, in order to maintain the constant power input, the voltage can be controlled by provid-
ing a tap changing transformer. The control of power input is also affected by varying the
depth of immersion and the distance between the electrodes.

(ii)  Electrode boiler

It is used to heat the water by immersing three electrodes in a tank as shown in Fig. 4.2.
This is based on the principle that when the electric current passed through the water pro-
duces heat due to the resistance offered by it. For DC supply, it results in a lot of evolution
of H2 at negative electrode and O2 at positive electrode. Whereas AC supply hardly results
in any evolution of gas, but heats the water. Electrode boiler tank is earthed solidly and
connected to the ground. A circuit breaker is usually incorporated to make and break all
poles simultaneously and an over current protective device is provided in each conductor
feeding an electrode.

4.9.2  Indirect resistance heating

In the indirect resistance heating method, high current is passed through the heating element.
In case of industrial heating, some times the heating element is placed in a cylinder which
is surrounded by the charge placed in a jacket is known as heating chamber is shown in
Fig. 4.3. The heat is proportional to power loss produced in the heating element is delivered
to the charge by one or more of the modes of the transfer of heat viz. conduction, convection,
and radiation. This arrangement provides uniform temperature and automatic temperature
control. Generally, this method of heating is used in immersion water heaters, room heaters,
and the resistance ovens used in domestic and commercial cooling and salt bath furnace.

Resistance ovens
According to the operating temperatures, the resistance furnaces may be classified into
various types. Low-temperature heating chamber with the provision for ventilation is called
as oven. For drying varnish coating, the hardening of synthetic materials, and commercial

R
3φ- + or Ph
Y AC
B DC (or) AC
supply
supply
− or N

Electrodes Resistive
heating element
Heating chamber
N
Charge

FIG. 4.2  Electrode boiler FIG. 4.3  Indirect resistance heating

152

Insulating
material

Door
Heating
Door
elements Hearth opening

Opening for
conducting-controlled
Refractory atmosphere
material

FIG. 4.4  Resistance oven

and domestic heating, etc., the resistance ovens are employed. The operating temperature
of medium temperature furnaces is between 300¡C and 1,050¡C. These are employed for
the melting of non-ferrous metals, stove (annealing), etc. Furnaces operating at temperature
between 1,050¡C and 1,350¡C are known as high-temperature furnaces. These furnaces are
employed for hardening applications. A simple resistance oven is shown in Fig. 4.4.
Resistance oven consists of a heating chamber in which heating elements are placed
as shown in the Fig. 4.4. The inner surface of the heating chamber is made to suit the char-
acter of the charge and the type of furnace or oven. The type of insulation used for heating
chamber is determined by the maximum temperature of the heating chamber.

Efficiency and losses of resistance ovens

The heat produced in the heating elements, not only raises the temperature of the charge to
desired value, but also used to overcome the losses occurring due to:
(i) Heat used in raising the temperature of oven (or) furnace.
(ii) Heat used in raising the temperature of containers (or) carriers.
(iii) Heat conducted through the walls.
(iv) Heat loss due to the opening of oven door.

(i) The heat required to raise the temperature of oven to desired value can be
calculated by knowing the mass of refractory material (M ), its specific heat (S ),
and raise of temperature (ΔT ) and is given by:
Hoven = MSΔT J.
In case the oven is continuously used, this loss becomes negligible.
(ii) Heat used in rising the temperature of containers (or) carriers can be calculated
exactly the same way as for oven (or) furnaces.
(iii) Heat loss conducted through the walls of the container can be calculated by knowing
the area of the container (A) in square meters, the thickness of the walls (t) in meters,
the inside and out side temperatures of the container T1 and T2 in ¡C, respectively,
and the thermal conductivity of the container walls k in m3/¡C/hr and is given by:
k A(T1 − T2 )
Heat loss by conduction = W.
t
 Electric Heating 153

Actually, there is no specific formula for the determination of loss occurring due to the
­opening of door for the periodic inspection of the charge so that this loss may be approxi-
mately taken as 0.58—1.15MJ/m2 of the door area, if the door is opened for a period of
20—30 sec.
The efficiency of the oven is defined as the ratio of the heat required to raise the temper-
ature of the charge to the desired value to the heat required to raise the charge and losses.
The efficiency of the oven:
the heat required to raise the temperature of the charge
= .
the heat required to raise thhe temperature of the charge + total losses
The efficiency of the resistance oven lies in between 60% and 80%.

4.9.3  Infrared or radiant heating

In this method of heating, the heat transfer takes place from the source to the body to be
heated through radiation, for low and medium temperature applications. Whereas in resis-
tance ovens, the heat transfers to the charge partly by convection and partly by radiation. In
the radiant heating, the heating element consists of tungsten filament lamps together with
reflector and to direct all the heat on the charge. Tungsten filament lamps are operating at
2,300¡C instead of 3,000¡C to give greater portion of infrared radiation and a longer life.
The radiant heating is mainly used for drying enamel or painted surfaces. The high concen-
tration of the radiant energy enables the heat to penetrate the coating of paint or enamel to
a depth sufficient to dry it out without wasting energy in the body of the workpiece.
The main advantage of the radiant heating is that the heat absorption remains approxi-
mately constant whatever the charge temperature, whereas with the ordinary oven the heat
absorption falls off very considerably as the temperature of the charge raises. The lamp
ratings used are usually between 250 and 1,000 W and are operating at voltage of 115 V in
order to ensure a robust filament.

4.10 Temperature Control of Resistance Heating

To control the temperature of a resistance heating at certain selected points in a furnace or
oven, as per certain limits, such control may be required in order to hold the temperature
constant or to vary it in accordance with a pre-determined cycle and it can be carried out
by hand or automatically. V2
In resistance furnaces, the heat developed depends upon I 2 R t (or) t. Therefore,
R
the temperature of the furnaces can be controlled either by:
(i) Changing the resistance of elements.
(ii) Changing the applied voltage to the elements (or) current passing through the
elements.
(iii) Changing the ratio of the on-and-off times of the supply.
Voltage across the furnace can be controlled by changing the transformer tapings. Auto
transformer or induction regulator can also be used for variable voltage supply. In addi-
tion to the above, voltage can be controlled by using a series resistance so that some volt-
age dropped across this series resistor. But this method is not economical as the power is
continuously wasted in controlling the resistance. Hence, this method is limited to small
furnaces. An on-off switch can be employed to control the temperature. The time for which
the oven is connected to the supply and the time for which it is disconnected from supply
will ­determine the temperature.
154

Temperature can be controlled by providing various combinations of groups of

resistances used in the furnace and is given as follows:

(i)  Variable number of elements

If R be the resistance of one element and n be the number of elements are connected in
parallel, so that the equivalent resistance is R n .
Heat developed in the furnace is:
V2 V2
H= = ×n
( R n) R
i.e., if the number of elements connected in parallel increases, the heat developed in the
furnace also increased. This method does not provide uniform heating unless elements not
in use are well distributed.

(ii)  Series parallel (or) star delta arrangement of elements

If the available supply is single phase, the heating elements can be connected in series for
the low temperatures and connected in parallel for the high temperature by means of a
series—parallel switch.
In case, if the available supply is three phase, the heating elements can be connected in
star for the low temperature and in delta for the high temperatures by using star—delta switch.
Example 4.5:  Six resistances, each of 60 ohms, are used in a resistance; how much power
is drawn for the following connections.
(a) Supply is 400 V, AC, and single phase and the connections are:
(i)  Three groups in parallel, each of two resistance units in series.
(ii)  Six groups are in parallel, each of one resistance unit.
(b) With the same three-phase supply, they are connected in delta fashion.
(i)  Two resistance units in parallel in each branch.
(ii)  Two resistance units in series in each branch.
(c) Supply is 400 V and three-phase while the connection is a star combination of:
(i)  Two resistance elements in series in each phase.
(ii)  Two resistance elements in parallel in each phase.
(d) If the supply is a 25% tapping with an auto transformer, calculate the output of the
oven.
Solution:
(a)  (i)  The power consumption of the two resistances in series is:
2
V 2 (400)
P = =
R 2 × 60
= 1,333.33 W.
The power consumed by the three units in parallel is P = 3 × 1,333.33 = 4,000 W.
(ii)  The power consumed by each resistor is:
2
V 2 (400)
P = =
R 60
= 2,666.67 W.
 Electric Heating 155

The power consumed by the six resistors in parallel is:

P = 6 × 2,666.67
= 16,000 W.
(b) Since in delta fashion, line voltage = phase voltage = 400 V:
(i)  The power consumed by the each branch:
2
V 2 (400)
   P = =
R 30
      = 5,333.34 W.
   The power consumed by the three units is:
    P = 3 × 5,333.34
       = 16,000 W.
(ii)  The power consumed by the each unit, when they are commuted in series is:
2
V2 (400)
   P = =
R 60 + 60
       = 1,333.34 W.
   The power consumed by the three units is:
    P = 4,000 W.
(c) For the star connection, VL = 3 Vph:
400
Vph = = 230.94 V.
3 2
V 2 (230.94)
(i)  The power consumed by the two resistors in series is P = = :
R 60 + 60
    P = 444.44 W.
   The power consumed by the three units is:
    P = 1,333.33 W.
(ii)  The power consumed by the two resistors in parallel is:
2
(230.94)
   P =
30
    P = 1,777.77 W.
   The power consumed by the three units in series is:
    P = 3 × 1,777.77
      = 5,333.32 W.
(d) The power is proportional to the square of the voltage. Hence, the voltage is 25%.
1
So that, the power loss will be th of the values obtained as above.
16
4.11  Arc Heating
If the high voltage is applied across an air gap, the air in the gap gets ionized under the
influence of electrostatic forces and becomes conducting medium, current flows in the
156

form of a continuous spark, known as arc. A very high voltage is required to establish an
arc but very small voltage is sufficient to maintain it, across the air gap. The high voltage
required for striking an arc can be obtained by using a step-up transformer fed from a
­variable AC supply.
Another method of striking the arc by using low voltage is by short circuiting the two
electrodes momentarily and with drawing them back. Electrodes made up of carbon or
graphite and are used in the arc furnaces when the temperature obtained is in the range of
3,000—3,500¡C.

4.11.1 Electrodes used in the arc furnaces

Normally used electrodes in the arc furnaces are carbon electrodes, graphite electrodes, and
self-baking electrodes. Usually the carbon and graphite electrodes are used and they can be
selected based on their electrical conductivity insolubility, chemical inertness, mechanical
strength, resistance to thermal shock, etc. The size of these electrodes may be 18—27cm
in diameter. The carbon electrodes are used with small furnaces for manufacturing of
ferro-alloys, aluminum phosphorous, etc. The self-baking electrodes are employed in the
electrochemical furnaces and in the electrolytic production of aluminum.
The salient features of carbon and graphite electrodes are:
(i) Resistivity:  The graphite electrodes have low-specific resistance than the carbon elec-
trodes, so the graphite required half in size for the same current resulting in easy replacement.
(ii) Oxidation:  Graphite begins to oxides at 600¡C where as carbon at 400¡C.
(iii) Electrode consumption:  For steel-melting furnaces, the consumption of the carbon
electrodes is about 4.5 kg of electrodes per tonne of steel and 2.3—to6.8 kg electrodes per
tonne of steel for the graphite electrodes.
(iv) Cost:  The graphite electrodes cost about twice as much per kg as the carbon elec-
trodes. The choice of electrodes depends chiefly on the question of the total cost. In gen-
eral, if the processes requiring large quantities of electrode, carbon is used but for other
processes, the choice depends on local conditions.

4.11.2 Types of arc furnaces

There are two types of arc furnaces and they are:
(i) direct arc furnace and
(ii) indirect arc furnace.

(i)  Direct arc furnace

When supply is given to the electrodes, two arcs are established and current passes
through the charge, as shown in Fig. 4.5. As the arc is in direct contact with the charge
and heat is also produced by current flowing through the charge itself, it is known as
direct arc furnace.
If the available supply is DC or 1-φ, AC, two electrodes are sufficient, if the supply
is 3-φ, AC, three electrodes are placed at three vertices of an equilateral triangle. The most
important feature of the direct arc furnace is that the current flows through the charge,
the stirring action is inherent due to the electromagnetic force setup by the current, such
­furnace is used for manufacturing alloy steel and gives purer product.
 Electric Heating 157

+ or Ph

DC (or) AC
supply
− or N
Electrodes
Electrodes

Heat Arc
Arc
transfer
Charge Charge

FIG. 4.5  Direct arc furnace FIG. 4.6  Indirect arc furnace

It is very simple and easy to control the composition of the final product during
r­ efining process operating the power factor of arc furnace is 0.8 lagging. For 1-ton furnace,
the power required is about 200 kW and the energy consumed is 1.0 MWh/ton.

(ii)  Indirect arc furnace

In indirect arc furnace, the arc strikes between two electrodes by bringing momentarily in con-
tact and then with drawing them heat so developed, due to the striking of arc across air gap is
transferred to charge is purely by radiation. A simple indirect arc furnace is shown in Fig. 4.6.
These furnaces are usually 1-φ and hence their size is limited by the amount of one-
phase load which can be taken from one point. There is no inherent stirring action provided
in this furnace, as current does not flow through the charge and the furnace must be rocked
mechanically. The electrodes are projected through this chamber at each end along the
horizontal axis. This furnace is also sometimes called as rocking arc furnace. The charge
in this furnace is heated not only by radiation from the arc between electrode tips but also
by conduction from the heated refractory during rocking action; so, the efficiency of such
furnace is high. The arc is produced by bringing electrodes into solid contact and then
withdrawing them; power input to the furnace is regulated by adjusting the arc length by
moving the electrodes.
Even though it can be used in iron foundries where small quantities of iron are required
frequently, the main application of this furnace is the melting of non-ferrous metals.

4.11.3 Power supply and control of arc furnace

As the arc voltage is of the order of 50—150V in order to obtain large powers required
for melting metals, the secondary current required will be of the order of several hundred
amperes. Therefore, the power supply for the electric arc furnace is of low-voltage and
high-current type. This is due to the following reasons:
• In order to obtain high temperatures, high currents are necessary since the heating
effect is proportional to the square of the current.
• The maximum secondary voltage is limited to 275 V due to insulation and safety
considerations.
158

Ph RT XT RL XL

Transformer Electrodes
AC Supply impedence
EA = IARA Arc

N Primary Secondary
furnace transformer

FIG. 4.7  Equivalent circuit of arc furnace

• The higher potential gradient between the electrodes due to high voltage and charge
which ionizes the nitrogen of furnace atmosphere and absorbed by the charge
­produces embitterment.
• Generally, low-voltage and high-current electrodes are kept nearer to the charge
thus arc remains away from the roof: therefore, the life of refractory is increased.
The equivalent circuit of an electric furnace is shown in Fig. 4.7. Here, the transformer
used differs from the ordinary power transformer only in the provision of low-voltage and
high-­current secondary winding. The tappings for voltage regulation are provided on the
primary side.
Equivalent circuit parameters are described as RT is the equivalent resistance of trans-
former referred to secondary, XT is the equivalent reactance of transformer referred to
­secondary, XL is the reactance of load, RL is the resistance of load, RE is the resistance of
electrodes, EA is the arc voltage (voltage drop across arc), and RA is the arc resistance.
Power input to the arc furnace can be controlled by varying the length of the arc by
raising or lowering the electrodes thereby varying the resistance of the arc. Another way
is by varying the applied voltage by the use of tappings provided on the primary side of
furnace transformer.
In order to ensure the best operating conditions and to have the complete control of
­furnace temperature both voltage and electrode control must be employed.
Case-I: Condition for maximum power output
From Fig. 4.7:
1

The equivalent impedance of arc furnace ( Z) = ( RT + RL + RA )2 + ( X T + X L )2  2 .

V
∴ Arc current, I =
Z
V
I= . (4.9)
( RT + RL + RA )2 + ( X T + X L )2

Power loss in the arc (PL ) = I  2 RA

2
 
 V  R
∴ PL = 
 ( R + R + R ) 2 + ( X + X ) 2  A
 T L A T L 
 Electric Heating 159

V 2 RA
=
( RT + RL ) 2 + RA 2 + 2( RT + RL ) RA + ( X T + X L ) 2

V2
= .
( R + RL )2 ( X T + X L )2
RA + 2 (RT + RL ) + T +
RA RA
Power loss PL is maximum when denominator is minimum.
d (PL )
i.e., d R = 0
A

 2 2
∴
d  RA + 2 (RT + RL ) + ( RT + RL ) + ( X T + X L )  = 0
dRA  RA RA 
 

( RT + RL ) 2 ( X T + X L ) 2
(or)  1 + 0 − − =0
RA 2 RA 2

∴ RA2 = (RT + RL)2 + (XT + XL)2

∴ RA = ( RT + RL )2 + ( X T + X L )2 . (4.10)
From Equation (4.10), the power loss will be maximum when the arc resistance (RA) will
be equal to the impedance of whole electric circuit referred to the secondary of transformer
excluding the arc resistance RA .
Case-II: Power factor at maximum power loss
From the Fig. 4.7, the power factor:
RA + RT + RL
cosφ =
Z
RA + RT + RL
=
( RA + RT + RL ) 2 + ( X T + X L ) 2

RA + RT + RL
=
RA + ( RT + RL ) + 2 RA ( RT + RL ) + ( X T + X L ) 2
2 2

RA + RT + RL
= .
RA + 2 RA ( RT + RL ) + ( RT + RL )2 + ( X T + X L )2
2

But, from the maximum power loss condition, replace (RT + RL)2 + (XT + XL)2 = RA2 in the
above equation:
RA + RT + RL
∴ cos φ =
RA + 2 RA ( RT + RL ) + RA 2
2

RA + RL + RL
=
2 RA 2 + 2 RA ( RT + RL )
160 Generation and Utilization of Electrical Energy

5000 1.0
4000 Po 0.8
put we
r fa
3000
a l in Ef cto 0.6
r
t fic
2000 To Arc input ien 0.4
cy
Arc r
1000 esist 0.2
ance
0
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000

FIG. 4.8  Performance characteristics of typical arc furnace

RA + RT + RL
=
2 RA ( RA + RT + RL )

RA + RT + RL
=
2 RA

1 R + RL
= 1+ T .
2 RA
RT + RL
Assuming the value of RA is small and hence neglected.
1
∴ cos φ = = 0.707.
2
That is, maximum power loss takes place when the power factor at secondary side is 0.707.
And, it is not economical to operate an arc furnace with primary side power factor below
0.8. Figure 4.8 illustrates the performance characteristics of typical arc furnace.
When electrodes are short circuited, the total input to the furnace is almost zero. And,
if electrodes are separated by some distance apart, arc is extinguished and then power
drawn from the supply is also zero. In between these two limits, the power input to the
furnace will be maximum at any particular loading.
Example 4.6:  Calculate the time taken to melt 5 ton of steel in three-phase arc furnace
having the following data.
Current = 8,000 A Resistance = 0.003 Ω
Arc voltage = 50 V Reactance = 0.005 Ω
Latent heat = 8.89 kcal/kg Specific heat = 0.12
Initial temperature = 18¡C Melting point = 1,370¡C
The overall efficiency is 50%. Find also the power factor and the electrical efficiency of
the furnace.
Solution:
The equivalent circuit of the furnace is shown in Fig. P.4.1.
50
Arc resistance per phase =
8, 000
 Electric Heating 161

I Rt Xt
Ph
V
IXt

V′ V EA

N EA IRt

FIG. P.4.1  Equivalent circuit of arc furnace FIG. P.4.2  Phasor diagram

RA = 0.00625 Ω.
Drop due to the resistance of transformer, I Rt = 8,000 × 0.003 = 24 V and drop due
to the reactance, I Xt = 8,000 × 0.005 = 40 V.
From the phasor diagram (Fig. P.4.2):

V = ( E A + I Rt ) 2 + ( I X t ) 2

= (50 + 24) 2 + (40) 2

  = 84.118 V.

From the phasor diagram:

E A + IRt
cos φ =
V
50 + 24
=
84.118
= 0.879 lag.
The amount of heat required per kg of steel:
= Specific heat × (t2 —t1) + latent heat
= 0.12 × (1,370 — 18)+ 8.89
= 171.13 kcal.
The heat required for 5 ton = 5,000 ×171.13
= 855,650 kcal.
855,650×1.162×10−3
The actual heat required =
0.5
= 1,988.53 kWh   [∵ 1 kcal = 1.162 × 10—3kWh].
Power input = 3 V I cos φ × 10—3kW
= 3 × 84.118 × 8,000 × 0.879 × 10—3kW
= 1,774.55 kW.
162

1, 988.53
Time required = = 1.12 hr
1, 774.55
= 67.2 min.
3×50×8000
The electrical efficiency of the furnace =
×100
1,774.55×1,000
 = 67.62%.
Example 4.7:  A 100-kW Ajax Wyatt furnace works at a secondary voltage of 12 V at
power factor 0.6 when fully charged. If the reactance presented by the charge remains con-
stant but the resistance varies invert as the charge depth in the furnace; calculate the charge
depth that produces maximum heating effect when the furnace is fully charged.
Solution:
Secondary power, P = V2I2 cos φ
P
I2 =
V2 ×cosφ

100×103
=
12× 0.6
   = 13.88 k A.
When the crucible is fully charged, then the secondary impedance is:
V
Z2 = 2
I2
12
=
13.88×103
  = 0.864 mΩ.
From the impedance triangle:
R
cosφ = 2
Z2
         = Z2 cos φ.
 = 0.864 × 10—3× 0.6
         = 0.5184 mΩ.

The secondary reactance X 2 = ( Z 2 ) 2 − ( R2 ) 2

X 2 = (0.864×10−3 ) 2 − (0.5184×10−3 ) 2

X2 = 0.69 mm.
Let H be the height of the crucible when the crucible is full of charge and Hm be the
height of the charge at which maximum heating effect is possible.
Hm
= h.
H
 Electric Heating 163

Given that the height of the charge is inversely proportional to the resistance. Let Rm
be the maximum resistance at which maximum heating effect will be possible.
At Rm = X2, the heat produced will be maximum.

Hm R  1 1
= 2 = h     ∵ H m ∝ H∝ 
H Rm  Rm R2 

Hm R
= 2 =h
H X2

0.5184×10−3
h=
0.69×10−3
= 0.75
Hm
= 0.75
H
Hm = 0.75H.

4.12  High-Frequency Heating

The main difference between the power-frequency and the high-frequency heating is that
in the conventional methods, the heat is transferred either by conduction convection or by
radiation, but in the high-frequency heating methods, the electromagnetic energy ­converted
into the heat energy in side the material.
The high-frequency heating can be applied to two types of materials. The heating
of the conducting materials, such as ferro-magnetic and non-ferro-magnetic, is known as
induction heating. The process of heating of the insulating materials is known as dielectric
heating. The heat transfer by the conventional method is very low of the order of 0.5—20
W/sq. cm. And, the heat transfer rate by the high-frequency heating either by induction or
by dielectric heating is as much as 10,000 W/sq. cm. Thus, the high-frequency heating is
most importance for tremendous speed of production.

4.13  Induction Heating

The induction heating process makes use of the currents induced by the electromagnetic
action in the material to be heated. To develop sufficient amount of heat, the resistance of
 V2
the material must be low ∵ power drawn=  , which is possible only with the metals,
 R 
and the voltage must be higher, which can be obtained by employing higher flux and higher
frequency. Therefore, the magnetic materials can be heated than non-magnetic materials
due to their high permeability.
In order to analyze the factors affecting induction heating, let us consider a circular
disc to be heated carrying a current of I amps at a frequency f  Hz. As shown in Fig. 4.9.
Heat developed in the disc is depending upon the following factors.
• Primary coil current.
• The number of the turns of the coil.
• Supply frequency.
164

Iron core

Ip Ip
Ph
Charge
Supply
Copper coil Annular
Is N Hearth
Metallic
disc

Primary Secondary

FIG. 4.9  Induction heating FIG. 4.10  Direct core type furnace

• The magnetic coupling between the coil and the disc.

• The high electrical resistivity of the disc.
If the charge to be heated is non-magnetic, then the heat developed is due to eddy current
loss, whereas if it is magnetic material, there will be hysteresis loss in addition to eddy
current loss. Both hysteresis and eddy current loss are depended upon frequency, but at
high-­frequency hysteresis, loss is very small as compared to eddy currents.
The depth of penetration of induced currents into the disc is given by:

1 ρ×109
d= cm
2π µf

1
i.e., d µ ,
f
where ρ is the specific resistance in Ω-cm, f is the frequency in Hz, and μ is the permeability
of the charge.
There are basically two types of induction furnaces and they are:
1. Core type or low-frequency induction furnace.
2. Coreless type or high-frequency induction furnace.

4.13.1 Core type furnace

The operating principle of the core type furnace is the electromagnetic induction. This
furnace is operating just like a transformer. It is further classified as:
(i) Direct core type.
(ii) Vertical core type.
(iii) Indirect core type.

(i)  Direct core type induction furnace

The core type furnace is essentially a transformer in which the charge to be heated forms
single-turn secondary circuit and is magnetically coupled to the primary by an iron core as
shown in Fig. 4.10.
 Electric Heating 165

The furnace consists of a circular hearth in the form of a trough, which contains the
charge to be melted in the form of an annular ring. This type of furnace has the following
characteristics:
• This metal ring is quite large in diameter and is magnetically interlinked with
primary winding, which is energized from an AC source. The magnetic coupling
between primary and secondary is very weak; it results in high leakage reactance
and low pf. To overcome the increase in leakage reactance, the furnace should be
operated at low frequency of the order of 10 Hz.
• When there is no molten metal in the hearth, the secondary becomes open circuited
thereby cutting of secondary current. Hence, to start the furnace, the molten metal
has to be taken in the hearth to keep the secondary as short circuit.
• Furnace is operating at normal frequency, which causes turbulence and severe stir-
ring action in the molten metal to avoid this difficulty, it is also necessary to operate
the furnace at low frequency.
• In order to obtain low-frequency supply, separate motor-generator set (or) fre-
quency changer is to be provided, which involves the extra cost.
• The crucible used for the charge is of odd shape and inconvenient from the metal-
lurgical viewpoint.
• If current density exceeds about 500 A/cm2, it will produce high-electromagnetic
forces in the molten metal and hence adjacent molecules repel each other, as they
are in the same direction. The repulsion may cause the interruption of secondary
circuit (formation of bubbles and voids); this effect is known as pinch effect.
The pinch effect is also dependent on frequency; at low frequency, this effect is negligible,
and so it is necessary to operate the furnace at low frequency.
(ii)  Vertical core type induction furnace
It is an improvement over the direct core type furnace, to overcome some of the disadvan-
tages mentioned above. This type of furnace consists of a vertical core instead of horizontal
core as shown in Fig. 4.11. It is also known as Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace.

Charge
Central iron
core
Outer
iron Outer iron
core core

Refractory
lining
Primary
winding

FIG. 4.11  Vertical core type furnace (Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace)

166

Vertical core avoids the pinch effect due to the weight of the charge in the main body
of the crucible. The leakage reactance is comparatively low and the power factor is high as
the magnetic coupling is high compared to direct core type.
There is a tendency of molten metal to accumulate at the bottom that keeps the second-
ary completed for a vertical core type furnace as it consists of narrow V-shaped channel.
The inside layer of furnace is lined depending upon the type charge used. Clay lining
is used for yellow brass and an alloy of magnesia and alumina is used for red brass.
The top surface of the furnace is covered with insulating material, which can be
removed for admitting the charge. Necessary hydraulic arrangements are usually made for
tilting the furnace to take out the molten metal. Even though it is having complicated con-
struction, it is operating at power factor of the order of 0.8—[Link] furnace is normally
used for the melting and refining of brass and non-ferrous metals.
Advantages
• Accurate temperature control and reduced metal losses.
• Absence of crucibles.
• Consistent performance and simple control.
• It is operating at high power factor.
• Pinch effect can be avoided.

(iii)  Indirect core type furnace

This type of furnace is used for providing heat treatment to metal. A simple induction fur-
nace with the absence of core is shown in Fig. 4.12.
The secondary winding itself forms the walls of the container or furnace and an iron
core links both primary and secondary windings.
The heat produced in the secondary winding is transmitted to the charge by radiation.
An oven of this type is in direct competition with ordinary resistance oven.
It consists of a magnetic circuit AB is made up of a special alloy and is kept inside
the chamber of the furnace. This magnetic circuit loses its magnetic properties at certain
temperature and regains them again when it is cooled to the same temperature.

Primary
winding
Primary
winding

Charge
heating Metal
Detachable A B bed core
magnetic
circuit

core
(a) (b)

FIG. 4.12  Indirect core type furnace

 Electric Heating 167

Refractory
crucible

Container

Charge

FIG. 4.13  Coreless induction furnace

When the oven reaches to critical temperature, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit
increases many times and the inductive effect decreases thereby cutting off the supply heat.
Thus, the temperature of the furnace can be effectively controlled. The magnetic circuit AB
is detachable type that can be replaced by the other magnetic circuits having critical tem-
peratures ranging between 400¡C and 1,000¡C. The furnace operates at a pf of around 0.8.
The main advantage of such furnace is wide variation of temperature control is ­possible.

4.13.2 Coreless type induction furnace

It is a simple furnace with the absence core is shown in Fig. 4.13. In this furnace, heat
developed in the charge due to eddy currents flowing through it.
The furnace consists of a refractory or ceramic crucible cylindrical in shape enclosed
within a coil that forms primary of the transformer. The furnace also contains a conducting
or non-conducting container that acts as secondary.
If the container is made up of conducting material, charge can be conducting or non-
conducting; whereas, if the container is made up of non-conducting material, charge taken
should have conducting properties.
When primary coils are excited by an alternating source, the flux set up by these coils
induce the eddy currents in the charge. The direction of the resultant eddy current is in a direc-
tion opposite to the current in the primary coil. These currents heat the charge to melting point
and they also set up electromagnetic forces that produce a stirring action to the charge.
∴ The eddy currents developed in any magnetic circuit are given as:

We ∝ Bm2 f   2,

where Bm is the maximum flux density (tesla), f is the frequency in (Hz), and We is the eddy
current loss (watts).
In coreless furnace, the flux density will be low as there is no core. Hence, the primary
supply should have high frequency for compensating the low f lux density.
168

If it is operating at high frequency, due to the skin effect, it results copper loss, thereby
increasing the temperature of the primary winding. This necessitates in artificial cooling.
The coil, therefore, is made of hollow copper tube through which cold water is circulated.
Minimum stray magnetic field is maintained when designing coreless furnace, other-
wise there will be considerable eddy current loss.
The selection of a suitable frequency of the primary current can be given by penetra-
tion formula. According to this:
1 ρ ×10 9
t= , (4.11)
2π µf

where t is the thickness up to which current in the metal has penetrated, ρ is the ­resistivity
in Ω-cm, ‘μ is the permeability of the material, and f  is the frequency in Hz.
For the efficient operation, the ratio of the diameter of the charge (d) to the depth of
the penetration of currents (t) should be more than 6 , therefore let us take:
d
= 8.
t
Substitute above in Equation (4.11).
16 × ρ ×10 9
f= . (4.12)
π2 µ d 2
Following are the advantages of coreless furnace over the other furnaces:
• Ease of control.
• Oxidation is reduced, as the time taken to reach the melting temperature is less.
• The eddy currents in the charge itself results in automatic stirring.
• The cost is less for the erection and operation.
• It can be used for heating and melting.
• Any shape of crucible can be used.
• It is suitable for intermittent operation.

Example 4.8:  Determine the amount of energy required to melt 2 ton of zinc in 1 hr,
if it operates at an efficiency of 70% specific heat of zinc is equals to 0.1. The latent heat of
zinc = 26.67 kcal/kg, the melting point is 480¡C, and the initial temperature is 25¡C.
Solution:
Weight of zinc = 2 × 1,000 = 2,000 kg.
The heat required raising the temperature from 25¡C to 480¡C:
H = w × S × (t2 —t1)
= 2,000 × 0.1 × (480 — 25)
= 91,000 kcal.
The heat required for melting:
=w×l
= 2,000 × 26.67
= 53,340 kcal.
 Electric Heating 169

∴ Total heat required = 91,000 + 53,340

= 144,340 kcal.
Since 4.18 J = 1 cal and 1 J/sec = 1 W.
So, 1 cal = 4.18 W-sec.
144, 340×103 × 4.18
Energy input =
103 ×3, 600× 0.70
= 239.42 kWh.
Energy = I 2 R t.
energy 239.42 kW
Power = =
time 1
= 239.42 kW.
Example 4.9:  A high-frequency induction furnace that takes 20 min to melt 1.9 kg of
aluminum, the input to the furnace being 3 kW, and the initial temperature is 25¡C. Then,
determine the efficiency of the furnace.
The specific heat of aluminum = 0.212.
Melting point = 660¡C.
The latent heat of the fusion of aluminum = 76.8 kcal/kg.
Solution:
Total heat required = 1.90 × 0.212 × (60 — 25)+1.9 × 76.8
= 401.698 kcal.
60
Heat required per hour = 401.698×
20
= 1,205.094 kcal.
1, 205.094
The power delivered to the charge =
860
               = 1.401 kW.
1.401
The efficiency of the furnace % η = ×100 .
3

Example 4.10:  Determine the equivalent resistance of the charge and the current in the
primary winding that is required to counter balance the mmf due to secondary current. If
the power input to the charge is a 0.5-ton and 960-Hz induction, furnace have 20 turns on
the primary winding is 340 kW. The cylindrical crucible has an internal diameter of 47 cm
and the depth of the charge in it is 50 cm. Take resistivity of charge = 200 μΩ-cm.
Solution:
The depth of penetration of eddy currents through the charge is given by:

1 ρ×109
t=
2π µf
170

1 200×10−6 ×109
=    ( μ = 1 for molten steel)
2π 1×960
t = 2.29 cm.
The area of the cylinder in which current flows is = 50 × 2.29
= 114.5 cm2.
The mean diameter of the cylinder = 47 + 2.29
= 49.29 cm.
The mean length of the current flows = π × 49.29
= 154.77.
ρl
The resistance of the cylinder =
A
200×10−6 ×154.77
=
114.5
                 R = 270.34×10—6Ω.
The power loss, PL = I 2 R
P 340 ×103
I= =
R 270.34×10−6
= 35.46 kA.
Now, in case of transformer:
N1 I1 = N2 I2.
Assume secondary is a single-turn winding, the current in the primary:
35.46×103
I1 =
20
= 1,773 A.
Example 4.11:  A low-frequency induction furnace has a secondary voltage of 20 V and
takes 600 kW at 0.5 pf when the hearth is full. If the secondary voltage is maintained at 20 V,
determine the power absorbed and the power factor when the hearth is half-full. Assume the
resistance of the secondary circuit to be doubled and the reactance to remain the same.
Solution:
Case-I: when the hearth is full:
The power input:
P = V I cos φ
600×103
I=
20× 0.5
= 60 × 103 A.
V
The impedance, Z =
I
 Electric Heating 171

20
=
60×103
= 0.33 × 10—3Ω
R
cosφ =
Z
R = Z × cos φ
= 0.33 × 10—3× 0.5
= 0.167 × 10—3Ω.

Reactance, X = ( Z ) 2 − ( R) 2

= (0.33×10−3 ) 2 − (0.167 ×10−3 ) 2

= 0.2846 ×10—3Ω.

Case-II: when the hearth is half-full:

Now, R = 2R  and  X = X
R = 2 × 0.167 × 10—3
  = 0.334 × 10—3Ω.

Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2

= (0.334×10−3 ) 2 + (0.2846×10−3 ) 2

= 0.438 × 10—3Ω.
From the impedance triangle:
R
cosφ =
Z
0.334×10−3
=
0.438×10−3
= 0.762.
V
current, I =
Z
20
=
(0.438×10−3 )
= 45.66 kA.
The power absorbed, P = V I cos φ
= 20 × 45.66 × 103 × 0.762
= 695.85 kW.
172

4.14 Dielectric Heating
When non-metallic materials i.e., insulators such as wood, plastics, and china glass are
subjected to high-voltage alternating electric field, the atoms get stresses, and due to inter-
atomic friction caused by the repeated deformation and the rotation of atomic structure
(­polarization), heat is produced. This is known as dielectric loss. This dielectric loss in
insulators corresponds to hysteresis loss in ferro-magnetic materials. This loss is due to the
reversal of magnetism or magneto molecular friction. These losses developed in a ­material
that has to be heated.
An atom of any material is neutral, since the central positive charge is equals to
the negative charge. So that, the centers of positive and negative charges coincide as
long as there is no external field is applied, as shown in Fig. 4.14(a). When this atom
is subjected to the influence of the electric field, the positive charge of the nucleus is
acted upon by some force in the direction of negative charges in the opposite direction.
Therefore, the effective centers of both positive and negative charges no longer coinci-
dent as shown in Fig. 4.14(b). The electric charge of an atom equivalent to Fig. 4.14(b)
is shown in Fig. 4.14(c).
This gives raise to an electric dipole moment equal to P = q d, where d is the distance
between the two centers and q is the charge on the nucleus.
Now, the atom is said to be polarized atom. If we apply alternating voltage across the
capacitor plate, we will get alternating electric field.
Electric dipoles will also try to change their orientation according to the direction of
the impressed electric field. In doing so, some energy will be wasted as inter-atomic fric-
tion, which is called dielectric loss.
As there is no perfect conductor, so there is no perfect insulator. All the dielectric
materials can be represented by a parallel combination of a leakage resistor R and a
capacitor C as shown in Fig. 4.15 (a) and (b).
If an AC voltage is applied across a piece of insulator, an electric current flows; total
current I supposed to be made up of two components IC and IR, where IC is the capacitive
current leading the applied voltage by 90¡ and IR is in phase with applied voltage as shown
in Fig. 4.15(c).

−
−
+ −
− + +
++
− − +q
−
− − − +
+ d
− −
−
− −q
−
(a) Neutral (b) Polarized (c) Dipole
atom atom moment

FIG. 4.14  Polarization

 Electric Heating 173

Electrodes
−
I
+ + + + Current
− − − − Dielectric
V IR Ic
material
+ + + + V R C I
Ic
− − − −
δ
φ
+ Voltage
IR
(a) Dielectric material (b) Circuit diagram (c) Phasor diagram

FIG. 4.15  Dielectric heating

Dielectric loss, PL = V I cos φ

           = V IR   [∵ IR = I cos φ]

 I 
           = V IC tan δ    ∵ tan δ = R  .
 I C 

 V   V 
V ⋅   tan δ    QI C =
 X C  
 X C 

 = V 2 ω C tan δ (4.13)

εO εr A
=V 2 × 2 π f × ×δ W (4.14)
d
where V is the applied voltage in volts, f  is the supply frequency in Hz, ε0 is the abso-
lute permittivity of the medium = 8.854 × 10—12F/m, εr is the relative permittivity of the
medium = 1 for free space, A is the area of the plate or electrode (m2), d is the thickness of
the dielectric medium, and δ is the loss angle in radian.
From Equation (4.14):
PL ∝ V 2  and  PL∝ f. (4.15)
Normally frequency used for dielectric heating is in the range of 1—40MHz. The use of
high voltage is also limited due to the breakdown voltage of thin dielectric that is to be
heated, under normal conditions; the voltage gradient used is limited to 18 kV/cm.
The advantages of the dielectric heating
• The heating of the non-conducting materials is very rapid.
• The uniform heating of material is possible.
• Heat is produced in the whole mass of the material.
The applications of the dielectric heating
• The drying of paper, wood, etc.
• The gluing of wood.
174

• The heat-sealing of plastic sheets.

• The heating for the general processing such as coffee roasting and chocolate industry.
• The heating for the dehydration such as milk, cream, and vegetables.
• The preparation of thermoplastic resins.
• The heating of bones and tissues.
• Diathermy, i.e., the heat treatment for certain body pains and diseases, etc.
• The sterilization of absorbent cotton, bandages, etc.
• The processing of rubber, synthetic materials, chemicals, etc.
Example 4.12:  A piece of insulating material is to be heated by dielectric heating. The
size of the piece is 10 × 10 × 3 cm3. A frequency of 30 mega cycles is used and the power
absorbed is 400 W. Determine the voltage necessary for heating and the current that flows
in the material. The material has a permittivity of 5 and a power factor of 0.05.
Solution:
The capacitance offered by the material is given by:
εo εr Α
C= ,
d
where εo is 8.854 × 10—12, εr is 5, and A is area in m2 = 10 × 10 × 10—4= 0.01 m2.
8.854×10−12 ×5× 0.01
∴C=
3×10−2
  = 14.75 pF.
In the phasor diagram, δ is called the dielectric loss angle and φ is called the power fac-
tor angle.
From the phasor diagram (Fig. P.4.3):

IR
tan δ = I
C

V R
=
V ωC
V
= V ωC tan δ.
R

IC I

δ
φ
IR V

FIG. P.4.3  Phasor diagram

 Electric Heating 175

V2
The power loss, PL =
R
= V 2 ω C tan δ  (or)
= V 2 ω C cos φ.
∴ 400 = V  × 2 × 3.14 × 30 × 106 × 14.75 × 10—12× 0.05
2

V = 1,696.71 V.
The total current:
I = IC + IR
= IC   (IR ≅ 0)
= VωC
= 4.71 A.
Example 4.13:  A piece of an insulating material 2-cm thick and 120 cm2 in area is to be
heated by the dielectric heating. The material has a permittivity of 5 and a power factor of
0.05. The power at 800 V is 300 W. Determine the cycles per second.
Solution:
The capacitance offered by the dielectric material is:
εo εr Α
C=
d
8.854×10−12 ×5×120×10−4
=
2×10−12
= 26.56 pF.
From the phasor diagram shown in Fig. P.4.4:
IR
tan δ =
IC

V R
=
V ωC
V
= Vω C tanδ.
R

IC I

δ
φ
IR V

FIG. P.4.4  Phasor diagram

176

V2
The power loss, PL =
R
= V 2 ωC tan δ   (or)
= V 2 ωC cos φ
= V 2πf C cos φ.
PL
f = 2
V 2π C cosφ
300
=
(800) × 2×3.14× 26.56×10−12 × 0.05
2

            = 56.2 MHz.

Example 4.14:  The power required for dielectric heating of a slab of resin 150 cm2 in area
and 2-cm thick is 200 W, at a frequency of 30 MHz. The material has a relative permittivity
of 5 and power factor 0.05. Find the voltage necessary and the current flowing through the
material. If the voltage is limited to 700 V, what will be the frequency to obtain the same
heating?
Solution:
The capacitance offered by the dielectric slab is:
ε ε A
C= O r
d
8.854×10−12 ×5×150×10−4
=
2×10−2
= 33.2 pF.
The equivalent circuit and the phasor diagram of the dielectric heating is shown in
Fig. P.4.5.
From the phasor diagram:
I
tan δ = R
IC
V R
=
VWC
V
= VWC tan δ.
R

IC I

δ
φ
IR V

FIG. P.4.5  Phasor diagram

 Electric Heating 177

V2
The power loss, PL =
R
= V 2ωC tan δ  (or)
= V 2ωC cos φ   [∵ I = IR + IC;  I = IC]

200 = V 2 × 2 × 3.14 × 30 × 106 × 33.2 × 10—12× 0.05     [ω = 2πf  ]

V = 799.68 V.
From the equivalent circuit:
I = IR + IC
= IC   [IR ≅ small]
= VWC
= 799.68 × 2 × 3.14 × 30 × 106 × 33.2 × 10 —12
= 5 A.
1
The voltage, V α .
f
Let V1 be the voltage at the frequency 30 MHz.
Let V2 be the voltage at the frequency f2.
So that:
V1 f2
=
V2 f1
2
V 
f 2 =  1  × f1
V2 
2
 799.68 
f 2 =  ×30×106
 700 

= 39.15 mHz.

Example 4.15  A piece of plastic material of length 5 cm, width 2 cm, and thickness
1 cm is placed in between two electrodes having dimensions: length 25 cm, width 2 cm,
and with 2-cm distance between them. The frequency of voltage impressed across the
electrodes is 20 mHz. If the power consumed is 80 W, find the voltage applied across
the electrodes and the current through the material. Assume relative permittivity as 5 and
power factor 0.05.
Solution:
The arrangement of the heating material is shown in the Fig. P.4.6.
The capacitance offered by the parallel plate capacitor is:
εO εr A1 A2
C= + ,
t t1 t
+ 2
εr1 εr 2
178

where, A1 = (25 — 2)× 2 = 0.004 m2

A2 = 5 × 2 = 0.001 m2.
The separation of the distance between two plates = 2 cm = 0.02 m.
Similarly:
t1 = 0.01 m
t2 = 2 — 1= 1 cm = 0.01 m
εr1 = 5 for wood
εr2 = 1 for air
 
 
∴ C = 8.854×10−12  0.004×1 + 0.001 
 0.01 0.01 
 0.02 +
 5 1 

= 2.509 pF.
The power loss, PL = V 2ωC cos φ.

P
∴V =
2 π f C cosθ

80
=
2×3.14× 20×10 × 2.509×10−12 × 0.05
6

= 2.25 kV.
Power, P = V I cos φ
P
I=
V cosφ
80
=
2.25×103 × 0.05

= 0.71 A.

FIG. P.4.6  Dielectric heating