We are IntechOpen,

the world’s leading publisher of

Open Access books
Built by scientists, for scientists

5,000
Open access books available
125,000
International authors and editors
140M Downloads

Our authors are among the

154
Countries delivered to
TOP 1%
most cited scientists
12.2%
Contributors from top 500 universities

Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index

in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI)

Interested in publishing with us?

Contact [Link]@[Link]
Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected.
For more information visit [Link]
 Chapter 4

Residual Stress in Friction Stir Welding and Laser-

Assisted Friction Stir Welding by Numerical Simulation
and Experiments
Caterina Casavola, Alberto Cazzato and
Vincenzo Moramarco
Caterina Casavola, Alberto Cazzato and
Vincenzo Moramarco
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

[Link]

Abstract

The friction stir welding (FSW) has become an important welding technique to join mate-
rials that are difficult to weld by traditional fusion welding technology. In this technique,
the material is not led to fusion, and the joint is the result of the rotation and movement
along the welding line of the tool that causes softening of material due to frictional heat
and the stirring of the same. In FSW, the temperature does not reach the fusion value of
the materials, and this helps to decrease the residual stress values. However, due to the
higher force involved in the weld and, thus, the rigid clamping used, the residual stresses
are not low in general in this technique. As the presence of high residual stress values
influences the post-weld mechanical properties, e.g. fatigue properties, it is important to
investigate the residual stress distribution in the FSW welds. In this chapter, two numeri-
cal models that predict temperatures and residual stresses in friction stir welding and
laser-assisted friction stir welding will be described. Experimental measurements of tem-
peratures and residual stress will be carried out to validate the prediction of the models.

Keywords: friction stir welding, laser-assisted friction stir welding, residual stress,
thermography, X-ray diffraction

1. Introduction

Since 1991, when the process was initially developed, friction stir welding (FSW) has become
a promising welding method for joining materials that would otherwise be hardly weldable
by means of the conventional welding technology [1]. This important advantage is mainly
due to the FSW nature of being a solid-state welding process. In fact, the material is not

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
© 2018 The
Attribution Author(s).
License Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed
([Link] under the
which permits terms of the
unrestricted Creative
use, distribution,
Commons
and Attribution
reproduction in any License
medium, ([Link]
provided the original work is properly cited. which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
72 Residual Stress Analysis on Welded Joints by Means of Numerical Simulation and Experiments

fused, and the welding process is the result of the tool rotation and movement along the
welding line that causes softening of material due to frictional heat and the stirring of the
same. In FSW, the temperature does not reach the fusion value of the materials, and this
helps to decrease the residual stress values. However, due to the higher force involved in
the weld and, thus, the rigid clamping used, the residual stresses are not low in general
in this technique. The constraints avoid the contraction of the materials during cooling in
both longitudinal and transverse directions, thereby resulting in generation of longitudinal
(parallel to welding direction) and transverse stresses (normal to welding direction). As the
presence of high residual stress values influences the post-weld mechanical properties, e.g.
fatigue properties, it is important to investigate the residual stress distribution in the FSW
welds. Some studies have been carried out on residual stresses in FSW [1, 2–5]. In most of
these, some similar conclusions can be highlighted. First, the residual stresses in FSW welds
are lower than those generated during fusion welding, but they are not negligible at all. The
low residual stress in the FSW welds has been attributed to the lower heat input during FSW
and recrystallization accommodation of these stresses. Second, the transverse stresses are
lower than the longitudinal ones, independent on tool rotation rate, traverse speed and pin
diameter. Third, the distributions of the transverse and longitudinal residual stresses show
an “M”-like trend across the welded joint. Moreover, in the advancing side, there is a higher
residual stress peak [1].
This chapter will describe the temperature fields and residual stresses in both FSW and laser-
assisted friction stir welding (LAFSW), evaluated by means of experimental measurements and
finite element analysis. Two numerical models will be developed and validated on the experi-
mental results of temperatures and residual stresses. Furthermore, besides a deeper knowledge
of FSW, these numerical simulations have also the aim to guide the development of the process
through the research of optimal parameters minimising the amount of trial and error.

2. The friction stir welding process

The FSW main idea is very simple. A rotating tool is inserted into the plates to be welded, and
while rotating, it is moved along the welding line (Figure 1).
During the FSW process, the material undergoes a severe plastic deformation at elevated
temperature. This generates a fine and equiaxed recrystallized grain structure that produces
good mechanical properties [1, 6].

2.1. Process

The welding process is divided into four main steps: rotating, plunge and dwell, translation
and exit. The tool starts to rotate before the plunge phase (Figure 2a). During the plunge
phase, the tool penetrates the material, and subsequently, it is held in position for a few sec-
onds while still rotating (Figure 2b). This phase is called dwell time, and the aim of this step
is to heat and thus soften the material before welding. Then the tool moves along the joint line
carrying out the weld (Figure 2c). Finally, the tool is pulled out from the material (Figure 2d).
 Residual Stress in Friction Stir Welding and Laser-Assisted Friction Stir Welding by Numerical… 73
[Link]

Figure 1. Scheme of friction stir welding process.

Figure 2. Scheme of FSW process steps: (a) rotating tool before plunging, (b) plunging and then tool shoulder touches
the work piece surface producing frictional heat, (c) rotating tool traverses along the work piece and (d) pulling out from
the workpiece.

The tool (Figure 1) has two main functions: heat the workpiece and move the material to pro-
duce the joint. The heat is produced mainly by the shoulder friction with the top surface of the
workpiece. This softens the material to be welded. Moreover, the shoulder prevents expulsion
of the material and guides the flow of the material during welding. The tool pin, in addition
to being the secondary source of heat generation, provides the stirring action to the materials
of the two plates to be joined [1]. FSW is mainly a mechanical process, and the forces involved
in this type of work are relevant. Thus, the workpiece is placed on a thick backing plate and is
clamped rigidly by strong fixture to eliminate any degrees of freedom.

2.2. Welding parameters

Two are the main parameters in FSW: tool rotation rate [rpm] and tool traverse speed [mm/
min]. The rotation of tool controls the stirring and mixing action of the material, and the tool
translation moves the stirred material from the front to the back of the pin. Higher tool rota-
tion rates generate an increase of temperature due of higher friction heating and result in
more intense stirring and mixing of material, but the frictional coupling of tool surface with
74 Residual Stress Analysis on Welded Joints by Means of Numerical Simulation and Experiments

workpiece controls and governs the heating. Consequently, there is not a monotonic increase
in heating with increasing tool rotation rate because the coefficient of friction at interface will
change with the tool rotation rate.
Further, the insertion depth of pin into the workpieces (in position control mode) or the
downward force on the tool (in force control mode) is important for producing good welds.
When these parameters are not correct, the shoulder of tool may not contact the workpiece
surface or create excessive flash around the welds.
In addition, preheating or cooling can also be important for some FSW processes. For exam-
ple, in materials with high melting point such as steel or titanium, the heat produced by fric-
tion and stirring may be not sufficient to soften and plasticize the material around the tool.
In these cases, preheating or an additional external heating source, e.g. laser, can help the
material flow and widen the process window [1].

2.3. Laser-assisted friction stir welding

In this technique, a defocused laser beam precedes the FSW tool during welding at a distance
between 10 and 40 mm, increasing the temperatures reached in front of the tool and allow-
ing an easier advancement of the same. In Figure 3, a scheme of the LAFSW setup has been
reported.
The commonly used laser sources are diode laser, Nd:YAG fibre optic laser and CO2 laser.
The laser spot is activated just before the plunging stage or at the start of the welding phase
of FSW [7]. The assistance of the laser in FSW is an attractive way to preheat the material
with a conventional FSW setup. This technique has been employed to weld a variety of light
alloys, high-strength alloys and dissimilar alloys. The higher heat input allows a better mate-
rial plasticisation and grain refinements that improve the material flow and the mechanical
properties. The better plasticisation should help also to reduce the downward axial force, the
tool wear and increase welding speed [7].

Figure 3. Scheme of the LAFSW setup.

 Residual Stress in Friction Stir Welding and Laser-Assisted Friction Stir Welding by Numerical… 75
[Link]

3. Temperature field in FSW and laser-assisted FSW processes

The temperature distributions and the thermal histories have a key role in FSW and
LAFSW. They determine whether the welding process will produce a good weld, influencing
the residual stresses, the microstructure and the strength of welds. Several studies have mea-
sured temperatures in FSW using thermocouples [8–10], but only a few have been involved
in experimental analysis using thermography [9] and still less on laser-assisted friction stir
welding. Employing thermocouples, Xu et al. [8] showed that the temperature decreases with
decreasing the transverse speed and increases with increasing the rotational speed. Moreover,
they noted that the distribution of the temperatures in the plunge phase is correlated only to
the rotational tool speed. Finally, they showed that mechanical properties such as the yield
and tensile strengths of the welded plate are related to the process parameters. Increasing the
rotational tool speed increases yield and tensile strengths, while the elongation decreases.
Hwang et al. [9] conducted a study on temperature distribution using thermocouples and
find out that the temperatures on the advancing side are slightly higher than those on the
retreating side. Also, Maeda et al. [10] have applied thermocouples on both top and bottom
surfaces of the work plates and have found an asymmetric temperature distribution between
the advancing side and the retreating side.
Although experimental measures are fundamental to understand the thermal phenomenon in
the FSW process and LAFSW, they present some limitations, (e.g. economic costs or internal
temperature measurements). For this reason, the implementation of numerical models that
can predict the temperature distributions has a significant role to estimate the correct weld
parameters, to improve mechanical properties of the welded joints and reduce the amount of
trials and errors.
In the next section, the experimental setup employed to measure the temperature field on
both FSW and LAFSW will be described. These experiments will be used for the validation of
the numerical models that will be described later.

3.1. Thermographic analysis of FSW and laser-assisted FSW

A NEC H2640 infrared camera with configurable ranges between −40 and 2000°C, a resolu-
tion of 0.06°C, an accuracy of ±2°C and a spectral range of 8–13 μm has been used to acquire
the temperature during the welding process. Figure 4 shows the experimental setup of the
thermal camera.

The angle between the FSW tool axis and the camera has been set to 30°. In order to reduce
problems related to the low emissivity of aluminium and reflection, the specimen has been
painted with matte black acrylic spray paint. An emissivity ε = 0.95 has been set on the camera.

When the specimens have to be mechanically tested after the welding process, the central zone
of the specimen has not been painted to avoid paint inclusion into the welded joint. This allows
to acquire correctly the temperature near the tool, but not influencing the mechanical charac-
teristics of the joints. However, when there is the necessity to acquire the temperatures in front
of the tool, e.g. in LAFSW, the specimens have been completely painted, and bead-on-plate
welds have been done. Consequently, no mechanical tests have been done on this typology
76 Residual Stress Analysis on Welded Joints by Means of Numerical Simulation and Experiments

Figure 4. Thermographic experimental setup.

of specimens. Temperature measurements have been carried out on the retreating side of the
welded plate because the configuration of the FSW machine prevents access to both sides.

3.2. Numerical prediction of temperature fields in FSW and LAFSW

3.2.1. FSW model description

Finite element analysis, by means of software ANSYS 14.5, has been implemented to develop
a 3D transient thermal model and simulate the FSW thermal history. Due to the symmetry of
the problem, a half plate model has been simulated to decrease the element number and reduce
the computational time. The model has been meshed using 6000 SOLID90 elements. A thicker
mesh has been employed near the welding line (Figure 5) to describe in a more accurate way
the thermal behaviour near the tool area and to consider the higher gradient of temperature.
The natural convection on the top surface and on the lateral side of the specimen has been set to
20 W/m2 °C. Moreover, a convection coefficient of 300 W/m2 °C has been employed to simulate
the conduction between the backing plate and bottom surface of the specimen. The specific
value of the convection coefficient has been employed to match the maximum temperature,
reached during the weld process, between the experimental data and the numerical model.

Figure 5. FSW model mesh and convection coefficient.

 Residual Stress in Friction Stir Welding and Laser-Assisted Friction Stir Welding by Numerical… 77
[Link]

In the numerical model, as the temperature does not exceed 500°C, the heat lost by radiation
has not been considered [11].

The AA5754 thermo-physical material properties (i.e. thermal conductivity and specific heat)
have been implemented as a function of temperature [12]. Due to a lack of literature data, the
density of the material has been kept constant with the temperature.

The welding process has been simulated by a moving thermal source along the welded zone.
According to Schmidt et al. [13, 14], the analytical expression used for simulating FSW tool
heat generation is reported in Eq. (1):
F
Q = __32  𝜇𝜔 ______
R2
n
((Rshoulder − Rprobe)(1 + tan α) + Rprobe + 3 Rprobe Hprobe)
3 3 3 2
(1)
shoulder

The Rprobe and Rshoulder are the pin and shoulder radius of the tool (Eq. (1), Figure 6). Hprobe and
α are the pin height and the shoulder concavity angle. Moreover, Fn, ω and μ are the normal
plunge force, the rotational speed and the friction coefficient, respectively. The μ coefficient
has been set to 0.3 according with Schmidt et al. papers [13, 14]. The remaining terms in the
equation are Rshoulder 10.75 mm, Rprobe 3 mm, α = 0° and Hprobe 5.8 mm. The traverse speed has
been set to 20 cm/min, the rotational speed to 500 RPM and the normal force Fn to 20,000 N in
accordance with the process parameters.

3.2.2. Results and discussion for FSW model

The verification and validation of the previously described FSW model have been carried out
on bead-on-plate welds. The studies have been regarded three steps (Figure 7) of the weld-
ing process. During each step, the numerical and experimental temperature data have been
acquired and compared. In particular, the start phase is the welding initial step where the

Figure 6. Tool geometry scheme.

78 Residual Stress Analysis on Welded Joints by Means of Numerical Simulation and Experiments

Figure 7. Location scheme of experimental measured points.

FSW tool is at about 30 mm from the edge of the plate. The middle step is in the half of the
specimen, and finally, the end phase is at 30 mm from the left edge of the plate.

The graphs of the maximum temperatures versus distance from the weld line, for both experi-
mental and numerical data, have been plotted in Figure 8a–c. The trends highlight that the
estimation of the numerical model agrees with the experimental data. Indeed, in the start
phase (Figure 8a), the maximum error between experimental and numerical data is 5.9%;
in the middle step, it is 6.2% (Figure 8b) and in the end step (Figure 8c), the error is 6.3%. In
order to accurately validate the numerical model, in Figure 8d, the temperature vs. time of
the numerical model and experimental data for the point A in Figure 7 has been reported. The
trends are in good agreement though there are some small differences in the cooling phase.
These differences are due to the use of heat convection instead of conduction in the numerical
simulation of the contact between backing plate and specimen. Finally, the model is validated,
and its results are good (37.1% of maximum error) considering all the parameters, such as
coefficient of convection, friction coefficient and variability of normal force, that are difficult
to consider.

Figure 9 shows the comparison between the numerical isothermals at the top surface of the
specimen and the image of the surface temperature distribution taken by the infrared camera.

The white area in this figure describes the zone of the plate where the temperature exceeds
250°C. Overall, there is a good agreement between the numerical and experimental data on
the whole plate. Only in the area near the clamping system, not implemented in the FEM
model, the surface temperature is slightly different.

3.2.3. Laser-assisted FSW model description

The LAFSW numerical simulation is based on the previously described FSW model. However,
beyond the adding of the laser source, some other improvements have been done, e.g. the
adding of a backing plate to simulate in a better way the cooling phase. The same temper-
ature-dependent thermo-physical properties of the previously described model have been
 Residual Stress in Friction Stir Welding and Laser-Assisted Friction Stir Welding by Numerical… 79
[Link]

Figure 8. Temperature trend in the start phase (a), in the middle phase (b) and in the end phase (c) and temperature vs.
time of a middle point distant 16 mm from the centre line (d) for FSW.

Figure 9. Graphical comparison between numerical data and the experimental ones for FSW.

used [12], and also in this case, only half plate has been simulated to reduce the computational
time. The process parameters for the FSW are the same of the previous models. The laser
power has been set to 500 W, and the distance of FSW tool-laser spot is 40 mm. A gradual
thicker mesh of SOLID90 elements has been adopted near the welding line to describe more
accurately the thermal behaviour where the temperature gradient is higher (Figure 10). The
natural convection between aluminium and air has been set to 20 W/m2 °C on the top surface
and on the lateral side of the specimen. In this model, in different manners of the previ-
ous model, the interface between the backing plate and the specimen has been simulated
80 Residual Stress Analysis on Welded Joints by Means of Numerical Simulation and Experiments

employing the conduction (Figure 10). A coefficient of 450 W/m2 °C has been used to simulate
the conduction between the backing plate (a 400 mm × 400 mm × 10 mm FE360 steel plate)
and bottom surface of the specimen. The specific value of the conduction coefficient has been
employed to match the maximum temperature, reached during the weld process, between the
experimental data and the numerical model.
As in the previous FSW model, the welding process has been modelled as a uniform thermal
source. However, while Fn is the same as the previous model, the friction coefficient μ has
been set equal to 0.237 according to the experimental tests. Finally, the laser source has been
simulated as a uniform heat source of 2 mm radius that moves together to FSW tool.

3.2.4. Result and discussion for laser-assisted FSW model

As in the previously shown results for FSW, also in this case, three different steps have been
studied and reported in the later graphs. As in the previous model, the middle step is in
the middle of the plate; instead, the start position and the end position are at 65 mm from
the right and left plate edges, respectively. The temperature has been acquired at 16, 26, 36
and 50 mm from the welding line for each of the three steps. The trends of the temperature
versus distance from the weld line have been plotted for numerical and experimental data
in the start (Figure 11a), middle (Figure 11b) and end (Figure 11c) phases. Generally, these
graphs show that the numerical model fits the experimental data with low errors. This is
confirmed by R2 value that is 0.992 in the start step, 0.999 in the middle phase and, finally,
0.999 in the end step. In Figure 10d, the temperature versus time of the experimental data
and the numerical model has been reported. This graph represents the temperatures of a
central point distant 16 mm from the welding line. In general, there is a good agreement
between the numerical model and the experimental data, and compared to the previous
model, the adding of the baking plate improves the cooling phase prediction (Figure 8d vs.
Figure 11d).

Figure 10. LAFSW scheme of model mesh.

 Residual Stress in Friction Stir Welding and Laser-Assisted Friction Stir Welding by Numerical… 81
[Link]

Figure 11. Temperature trend in the start phase (a), in the middle phase (b) and in the end phase (c) and temperature vs.
time of a middle point distant 16 mm from the centre line (d) for LAFSW.

The value of the thermal contact conductance coefficient, between the aluminium specimens
and the backing plate, has been selected to fit the numerical maximum temperature in the
point A with the experimental data.

In Figure 12, a qualitative comparison of thermal field measured experimentally and that
obtained numerically has been reported. Moreover, the temperature of welded area behind
the FSW tool is not correct because there is a variation of the emissivity due to the paint
removal and change of roughness after the transit of FSW tool.

Figure 12. Graphical comparison between the experimental data (a) and numerical results (b) for LAFSW.
82 Residual Stress Analysis on Welded Joints by Means of Numerical Simulation and Experiments

4. Residual stresses in FSW and LAFSW processes

Residual stresses have a fundamental role in welded structures because they affect the
mechanical response of parts (i.e. corrosion resistance, fatigue life and many other material
characteristics). Residual stress distribution, also in FSW process where, though the heat input
is lower than traditional welding techniques, the constraints applied to the parts to weld are
more severe, should be deeply studied.
Technical literature reports numerous research papers that deal with the experimental evalu-
ation of residual stress distribution in FSW joints. Dalle Donne et al. [15], employing differ-
ent techniques, have measured residual stress distribution on FSW 2024Al-T3 and 6013Al-T6
joints. They have shown that longitudinal and transverse residual stresses have a “M”-like
distribution across the weld. Moreover, the longitudinal residual stresses are higher than
the transverse ones regardless on traverse speed, tool rotation speed and pin diameter. Peel
et al. [3], employing synchrotron X-ray method, have measured the residual stress in FSW
AA5083 welded joints. The results show that there is a tension state in the weld bead in both
longitudinal and transverse residual stress directions. Furthermore, they have proven that
the longitudinal stresses increase with increasing the traverse speed. Sutton et al. [16] and
also Donne et al. have proven that the longitudinal is the most important component in the
residual stresses analysis in FSW process and that the transverse is about 70% of the longitu-
dinal component.
In order to have a wider understanding of the FSW process, some researchers have recently
simulated the FSW process by numerical models. Moreover, these numerical models have
also the aim to develop the process through the research of optimal parameters minimis-
ing the amount of trial and error. Khandkar et al. [17] have made an uncoupled thermo-
mechanical model for some aluminium alloys and 304 L stainless steel based on torque
input for calculating temperature and then residual stress. Chen et al. [18] have developed
a 3D numerical model to study the thermal impact and evolution of the residual stresses
in the welded joints. However, the previously described numerical simulations are only
thermal or thermomechanical models in which, for example, the tool mechanical force
is not considered. These effects are important and should be included into the thermo-
mechanical simulations.
Though many works on measuring residual stresses in FSW have been done, few works
have been carried out on measuring or simulating residual stresses in innovative tech-
niques, such as LAFSW. In the next section, the measurement of residual stresses in FSW
and LAFSW will be presented, and the results will be useful to validate the FSW and LAFSW
numerical models.

4.1. Residual stress measurements in FSW and LAFSW

FSW and LAFSW tests were conducted on 6-mm thick 5754 H111 aluminium alloy plates,
in butt joint configuration. Two rectangular plates, 200 mm × 100 mm, have been welded
perpendicular to the rolling direction. The welding process is the same in the previous
sections.
 Residual Stress in Friction Stir Welding and Laser-Assisted Friction Stir Welding by Numerical… 83
[Link]

A Xstress 3000 G3R Stresstech X-ray diffractometer has been employed to measure the resid-
ual stresses. 30 kV and 8 mA of current have been used to power a Cr tube (λ = 0.2291 nm). An
angle of 156.7° has been selected as 2θ diffraction angle, and five φ different angles (0, ±22.5,
±45°) with an oscillation of ±3° have been employed to increase the quality of the measures.
The residual stresses, both longitudinal (x-axis direction) and transverse (y-axis direction),
have been carried out along the centre line of the specimens, i.e. the line normal to the welding
line in the middle of the plate.

4.2. Numerical prediction of residual stresses in FSW

4.2.1. Numerical model description

An uncoupled FE model has been carried out to calculate residual stress field. The first step
has been to carry out a thermal analysis to simulate the temperature history related to the
welding process. Then, the calculated temperature field has been used as thermal input to the
mechanical model to predict the residual stresses and strains. This analysis has been imple-
mented by means of FE software ANSYS 14.5. The thermal simulation is based on the previ-
ously presented model modified to describe the welding process of two 200 mm × 100 mm
plates in butt-weld configuration. With the aim of an accurate simulation of residual thermal
stresses, beyond the temperature-dependent thermophysical properties, also temperature-
dependent thermomechanical properties have been used [13]. It is worth noting that enthalpy
values are not considered in the simulation, as the FSW is a solid-state welding method and
there is no material melting. Moreover, a multilinear isotropic hardening has been employed
to describe the material behaviour.

In order to calculate the residual stresses, the thermal histories simulated by the FE thermal
model have been inputted in the mechanical simulation. To this aim, the SOLID186 elements
have been employed instead of the SOLID90 elements, keeping the same load step and mesh
size. Moreover, to simulate the mechanical effect due to the compression force applied by the
tool, a uniform axial pressure distributed on tool area has been included in the FE mechani-
cal model. The mechanical constrains have been set according with experimental setup. Once
that the welding simulation is concluded, the constraints are gradually released, and the
residual stresses due to FSW process have been evaluated.

The FSW has been carried out perpendicular to the rolling direction of the AA5754 sheets.
As the layout of the FSW machine does not allow an easy access to both side of the plate, the
temperature measurement, residual stresses analysis and numerical simulation have been
executed in the retreating side of the plate.

4.2.2. Results and discussion

Numerical model has been validated on both temperatures and stresses on the actual case in
order to obtain reliable stress values in the simulated case. To reach this aim, the temperature
field of the specimen has been measured during the FSW test by an infrared thermo-camera.
In the same way, as in the Section 3.2.2, the recorded values have been compared with the data
calculated by the numerical model in three different positions when maximum. The middle
84 Residual Stress Analysis on Welded Joints by Means of Numerical Simulation and Experiments

step is in the half of the plate; instead, the start position and the end position are at 50 mm from
the right and left plate edges, respectively. The temperature has been acquired at 16, 36, 80 and
100 mm from the welding line for each of the three steps. In Figure 13, the graphs of the temper-
ature versus distance from the weld line have been plotted both for numerical and experimental
data. Generally, the numerical results show a good agreement with the experimental measure-
ments. This is confirmed by R2 that is 0.997 in the start step (Figure 13a), 0.999 in the middle
phase (Figure 13b) and, finally, 0.991 in the end step (Figure 13c). The graph of temperature vs.
time for both experimental and numerical data (of the A point in Figure 7) has been reported
in Figure 13d. In general, the trends of experimental and the numerical data are in good agree-
ment with some small difference in the cooling phase as already explained previously.
The mechanical part of the model has been validated based on the X-ray diffraction stress-
measured data. In Figure 14 the stress in the welding direction, i.e. the longitudinal stress,
has been reported and compared with the numerical values. The longitudinal stress shows
a “M”-like distribution across the weld, and moreover, the maximum stress value in a FSW
weld is located on the edge of the bead described in Figure 14 by the vertical grey line at
10.75 mm from the welding line.

The residual stresses in the transverse direction, for both experimental and numerical data,
have been reported in Figure 15. The transverse residual stress values are roughly constant
in the plate with a value of 60 MPa and, in agreement with Sutton et al. [16], are about 70% of
the longitudinal one.

Figure 13. Temperature trend in the start phase (a), in the middle phase (b) and in the end phase (c) and temperature vs.
time of a middle point distant 16 mm from the centre line (d) for FSW.
 Residual Stress in Friction Stir Welding and Laser-Assisted Friction Stir Welding by Numerical… 85
[Link]

Figure 14. Numerical vs. experimental comparison of longitudinal stress in FSW.

The residual stress results show a good agreement between experimental and numerical data,
although some little discrepancies exist. These are located away from the welding line where
the initial residual stresses of the plate are preponderant. In the numerical model, the initial
state of the plate is difficult to consider and to simulate.

4.3. Numerical prediction of residual stresses in LAFSW

4.3.1. Numerical model description

The mechanical part of the LAFSW model is based on the thermal model described
in Section 3.2.3, but to the previously described thermal model, it has been added the

Figure 15. Numerical vs. experimental comparison of transverse stress in FSW.

86 Residual Stress Analysis on Welded Joints by Means of Numerical Simulation and Experiments

mechanical part which employs the thermal data as an input to the mechanical model.
However, as explained previously, the LAFSW has been validated on a bead-on-plate
configuration to capture also the temperature in front of the tool. To validate the residual
stress model, it is necessary to carry out the measurements on real butt-weld configura-
tion. In order to solve this problem, once the numerical model has been validated (see
Section 3.2.4), it has been implemented on the basis of the actual welding setup simulat-
ing the joining of two 200 mm × 100 mm plates. The new temperature distribution has
been inputted to the mechanical part of the model to simulate the residual stresses in the
actual configuration. Finally, the experimental data have been compared to the numerical
residual stress values.

The same procedure to pass the temperature data from the thermal model to the mechanical
part as an input, explained in Section 4.2.1, has been also employed in this model. Also in this
case, the mechanical constrains have been set according to experimental setup, and once that
the welding simulation is concluded, the constraints are gradually released, and the residual
stresses due to LAFSW process have been evaluated.

4.3.2. Results and discussion

In Figure 16, the numerical versus experimental longitudinal stress trend has been reported
for the retreating side. Also in this case, the maximum stress value in the LAFSW welds is
located on the edge of the bead as has been shown in Figure 16 by a vertical grey line at
10.75 mm from the joining line.
The transverse residual stress trend has been reported in Figure 17. This trend shows, for
both experimental and numerical data, that the transverse residual stress values are roughly
constant in the plate and that there is a good agreement between numerical and experimental
results. However, the effect of the laser is visible in the welded zone where there is a small
increment of the residual stress values.

Figure 16. Numerical vs. experimental comparison of longitudinal stress for LAFSW.
 Residual Stress in Friction Stir Welding and Laser-Assisted Friction Stir Welding by Numerical… 87
[Link]

Figure 17. Numerical vs. experimental comparison of transverse stress for LAFSW.

5. Summary and conclusions

In this chapter, two 3D thermo-mechanical models have been developed in order to predict
temperatures and residual stresses in friction stir welding and laser-assisted FSW. These mod-
els include the mechanical action of the shoulder and the thermo-mechanical characteristic of
AA5754 at different temperatures. Thermographic analysis of FSW and LAFSW process and
residual stress measurement by X-ray diffraction has been carried out to validate the model
thermally and mechanically.
The results for both the numerical models and experimental data show that the longitudinal
stress presents a “M”-like distribution across the weld, and moreover, the maximum stress
value in a FSW and LAFSW weld is located on the edge of the bead. The stress in the transverse
direction is roughly constant with values between 50 and 60 MPa along all the transverse direc-
tions of the plate. Moreover, according to the observations reported by Sutton et al. [16], the
transverse stress has lower values than longitudinal stress and it is about 70% of the this one.

Although some little discrepancies exist between the simulated numerical values and the mea-
sured ones, the distribution of the residual stress, both longitudinal and transverse, shows a
good agreement with the experimental results for both FSW and LAFSW models. However,
away from the welding line, there is the maximum difference between numerical and experi-
mental data for both longitudinal and transverse stresses. This could be explained consider-
ing that the initial residual stress in the numerical model is difficult to consider. Indeed, away
from the welding line, the influence of the welding process is minimal, and the residual stress
trend should tend to the pre-weld value.

In conclusion, the importance of the prediction and measurement of residual stress in FSW
and LAFSW has been highlighted. Though the FSW is a solid-state welding process, the
residual stresses are not low in general, and the influence of these stresses on the mechanical
behaviour of the FSW joints should be considered.
88 Residual Stress Analysis on Welded Joints by Means of Numerical Simulation and Experiments

As a future development of this work, the authors are improving the described models and
Eq. (1) to consider and predict the differences in the temperatures and, thus, in the residual
stresses between advancing and retreating sides. These differences change in accordance to
the traverse and the rotating tool speeds due to the concordance and discordance between the
travel and the rotating tool directions in, respectively, the advancing and the retreating sides.

Author details

Caterina Casavola*, Alberto Cazzato and Vincenzo Moramarco

*Address all correspondence to: casavola@[Link]

Department of Mechanics, Mathematics and Management, Polytechnic University of Bari,

Bari, Italy

References

[1] Mishra RS, Ma ZY. Friction stir welding and processing. Materials Science and
Engineering: R: Reports. 2005;50(1-2):1-78
[2] Reynolds AP, Tang W, Gnaupel-Herold T, Prask H. Structure, properties, and residual
stress of 304L stainless steel friction stir welds. Scripta Materialia. 2003;48(9):1289-1294
[3] Peel M, Steuwer A, Preuss M, Withers PJ. Microstructure, mechanical properties and
residual stresses as a function of welding speed in aluminium AA5083 friction stir welds.
Acta Materialia. 2003;51(16):4791-4801

[4] Prime MB, Gnäupel-Herold T, Baumann JA, Lederich RJ, Bowden DM, Sebring
RJ. Residual stress measurements in a thick, dissimilar aluminum alloy friction stir weld.
Acta Materialia. 2006;54(15):4013-4021
[5] Darvazi AR, Iranmanesh M. Prediction of asymmetric transient temperature and longi-
tudinal residual stress in friction stir welding of 304L stainless steel. Materials & Design.
2014;55:812-820

[6] Rhodes CG, Mahoney MW, Bingel WH, Spurling RA, Bampton CC. Effects of friction
stir welding on microstructure of 7075 aluminum. Scripta Materialia. 1997;36(1):69-75

[7] Padhy G, Wu C, Gao S. Auxiliary energy assisted friction stir welding – Status review.
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining. 2015;20(8):631-649

[8] Xu W, Liu J, Luan G, Dong C. Temperature evolution, microstructure and mechani-

cal properties of friction stir welded thick 2219-O aluminum alloy joints. Materials &
Design. 2009;30(6):1886-1893

[9] Hwang YM, Kang ZW, Chiou YC, Hsu HH. Experimental study on temperature dis-
tributions within the workpiece during friction stir welding of aluminum alloys.
International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture. 2008;48(7-8):778-787
 Residual Stress in Friction Stir Welding and Laser-Assisted Friction Stir Welding by Numerical… 89
[Link]

[10] Maedaa M, Liub H, Fujiib H, Shibayanagib T. Temperature field in the vicinity of

FSW-tool during friction stir welding of Aluminium alloys. Welding in the World.
2005;49(3):69-75
[11] Chao YJ, Qi X, Tang W. Heat transfer in friction stir welding—Experimental and numeri-
cal studies. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. 2003;125(1):138-145
[12] Khanna SK, Long X, Porter WD, Wang H, Liu CK, Radovic M, Lara-Curzio E. Residual
stresses in spot welded new generation aluminium alloys part A–thermophysical
and thermomechanical properties of 6111 and 5754 aluminium alloys. Science and
Technology of Welding & Joining. 2013;10(1):82-87
[13] Schmidt HB, Hattel JH. Thermal modelling of friction stir welding. Scripta Materialia.
2008;58(5):332-337
[14] Schmidt H, Hattel J, Wert J. An analytical model for the heat generation in friction stir
welding. Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering. 2004;12(1):143
[15] Dalle Donne C, Lima E, Wegener J, Pyzalla A, Buslaps T. Investigations on residual
stresses in friction stir welds. In: 3rd International Symposium on Friction Stir Welding;
27-28 September 2001; Kobe (Japan). TWI, Cambridge (UK); 2001. pp. 1-10

[16] Sutton MA, Reynolds AP, Wang DQ, Hubbard CRA. Study of residual stresses and
microstructure in 2024-T3 aluminum friction stir butt welds. Journal of Engineering
Materials and Technology. 2002;124(2):215-221

[17] Khandkar MZH, Khan JA, Reynolds AP, Sutton MA. Predicting residual thermal
stresses in friction stir welded metals. Journal of Materials Processing Technology.
2006;174(1):195-203
[18] Chen C, Kovacevic R. Finite element modeling of friction stir welding – Thermal and
thermomechanical analysis. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture.
2003;43(13):1319-1326