Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page i

ROPE
RESCUE
FOR
FIREFIGHTING
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page ii
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page iii

ROPE
RESCUE
FOR
FIREFIGHTING
Ken Brennan

®
 Disclaimer
The recommendations, advice, descriptions, and the methods in this book are presented solely
for educational purposes. The author and publisher assume no liability whatsoever for any loss
or damage that results from the use of any of the material in this book. Use of the material in this
book is solely at the risk of the user.

Copyright© 1998 by
PennWell Corporation
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Book Designer: Max Design
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On the cover: Lieutenant Cory Parker, Fort Lee (NJ) Fire Department Rappel Team
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Brennan, Ken, 1963-
Rope rescue for firefighting / Ken Brennan.
   p. cm.
  Includes bibliographical references.
  ISBN 978-0-912212-61-6
  1. Lifesaving at fires.  2. Rope.   3. Rappelling.  I. Title.
TH9414.B74   1998
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Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page v

About
the
Author

Ken Brennan entered the fire service in 1978 as a

cadet firefighter with the Levittown (NY) Fire
Department. Since that time, he has worked in 12
different fire stations in the municipal, military, and
industrial environments. He is a state fire instructor
in both New Hampshire and Maine. Brennan cur-
rently serves as the operations and training officer
for the City of Dover (NH) Fire and Rescue Service.

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Dedication

To my wife, Kathleen, who endured while I was pecking out this

book letter by letter on the computer.

To my nine-year-old son, Timothy, who thinks he wants to write a

fire book himself. I wish him well.

vii
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Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page ix

Acknowledgments

F
or me, personal acknowledgments are almost impossible to set
down on paper, since many people have shown me the way and
have influenced my fire and rescue knowledge. I was virtually a
youngster when I began my career, and I started out with a bang of
sorts. I was sworn in on a Tuesday night, and 24 hours later I was on
my way to fire school for training. I stood outside a six-story burn
building with a rescue company, waiting for things to happen. They
took off my blue helmet and put on a black leather one in its place.
They said, “Hoseline or search and rescue?” and I said, “Search and res-
cue!” Then five of the six floors of the tower were set on fire, and the
adventure began. We conducted our work from the fire escape that led
to each of the windows. I was taken floor by floor through the rooms
of flames, searching for the simulated victims. We met the truckies on
the roof while the engine company pushed its way to the sixth floor. I
received some minor burns on the back of my neck, for which my
father yelled at me; however, as they say, the rest is history!

I would like to thank the following people and organizations for

assisting me along the way:
Lieutenant John Barotti and Chief Kevin Sutch (deceased) of Rescue
Co. 4, Levittown (NY) Fire Department—for that first fire.
Assistant Chief David A. Clement (retired), USAF Plattsburgh AFB,
New York—for allowing us to stretch the rules a little bit.
Chief Thomas Brennan (retired), Waterbury (CT) Fire Department—
for giving me my start in publishing while I was in Germany, and for
asking, “What the hell is a carabiner, Kenny?”

I would also like to thank a few individuals who read through my

drafts and shared some advice:

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x Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Battalion Chief Marty McTigue, FDNY.

Captain Dave “Mac” McLean, City of Dover (NH) Fire and Rescue.
Lieutenant Ray Lussier, Auburn (ME) Fire Department.
Firefighter Don Preble, Old Town (ME) Fire Department.

Additionally, I would like to thank the following organizations for

photographic support during this project:
Chief David F. Bibber and members of the City of Dover (NH) Fire
and Rescue Service.
Chief Paul Vallee and members of the City of Somersworth (NH) Fire
Department.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page xi

Contents

Preface ................................................................................................1

Chapter One
Assessing a Community’s Needs ............................................3

Chapter Two
Organization ........................................................................17

Chapter Three
Safety and Personal Protective Equipment..........................47

Chapter Four
Rope ......................................................................................65

Chapter Five
Hardware ..............................................................................95

Chapter Six
Knots ..................................................................................111

Chapter Seven
Anchor Points ....................................................................129

Chapter Eight
Anchor Systems..................................................................145

Chapter Nine
Belaying and Running Protection .....................................159

Chapter Ten
Access and Packaging.........................................................181

Chapter Eleven
Descending.........................................................................193

Chapter Twelve
Mechanical Advantage Systems.........................................223

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xii Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Chapter Thirteen
Transportation Systems......................................................235

Chapter Fourteen
Personal Ascending ............................................................257

Chapter Fifteen
Traversing ...........................................................................261

Glossary ............................................................................................271

Answers to Study Questions .........................................................275

Endnotes...........................................................................................279

Bibliography ....................................................................................281

Index ................................................................................................285
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 1

Preface

A
wide variety of situations may require fire and rescue services to
perform a rope rescue. Operations on tall buildings, towers, or
bridges; below grade; in confined spaces, swift water, rugged ter-
rain, and on ice all require the systematic use of lifesaving rope tech-
niques. The ever-increasing demand for such services increases the
possibility that firefighters may be injured while performing them. The
best way to manage these increased risks is to train firefighters proper-
ly in rope rescue operations and to follow good safety practices. This
book is a compilation of many thoughts, ideas, and practices put forth
by various authorities. In it, I will try to give the basics to the reader,
covering both the tangible components of rope systems and the intan-
gible concepts relating to them. Within every area of human endeav-
or there are differences of opinion as to how to get a given job done.
In the discipline of rope rescue, particularly in the United States,
there is a divergence of philosophies. Many times, regional influences
play a large role in how specific techniques are done. The issue of what
piece of hardware or software to use can create interesting discussions.
Having several techniques and different types of equipment for a given
situation is critical in the event something doesn’t go as planned.
Still, every rescue team sets out with the same purpose in mind—to
save a life. It’s how they accomplish that feat that perhaps best distin-
guishes the individual approaches. To be safe, efficient, and successful
are the governing parameters that apply to us all.

1
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Chapter One

Assessing a
Community’s
Needs

T
o assess means to size up or evaluate; to weigh whatever vari-
ables are present so as to most efficiently handle an incident.
This includes the assets and liabilities in whatever jurisdiction
you happen to protect. An assessment can be broken down into four
subcategories: topography, construction of the occupancy, demo-
graphics, and in-house capabilities.

TOPOGRAPHY
When you think of the word topography, what comes to mind?
Many envision rugged terrain or wide-open spaces. Basically, topogra-
phy refers to any existing characteristics of an area; the physical fea-
tures of the landscape, natural or man-made. Every jurisdiction has
distinguishing physical features that present both positive and nega-
tive aspects when a rope rescue is necessary.
From a community development view, you can think of a jurisdic-
tion as a single entity comprised of linked population centers. Sections
may be wilderness, rural, suburban, and urban. Many jurisdictions are
comprised of two or more regions of different types. The one I work in,
for example, is comprised of urban, suburban, and rural areas.
Suppose your community is urban, developed, metropolitan. Look
past the steel and concrete, and focus instead on its raw physical fea-
tures. The need for rope rescue techniques in such environs may seem
remote, but change your mindset to reassess the threat. Going over
past run reports may help toward establishing a need for specialized
training. Consider, for example, a scenario in which a car goes over a
guardrail on the local interstate. On your arrival, the car is down a 100-
foot embankment. There is a small river below with limited marshland

3
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4 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Rivers and minigorges are common features in many industrial communities.

access, and you can’t use a tower ladder. Although the general topog-
raphy is flat, the downtown area is split in half by a river that leads to
a minigorge well below the street level—a common feature of many
New England communities. Such a scenario, even in the middle of a
city, can be vexatious to many departments relying on traditional
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Assessing a Community’s Needs 5

A typical sand pit.

options. Your first instinct is to call for an established rescue team;

however, that takes time, and you desperately want to do something.
(It’s in a firefighter’s blood to act no matter how dangerous the situ-
ation.) It has been said many times that rescue is matter of transporta-
tion—reaching a victim in a bad situation and getting him out of
there. Topographic features, even man-made ones, can greatly affect
the character of any proposed rescue mission.
When you assess the topography in any given area, some of the fea-
tures you should evaluate are:

1. Waterways, including rivers, lakes, ponds, aqueducts, sumps,

cisterns, and storm systems;
2. Terrain eccentricities such as hills, slopes, plateaus, and the like;
3. Subgrade features such as quarries, sand pits, and dry river beds; and
4. Vegetation, including the relative density of the plant life, plus
the quality of the soil or water underneath it.

Each of the above characteristics poses its own transportation prob-

lems. For those who believe in Murphy’s Law, you know that there are
going to be additional facets to any operation. Here are some factors to
make your day:
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 6

6 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

1. Your victim is well off the road.

2. You arrived with a small contingent of personnel.
3. It’s raining, and the temperature is dropping.
4. It’s near shift change, and it’s getting dark.
5. Your capabilities are limited, and you haven’t reached the vic-
tim yet.

Lifesaving rope techniques can greatly enhance the survivability of

the victim. Proper use of rope can get a rescuer to the victim faster and
make rapid medical intervention possible. It can mean safe and rapid
extrication from a hostile environment. Traditionally, regional search
and rescue teams have handled such incidents in areas that are pre-
dominantly rural or wilderness. It’s these organizations that have
influenced the fire service so dramatically by developing the equip-
ment and techniques used in cities and towns today.

CONSTRUCTION AND OCCUPANCY

Construction
For purposes of rope rescue and firefighting, construction features
can generally be broken down into five types:

Type I: Fire resistive Type IV: Heavy timber

Type II: Noncombustible Type V: Wood frame
Type III: Ordinary

A water tower that has been used

by graffiti artists.
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Assessing a Community’s Needs 7

A vertically lifted drawbridge.

What do these five types mean in the real world? In my region of the
country, the multistory and high-rise structures are fire resistive and
noncombustible. The classic downtown brick-and-joist structures are

A transmission tower.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 8

8 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

of ordinary construction. The mill and old shoe shop structures are of
heavy timber, and the homes are predominantly wood frame.
None of these structural types mandate rope rescue procedures; how-
ever, any building might become the site of a rope rescue during peri-
ods of construction, renovation, or demolition; from the effects of
storm damage, earthquake damage, fire, and many other calamities.
Although construction features are important, it’s the combination of
construction, occupancy, and circumstance that creates the essential
hazard. The potential hazards increase in and around special struc-
tures, which can be part of, on, or separate from buildings of more
conventional design. Some examples are TV and radio towers, bridges,
and confined spaces. This last category is nearly endless and might be
any space that a person can get into but that wasn’t designed for
human habitation. Such a broad definition encompasses everything
from the below-deck areas of vessels to agricultural silos to HVAC duct
systems to pipelines to underground industrial facilities.

Occupancy
The word occupancy generally denotes what kind of business or activi-
ty is going on in a given building. When sizing up a structure, differen-
tiating between a school, a supermarket, an industrial plant, and a stor-
age facility is critical. It’s generally the nature of the business and the

Even an ordinary steel bridge may be the scene of a rope rescue.

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Assessing a Community’s Needs 9

physical layout of the building that contribute to the specific hazard.

When you think of a six-story heavy-timber mill that is occupied by
white-collar office workers, you wouldn’t ordinarily envision rope res-
cue services being required in the event of a crisis. Suppose, however,
that the rear of the building is abutted by a river. The building experi-
ences a gas explosion in a service area that houses a sprinkler riser, ren-
dering it ineffective. A fast-moving fire traps several workers against
the rear fifth-floor windows. In this instance, aerial apparatus can’t be
positioned for the rescue. What tools does the fireground commander
have readily available to deal with this situation? After quickly run-
ning through his options, he orders a qualified team to the roof to
effect a rope rescue.
An ordinary steel bridge spanning a river can present similar prob-
lems. Thrillseekers are known for climbing in and around bridges just
because they’re there. Bridges also attract those with suicidal tendencies.
Dealing with a suicidal person on level ground is difficult enough, never
mind being perched high above water. Whatever the specific situation,
the safety of the personnel operating near or directly with the victim is
paramount. The first hurdle to get over is in establishing eye-to-eye con-
tact to help that person out of his predicament; the second hurdle is to
remove that person without getting yourself killed. Rope techniques are
essential in our world, and if you undertake a rope rescue without the
proper training and prerequisites, you are inviting catastrophe to the
operation. The human element only increases whatever liability is pre-
sented by gravity, fire, water, and other forces of nature.
Certainly industrial environments present great potential for rope
rescue. Complex machinery and exotic processes pose as high a degree
of danger as the worst special structures. Tunnels, vessels, vaults, cable
trays, vats, scaffolding, and a myriad of other industrial features
require maintenance, inspection, and testing. Municipal fire depart-

A myriad industrial features

require maintenance, inspec-
tion, and testing.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 10

10 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

ments are commonly listed as the primary rescue service for many
industrial facilities in their confined space rescue plans, often without
the department’s even being aware. Disaster can easily attend such sce-
narios. According to 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit Required Confined Spaces
Regulation, rescue services must be incorporated into the written per-
mit system, and they must be ready to respond and operate in a rela-
tively short period of time. Rope rescue techniques and equipment do
work well in confined space operations. These facilities should be
prime reasons for inaugurating a rope rescue team in your district or
even for upgrading your present capabilities.

DEMOGRAPHICS

The word demographics refers to the statistical study of human popu-

lations. Such studies look at numerous data, including size and densi-
ty of the populace, their distribution, purchasing habits, and many
other traits. This information can be useful toward determining
departmental needs.
Demographics, as I view it, is a broad gathering of information on
human activities; a breakdown of a population’s age, income, leisure
activites, education, and the like. Such information is available from
many databases. Some common sources include:

1. The building department can tell you the number of permits for
construction that are outstanding and under request.
2. The tax assessor can tell you the number and types of structures
in the area, which will allow you to assess population clusters
and thereby to target hazards.
3. The planning department looks at future development at the
macro level of the community. Generally, more buildings
equals more people.
4. Economic development also looks at the big picture and can
tell you who has received and who is applying for block devel-
opment grants.
5. The chamber of commerce works as a marketing organization
for the community and seeks to assist established companies as
well as emerging ones to locate within a given area.
6. The board of education can give you current and projected
enrollments. Any increase can affect the community tremen-
dously.
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Assessing a Community’s Needs 11

7. Utility companies are helpful in assessing communities. Their

bottom line is to sell a service, and if it’s not there, they have to
construct the appropriate delivery system of power lines or
pipes. Demand for new or expanding service is a strong indica-
tor of growth.
8. Federal and state OSHA agencies collect data on worker injuries.

These are just a few sources to get a demographic profile of your

community and that are just part of the assessment matrix. As a gen-
eral principle, as the population increases, and as facilities are built
and occupied, the risks to civilians and firefighters naturally increase
as a consequence.
A progressive fire prevention bureau would have much of this data
if it has performed a life safety strategy survey. Collect data on the
types and numbers of occupancies—i.e., the numbers of single- and
multifamily residences, commercial and industrial properties, special
structures, and other high-hazard facilities.
The matrix can be as simple or complex as you care to make it. This
gives you an idea where you came from, where you are, and where
you’re going. The following hypothetical analyses are suggestive of dif-
ferent levels of need for rope rescue training:
Analysis One: If your jurisdiction is predominantly elderly and con-
tains virtually nothing but single-family residences, it can be viewed as
a low-risk area. Demographically, such population groups have a low
need for rope rescue services.
Analysis Two: Your jurisdiction has a large population of transient
younger people aged 17 to 24. A further look at EMS reports, coupled
with an increase of activity in the adjacent wilderness area, denotes a
trend. Your final analysis shows a large jump in enrollment at the
local university, as well as an increase in drug- and alcohol-related
incidents. Young people happen to get injured out in the woods, and
simple EMS runs become more complicated when rope rescue is need-
ed for extrication.
Analysis Three: For years, your bedroom community was quiet, and
its growth was limited to residential structures. Then, as in many com-
munities, businesses and industry found their way to your town and
began to build. Regardless of the reason they found your district desir-
able, the newcomers are now your problem. The impact of a sudden
population growth on services can be tremendous, sometimes over-
whelming. Many jurisdictions can’t absorb the financial strain and so
deal with it in two ways. First, they can tack impact fees onto con-
struction permits; second, they can require off-site exactions of new
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 12

12 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

corporations. Examples of such exactions include constructing roads

and traffic lights, building sewage treatment plants, and purchasing
new fire apparatus for the community. Such indicators are useful in
evaluating your department’s need for rope rescue capability.
Analysis Four: A large tract of wilderness land is turned over from
the military to the local state government. This land transfer is part of
the downsizing of the U.S. military and is in the interest of the pub-
lic’s recreational use. This area contains rivers, lakes, ponds, and sever-
al mountain peaks. These peaks quickly become popular with sport
climbers because they were formerly restricted to military personnel
only. The local community is now responsible for rescue services for
anyone who gets lost, trapped, or injured in those areas. Combining
the resources of the fire department with a wilderness search and res-
cue team will be of benefit to all.
Analysis Five: A newly discovered series of subterranean passages
gets the attention of cave explorers. Everyone from the novice to the
expert wants to experience this beautiful new find. Hidden among its
wonders are many dangers that may prove deadly to the uncautious or
ill-prepared. Dealing with darkness, water, cold temperatures, poten-
tially hazardous atmospheres, uncharted routes, and a wide variety of
passage sizes can take its toll on explorers. Even a minor problem can
require a major rescue operation. This would entail getting rescuers to
the victim, providing any medical assistance and packaging for trans-
port, then getting the entire contingent back to the surface again and
the victim to the hospital. Very few agencies are either equipped or
have the training necessary to accomplish this type of operation. The
local community must contact the nearest cave rescue organization
and review the options long before the need for them arises.
Ultimately, once a caving incident occurs, the nearest trained cave res-
cue team will respond to handle the problem. This may be time-con-
suming and tedious; however, it’s far better to wait for the experts than
to endanger personnel who would be wholly out of their realm.
Analysis Six: A series of worker injuries at a paper mill has prompted
an OSHA investigation of the overall plant safety program. Many of the
injuries have centered around fall protection practices or the lack there-
of. The fundamental problem is that the workers aren’t using any safe-
ty equipment when operating on or around the various building com-
ponents that pose a fall risk. A consultant is hired and the proper train-
ing is given; equipment is purchased and procedures are written. The
last element to be added is that of rope rescue services. Safeguarding an
employee is one consideration; providing contingency options for an
employee who has taken a fall is another. The employer must not only
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Assessing a Community’s Needs 13

protect the employee from the fall, he also has the responsibility of get-
ting that worker removed to a safe location. Here again, the company
is going to look to the fire department for this service. Hopefully the
company will actually inform the department to initiate a planning
process, not just pencil-whip it for insurance purposes. The local com-
munity may or may not be trained or equipped to deal with this sort of
situation. Combining the efforts and resources of plant and department
personnel alike is the best and likeliest starting point.
You see how topography, construction, occupancy, and demograph-
ics can tie together. You need to look at the major tasks that the com-
munity’s employees perform. Set up a risk analysis for the major
employers in your district, and look at the hazards associated with the
various occupations. Examine the jobs or processes involved, and see
how rope rescue services might be required. Statistics are available
from OSHA and your state equivalent, such as the Bureau of Labor
Standards, if your state operates this way. Such organizations keep data
on injury and death rates of specific high-hazard industries, including
logging, construction, manufacturing, transportation, the marine
trades, mining, and others. Your state labor department should have
data on workers’ injuries and the dispositions of their cases.

IN-HOUSE CAPABILITIES

These are the capabilites that the fire organization already has in
place to offer its customers—yes, customers. Whether you want to
admit it or not, the fire and rescue service is a business. We have bud-
gets and answer to taxpayers, we provide unique services, and every-
thing we do today comes down to issues of dollars and cents. On the
macro level, every fire department provides rope rescue services in one
way or another. Unfortunately, for many, that doesn’t mean anything
more than a rope tied around someone’s waist to pull him out of a
hole or lower him off a roof.
This section on assessment starts with listing your present skills
along with equipment supplies. Evaluate how many personnel are
trained and ready to provide rope rescue in a reasonable period of
time. As the types and levels of service increase, so too do the required
skills, equipment, and training.
Generally speaking, there are several ways to break down the services
provided. Some groups list them according to the plane of operation
within which they occur:
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 14

14 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

1. Be able to descend and retrieve a victim.

2. Be able to ascend and retrieve a victim.
3. Be able to operate horizontally and retrieve a victim.

In reality, providing rope rescue services is more than tying a bow-

line around your waist with hemp. For our purposes, the acceptable
minimum is that personnel will be trained to one or more of the
above-mentioned categories. Also, all rope, harnesses, and hardware
must be compliant with NFPA 1983, Fire Service Life Safety Rope and
System Components, 1995 edition.
Once you’ve assessed your department, take a look at other agencies
in your jurisdiction that may provide rope rescue services. In certain
areas of the country, law enforcement agencies such as county sheriffs
departments have this capability. Often this is because their areas are
largely rural and they have the authority to operate in both incorpo-
rated and unincorporated environments. You may want to regionalize
with them to pool your resources and expertise.
Another intercommunity agency that you can assess is the local civil
defense unit. In some communities, local civil defense units provide
rescue services or EMS to the community.
One other local agency that comes to mind is a wilderness search and
rescue unit. These units can be privately run or of a quasigovernment
structure. The government side usually gives them the authority to
operate plus partial immunity from liability. Agencies such as these can
assist you in many ways, and it’s important to establish a rapport with
them. Regionalizing can be a catalyst to forming a truly viable team.
There are those who categorize rope rescue services even further,
splitting them into fireground and nonfireground (technical) services.
The bottom line is that qualified personnel must arrive with the first-in
fire companies to effect a fireground rescue. The nonfireground rope
rescue capabilities are equally important; these, however, can be per-
formed by personnel outside of the department. The reason for this fur-
ther definitional breakdown is to establish that nonfire personnel can’t
operate on the fireground. You need to assess how this will affect your
operations. Being able to understand your capabilities and train enough
firefighters to do the job is where topography, demographics, construc-
tion, occupancy, and other factors tie together to form the big picture.
When the Phoenix Fire Department got into rope rescue, it set itself
up for an urban environment. As time went on, however, it realized that
a majority of its incidents were occurring in two popular parks in the
city.1 Modern techniques are quite adaptable to most settings most of
the time. Your organization must be equally flexible and dynamic.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 15

Assessing a Community’s Needs 15

Assessing the community is a constant process that must also be

continually reevaluated. I hope that this chapter will give you some
insight into what’s needed to get the ball rolling. When you make your
presentation to the chief or ask for a bigger budget from the city coun-
cil, you will need to have the facts and figures to shore up your posi-
tion. In many medium-sized cities, department heads and program
managers have to explain their requests in front of televised council
meetings. In smaller towns or in joint funding districts, requests for
new or expanded funding are presented to boards of selectmen or
committees. Those who appear unprepared often fall victim to
scathing attacks that can get personal at times. Be prepared to be your
own first rope rescue statistic!
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16 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. An assessment of a community’s needs can be broken

down into what four variables?
2. Name the five types of building construction.
3. To what does the term occupancy refer?
4. What OSHA regulation covers rescue response in con-
fined spaces?
5. The statistical study of human populations is known
as ______________.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 17

Chapter Two

Organization

I
n Chapter One, we looked at factors that influence the need for life
safety rope techniques. In this chapter, we’ll look at the nuts and
bolts of organizational structure, training, and the incident com-
mand system as they pertain to rope rescue services.
The term operations refers to the hands-on activities of an incident.
When incorporated into an incident command system, the operations
section is responsible for the tactical activities needed to meet strategic
goals. As a quick review, strategy pertains to the overall goal that the inci-
dent commander wants to accomplish, whether it’s to put out a fire, save
a trapped victim, or protect an exposure. Tactics are those small enabling
steps that, when carried out properly, help to achieve the strategic goal.
Tactics include placing ladders for rescue, stretching hoselines, and set-
ting up anchor systems. Each incident that you handle can be termed an
operation or, as it is traditionally known, a job. This term in recent years
has expanded beyond the fire incident and is now used to describe other
emergency incidents as well. The term operations means different things
to different people; however, for our purposes, it’s the all-encompassing
theme for running the team. For an operation to be successful, it must be
part of the larger concept called the organization.
We all need to belong to an organization. Without one, bedlam and
chaos would prevail. Safety, effectiveness, and efficiency are the by-
products of good organization. In reality, we all know that having a
group of people together sharing a common goal doesn’t guarantee
that things will run smoothly. For the sake of argument, we’ll establish
the organization as a positive step. Organizations exist before, during,
and after any given incident. The local organization, be it municipal,
regional, volunteer, military, or private, is structured and empowered
in advance of need. This larger jurisdictional unit is called the host or
parent organization. It’s this parent that gives us the legal authority to

17
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 18

18 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

perform our duties. In most cases, it’s the local fire department, search
and rescue group, military unit, or industrial brigade that funds, trains,
supports, and uses the team’s services. Every team must establish its
own line of authority to function.
When an incident occurs, the first-arriving officer sizes up the situation
and determines his needs. These needs guide him toward mobilizing a
technical or fireground organization to deal with the problem.
In the past, many organizations didn’t want to perform any rescue
service activities. Today, many are doing just that for a variety of rea-
sons, including political necessity and to maintain their piece of the
budgetary pie. No matter the incentive, the following depicts a variety
of parent organizations that provide these services. These are organi-
zational structures, not ICS flowcharts. The purpose of showing the
organizational structures is to highlight how similar-size departments
provide these activities.
In smaller departments, specialty services such as rope rescue are the
result of collective effort. Typically, a majority of the on-duty shift get
involved. Equipment is typically on a rescue, utility, squad, or aerial
apparatus.
A typical combination department (part paid, part volunteer) staffs a
career duty company with one officer and three firefighters. They staff
one engine and cross-staff the ladder and rescue apparatus. In this
case, EMS is handled by a third agency. Additional personnel are

Small Combination Department

Chief

Ass't Chief

A Shift B Shift C Shift D Shift Fire Prev. Call Dept

Eng. 1 Eng. 1 Eng. 1 Eng. 1 Eng. 2

Lad. 1 Lad. 1 Lad. 1 Lad. 1 Tank 1

Res. 1 Res. 1 Res. 1 Res. 1

Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 19

Organization 19

Small Career Department

Chief

Ass't Chief Ass't Chief

Fire Prev. Operations

A Shift B Shift C Shift D Shift

Eng. 1 Eng. 1 Eng. 1 Eng. 1

Eng. 2 Eng. 2 Eng. 2 Eng. 2

Truck 1 Truck 1 Truck 1 Truck 1

Amb. 1 Amb. 1 Amb. 1 Amb. 1

Sq. 1 Sq. 1 Sq. 1 Sq. 1

recalled by pager. These members may be both career and call person-
nel. During the daytime, the chief officers are available.
When the duty shift gets committed to a rescue, it strikes a box
alarm as a call for station coverage and/or to call additional personnel
directly to the scene.
Author’s note: Due to shrinking budgets and increasing demands for
service, the traditional role of staff personnel is changing dramatical-
ly. This is especially commonplace in smaller and medium-size com-
panies. These personnel not only advise the line personnel, they also
work and respond with them. Such creativity is essential to surviving
in today’s governmental environment.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 20

20 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Medium-Size Career Department

Chief
Safety
Officer

Ass't Chief Ass't Chief

Fire prev. Operations

District District
Chief 1 Chief 2

Eng. 1 Lad. 1 Res. 1 Eng. 6 Lad. 4 Sq. 1

Eng. 2 Lad. 2 Comm. 1 Eng. 7 Lad. 5 Haz-Mat

Eng. 3 Lad. 3 Eng. 8 Tower 1

Eng. 4 Eng. 9

Eng. 5 Eng. 10

In medium-size departments, specialty services such as rope rescue

are provided through a multicompany effort. Several truck companies,
espcially those that cross-staff heavy rescue apparatus, are typical
providers. Departments in this category can cross over and become
full-time staffing of a rescue company. When this occurs, they become
the primary providers of rope services.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 21

Organization 21

Medium-Size Volunteer Department

Chief

1st
Ass't Chief

2nd
Ass't Chief

3rd
Ass't Chief

Station 1 Station 2 Station 3

Eng. 1 Eng. 2 Eng. 4

Lad. 1 Eng. 3 Lad. 2

Amb. 1 Amb. 2 Tank 1

Supp. 1

The accompanying diagram shows a medium-size volunteer depart-

ment, typical of the East Coast, serving a large suburban area with
commercial and industrial development. The ladder companies pro-
vide basic extrication services, and the rescue company provides more
advanced capabilities.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 22

22 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Large-Size Career Department

Division 1

Rescue
Safety B.C. Service

Battalion 1 Battalion 2 Battalion 3 Battalion 4 Battalion 5

Eng. 1 Tower 1 Sq. 1 Eng. 6 Lad. 3 Res. 1 Eng. 10 Lad. 5 Marine 1 Eng. 16 Lad. 8 Tank 1 Crash 1 Lad. 9

Eng. 2 Lad. 1 Eng. 7 Lad. 4 Eng. 11 Lad. 6 Comm. 1 Eng. 17 Crash 2

Eng. 3 Lad. 2 Eng. 8 Eng. 12 Lad. 7 Eng. 18 Crash 3

Eng. 4 Eng. 9 Eng. 13 Eng. 21 Crash 4

Eng. 5 Eng. 14 Eng. 22 Eng. 19

Eng. 20

In large-size departments, specialty services such as rope rescue are

provided by heavy-rescue companies. Many of the larger metro areas
in the United States staff between two and five rescue companies, sev-
eral tactical support companies, and a rescue service supervisor/coor-
dinator, all of whom respond to multicompany operations.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 23

Organization 23

Regionalized Team

Dept. 1 Dept. 2 Dept. 3

Team
Chief

Ass't Team
Chief

Team
Coordinator Safety

Operations Training Logistics

Chief Chief Chief

Leader Leader Leader Training Logistics

Specialist 1 Specialist 1

Member Member Member Training Logistics

Specialist 2 Specialist 2

Member Member Member

Member Member Member

Member Member Member

Member Member Member

Regionalized teams are formed by the joint effort of two or more

departments. Typically they provide the necessary staff, funds, train-
ing, and facilities, the cost of which would be prohibitive if done by
any of the entities alone. This team usually has established communi-
cation and standby procedures so as to facilitate a timely response to
incidents.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 24

24 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Military Department*

Chief

Deputy
Chief

Training Logistics Comm.

Ass't Chief Ass't Chief

Training Ass't Chief
A Shift B Shift C Shift

Sta. 1 Sta. 2 Sta. 3 Sta. 1 Sta. 2 Sta. 3 Sta. 1 Sta. 2 Sta. 3

Chief 2 Eng. 2 Eng. 3 Chief 2 Eng. 2 Eng. 3 Chief 2 Eng. 2 Eng. 3

Eng. 1 Tank 1 Eng. 1 Tank 1 Eng. 1 Tank 1

Crash 1 Crash 1 Crash 1

Crash 2 Crash 2 Crash 2

Crash 3 Crash 3 Crash 3

Crash 4 Crash 4 Crash 4

Tank 1 Tank 1 Tank 1

Rescue 1 Rescue 1 Rescue 1

Ramp Ramp Ramp

Vehicle 1 Vehicle 1 Vehicle 1

*Typical active-duty departments work a 72-hour schedule in two-shifts.

National Guard units work a three-shift schedule.

Military units that provide fire protection normally work under the
small-department setup. Three- and four-member rescue companies
facilitate the rescue while additional suppression personnel provide
direct support.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 25

Organization 25

Large Industrial Brigades

Brigade
Chief

Ass't Chief

On-Duty
Firefighters

Brigade
Members

Engineering Maintenance Facilities

Member Member Member

Member Member Member

Member Member Member

Member Member Member

Member Member Member

Member Member Member

Large industrial departments are made up of two components: They

have on-duty firefighters and are backed up by on-call brigade mem-
bers. The primary rescue services are provided by the on-duty firefight-
ers and supported by the brigade. In some instances, select brigade per-
sonnel are also trained to the level of the on-duty firefighters.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 26

26 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

FEMA Urban Search and Rescue Task Force

Task Force Leader A

Task Force Leader B

Planning Safety

Search Team Manager A Rescue Team Manager A Medical Team Manager A Technical Team Manager A

Search Team Manager B Rescue Team Manager B Medical Team Manager B Technical Team Manager B

Canine Search Specialists Rescue Squad A Rescue Squad B Medical Specialists Structures Specialists

Canine Search Specialists Rescue Squad C Rescue Squad D Medical Specialists Heavy Equip &Rigging
Specialists
Technical Search Specialists
Hazardous Materials
Specialists
Standby/Alt. Personnel
Technical Information
Specialists

Communications
Specialists

Logistics
Specialists

The last of the organizations to be illustrated are FEMA’s Urban

Search and Rescue Teams. There are approximately 25 teams, com-
prised predominantly of larger municipal or county fire departments.
Staff levels are set at 62 members, who have certain response and
equipment criteria that they must meet. They respond to major natur-
al or man-made disasters and assist the affected community with spe-
cialized rescue capabilities.
As organizations grow larger, the need for recall personnel and the
number of companies can decrease. The organizational charts reflect
this and omit the individual company staff particulars due to sheer
numbers. Larger departments can field more companies, since person-
nel aren’t as much of an issue as they are in smaller departments.

THE ROPE TEAM

The actual rope team that handles an incident can go by different

designations, such as high-rise team, hazardous response team, special
operations team, emergency services unit, rescue services, high-angle
team, rope rescue team, and heavy tactical rescue team, to name a few.
Teams are structured similarly to parent organizations with regard to
the various stages of an incident. The difference as to how rope rescue
is carried out at this level depends on numerous factors, such as com-
munity assessment and inventory of liabilities, the parent organiza-
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 27

Organization 27

tion’s directions, the complexity of the incident, funding, training lev-

els, equipment, other teams in the area, and the like.
When you think about the components of any evolution, one over-
riding principle to keep in mind is safety. Attention to safety within
the parameters of an operation implies a fine balance between risk and
benefit. Usually the resultant benefit of an operation is to save a life,
whereas risk is typically the danger posed to the firefighter. In practi-
cal terms, safety and safe practices affect our lives every moment of
every day. What is safe to one may not be safe to another, since each
situation poses different hazards, the nature of which will never be
quite the same from one instance to another. In a utopian world, I sup-
pose that risk and benefit would be of equal proportions; however, we
don’t live in a perfect world, and the scales are generally tipped heav-
ily toward the risks. This is another reason each officer needs to have
a good grasp of the territory in which he operates. Eventually you will
have to make a split-second fireground decision that may mean
accepting a risk only to find that the victim to be rescued has already
expired. In such a case, prudence might have been the better course.
The primary impetus for stating this theme is the current debate over
something that is probably indefinable: what is safe and what isn’t. Safety
itself is paramount, and the lack of it can cost an untold amount of grief
and human suffering. The very nature of our profession is hazardous, since
we court many risks and must continually, individually manage them.
Managing these risks can be reduced to the following equation:

Proper training + proper equipment + thorough assessment + correct use +

safety practices + close supervision + a little luck = a manageable risk.

Looking at each component separately, it’s easy to see that each inci-
dent presents these criteria in varying proportions. The individual team
member must have an appreciation of the components of this operating
matrix. Many times an incident unfolds rather quickly, and the matrix
comes together instantly. Other times, a more tedious progression is
involved. However the growth of an incident, having met these criteria
beforehand as much as possible will lessen the risks. Purchase the right
equipment, train all personnel to the appropriate level, enforce safe pro-
cedures, initiate standard operating guidelines, and establish a com-
mand structure. Only then can you routinely minimize the risks.
As mentioned earlier, rescue is a transportation problem, being first a
matter of getting to the victim, then removing that victim to a safe loca-
tion.2 Safety and transportation concepts tie in directly to how big a
team and its organization ought to be. In the search and rescue business,
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 28

28 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

the acronym LAST stands for locate, access, stabilize, and transport.
Many times, the locating has been done by a passerby or other civilian.
Each situation is different, however. Organizationally speaking, it may
take several hundred members to locate a victim in a wilderness area.
You can break down the operation in terms of the skills required to effect
the rescue. Once you have located the victim and decided to perform a
rope rescue, the next step is to deploy those personnel who are trained
in the appropriate skills. The nature of the emergency will dictate how
many members will directly participate in the mission.
Generally, you cannot have a team with fewer than two people,
although, technically, a single person could effect a successful rescue.
This is where each team will disagree and set up operations according
to its own standards. Some teams take the buddy system approach,
which means that two people are assigned to each critical area of the
total system.
To better understand this, one approach dictates breaking down the
technical rescue into three parts: the anchoring system, the access sys-
tem, and the transportation system. Imagine the scenario of a cliffside
extrication using a double-rope configuration. To ensure an efficient
life safety system, all three subsystems must be in place. A task break-
down could be as follows: One person (plus a buddy backup) sets up a
hauling system, one person (plus buddy) sets up to rappel to the victim,
and the last (plus buddy) sets up the stokes for a horizontal haul. Each
buddy member watches over his counterpart to ensure safety and
redundancy. Another approach to using those same six is to have both
members in each subsystem work together to build their particular
component. One of the major factors that will guide this operation is
the experience of those involved. It is also important to recognize who
is in command and who is responsible for safety. Including these two
responsibilities, we now have an eight-person team of specialized mem-
bers, not including any other support personnel who may be involved.
Let’s break down this scenario in terms of the acronym LAST.
Locating the victim was apparently done by someone other than a
team member—i.e., a civilian. The access is cliffside and relatively easy
with respect to moving equipment to the site. Stabilization begins as
soon as the first rescuer descends to the bottom and establishes the
patient-caregiver relationship. Transport is by way of a stokes basket
being hauled to the top of the cliff. Obviously this is no small under-
taking; however, that eight-person team could have been handled by
four trained members plus several support personnel. Would it have
been as safe or as smooth an operation? Each organization must take
a hard look at what services it is going to provide and at what level.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 29

Organization 29

Imagine now an incident in the woods of a local park. A victim has

slid off the trail and has sustained life-threatening injuires. There are
no possible helicopter landing zones for one mile, and the nearest
passable road is even farther. Breaking down LAST in this instance:
The victim was located and the alarm was initiated by fellow hikers.
At least one hiker is guiding you to the site. In assessing the situation,
the team will have to haul everything they need on their backs
through the woods from the road, two miles away. Hopefully, estab-
lished trails will make access simpler, thereby eliminating the need for
bushwhacking. Stabilization will begin once the first rescuer gets to
the patient. This may be delayed by whatever packaging is necessary
for the arduous transport. Once rescuers have hauled the victim to the
top, they can transport him with a stokes carry. How large a team
would this sort of operation require? Technically speaking, anyone
directly involved with the operation is a team member. Each con-
tributes to the outcome. For our purposes, a team member will be
defined as someone who is trained in rope rescue skills. A support
member is someone who provides other skills, up to and including
brute strength. Returning to the question of the size of the team: You
need to expedite the victim’s transport, and that’s being done by
sheer brute strength. It will probably require at least eight members
just to get the victim out to the road. Additional members have to
stay at the site to clean up and remove the equipment and perhaps to
assist with any investigation of the matter. Barring any significant
weather or darkness problems, the team could be of from six to eight
members, with a dozen other personnel acting as support.

TRAINING

The training process has the greatest impact on emergency opera-

tions, more so than any other facet in the organization. It has taken
many years for this to be fully appreciated by both upper management
and the civilian leadership. We can no longer afford to have a probie
be shown the ropes by one of the old salts while an operation is in
progress. When discussing experience, it is often asked whether a per-
son has twenty years on the job or one year times twenty. The insinu-
ation, of course, is whether a person has progressed in his career devel-
opment or whether he has made the same mistakes time after time.
You can perform a given task on dozens of occasions; however, if crit-
ical steps are flawed or missing, you aren’t efficient and, worse, you
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 30

30 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

aren’t safe. Proper training is the foundation on which competent

experience is built.
Training is a process whereby an instructor imparts specific informa-
tion to students, which the students then apply to their own work.
Training takes us from where we are to where we want to be. This gen-
erally means from a lower to a higher level, closing the gap between
everyone’s experience. For example, suppose you tell someone with lit-
tle training to construct an anchor system. He takes a long time and
still doesn’t quite get it right. You then instruct that person on anchor
selection, fabric selection, the effects of stress, and knots, and soon the
results are better. You have filled in those gaps of knowledge and have
allowed that person to experience the process. In training, as in other
education, you are essentially looking for a change in behavior. This
behavioral change denotes that learning has occurred, and it is evalu-
able through a testing process.
Training has become so prominent over the past decade or so for
many reasons. Liability issues, increased demands for specialized ser-
vices, statistical analyses of incidents, and financial considerations are
only a few. There has been an increasing realization that good training
fills in the knowledge gaps that internal and external influences create.
In these times of doing more with less, training allows us to perform
our jobs more safely and with greater efficiency.

GETTING STARTED

In almost every host department, there is someone who has had

some rope training or at least an interest in receiving it. Many get start-
ed through sport climbing or the military. The host organization has
to have a training division of its own, be it a dedicated facility or a one-
man show. Decisions have to be made as to the types and level of ser-
vice to be provided, who is to be trained, who will provide the initial
instruction, and how you are going to maintain those skills that the
personnel acquire. Many departments appoint a team commander or
leader who is responsible for running the team. This can either be
someone from the training division or someone from suppression
operations. In larger departments, these leadership functions are run
by individuals involved with rescue services. This individual creates an
organization to manage the team. Specific management areas cover
training, operations, logistics, and coordination, to name a few. This
section will focus on training.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 31

Organization 31

We’ll call the person responsible for training the training program
manager. This individual, with input from many sources, initially has
to figure out how to train the new member and to do this cost effec-
tively and with the least amount of disruption. Such a task can be a
nightmare. The question of how large or small a team should be can
become a major issue in terms of who is going to train your personnel
and overall cost. Generally, the more personnel to be trained, the
greater the cost. Do you therefore contract for in-house instruction,
send your entire team away, or send away select personnel to perform
train-the-trainer courses when they return? Other associated issues
that come up include overtime for traveling personnel, expenses, lodg-
ing, meals, learning materials, and the like.
Looking for providers of rope instruction is like shopping for a car,
since there are numerous options available. The most logical place to
seek instruction is from state fire training organizations. Many probie
firefighters get their initial training either from state-run programs or
courses that are based on the state curriculum. A vast majority of fire
service curricula follow NFPA 1001, Standard for Fire Fighter Professional
Qualifications, which was recently revised down to two levels from the
original three. This standard lists the minimum requirements and con-
tains a small amount of rope rescue criteria, representing therefore a
starting point for any team that is being formed. State and county
organizations typically provide rope rescue instruction to both munic-
ipal services and private industry. The next level of training is through
larger departments or established teams in your area. Other avenues
are available through private companies and individuals. Quality
instruction can come from any of these sources, but you need to do
your homework to find the best. I can’t tell you how many times I’ve
asked a group where they went for their training and what they
learned. The natural follow-up question is whether they think what
they learned will enhance their operations. The typical response is that
they don’t know. Something was learned; however, it might not fit
their needs. If you send your personnel away, they may get a canned
show that is not very cost-effective. Obviously, certain basics must be
grasped and mastered. The problem is in the approach that each
instructor takes and in their variant philosophies.
Let’s look back at our beginnings, which were in mountaineering,
spelunking, and wilderness search and rescue. The practitioners of these
arts pioneered the techniques and equipment that we use today. Each
facet has improved dramatically, and these types of groups do provide
some of the best training available. The problem that I and others have
run into is that they are not firefighters; hence, they don’t quite under-
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 32

32 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

stand the needs of our world. They don’t fully understand short staffing
or having to deal with the variety of day-to-day challenges that the
modern fire service faces. I’m not painting generalizations with a broad
brush—just polishing the old maxim of buyer beware.
One thing to keep in mind is that there is no national standard or
certification; therefore, curricula are based on individual approaches.
What this means is that the buyer of initial training should make sure
that whatever foundation is built can be expanded on. Programs can
be listed in hours, by objective, or both. Many times you’ll see course
listings as basic, intermediate, or advanced. A 16-hour basic rescue
course may encompass knots, rope construction, anchor points, hard-
ware, harnesses, and short rappels. That’s just enough to build interest
without overwhelming the students. It’s also enough of a dose to help
weed out less-than-satisfactory candidates. On the other hand, there
are also basic rope rescue courses that include all of the above except
rescue knots. The knots are listed as a prerequisite and have to be mas-
tered prior to starting the program. This puts some ownership in the
individuals’ training and allows for more quality time devoted to other
areas. Although mastering knot tying is critical, it is also time-con-
suming to teach and can disrupt the flow for other students.
Understand that there are many ways to provide instruction, then
research all the pros and cons in whatever course your organization
decides to invest in.
Here are just some of the many ways that courses may be set up,
either by governmental or private training organizations:

BASIC
Safety.
Standards and regulations.
Rope construction and selection.
Rescue knots.
Hardware.
Harnesses.

INTERMEDIATE
Anchors.
Anchor systems.
Belaying.
Rappelling.
Pick-offs (window rescues).
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Organization 33

ADVANCED
Mechanical advantage systems.
Stokes operations.
Highlines.

Some approaches divide the necessary skills between two levels,

basic and advanced. Generally they teach the same topics, albeit to
somewhat different standards:

BASIC
Safety.
Rope construction.
Rescue knots.
Anchors.
Anchor systems.
Mechanical advantage.
Belaying.
Rappeling.
Hauling systems.
Lowering systems.

ADVANCED
All of the basic areas listed above, in greater detail, plus some addi-
tional topics.

Pick-offs.
Knot bypasses.
Running protection.
Highlines.

Courses are available in a wide variety of scopes and depths. Some

approaches eliminate some of the advanced skills altogether and con-
centrate on more basic ones. As they say, time is money, and both are in
short supply. Consequently, it is important to analyze exactly what
you’re getting and how it can be expanded on later. Courses are also
available according to the particular organization’s preference, such as
Technician I, II, III; Vertical I, II, III; and Rescue I, II, III. The NFPA is cur-
rently working on a new technical rescue standard, the preliminary
methodology of which is going to resemble the haz-mat standard in
terms of skill levels: awareness, operations, and technician. Bear in mind
that it is important to learn more than one way to perform each skill. You
can do this by using ideas from various sources. Contrary to some instruc-
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 34

34 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

tor groups and manufacturers, nobody has all the answers as to the right
techniques and equipment. Just as in firefighting, there are many ways to
get the job done, and a certain amount of flexibility is desirable. Many of
the hardened ideologies follow a basic foundation, and integrating them
in the real world is possible as long as you fully understand their operant
principles. This, plus knowing how much time initial instruction should
take, can generate some heated discussion among the experts. Like most
of the skills that firefighters must master, there simply isn’t enough time
to cover all of the tasks to the degree of competence that most would like.
Just to learn the skills of the basic, intermediate, and advanced lists can
range anywhere from 80 to 120 hours of instruction time. Much of the
rest will be taught in the real world.
Unbeknownst to many outside of the training circles, there is a war
being waged on these very issues. Inside the fire service, and to a larg-
er degree in private industry, corners are being cut to provide the nec-
essary objectives in the least amount of time. This means seeing the
skill once and moving on. Obviously, if an ill-trained student later
experiences a real-world problem or failure, he may not have the
knowledge or experience necessary to get himself out of trouble. There
are two ways to improve the odds in such a circumstance. The first is
to practice frequently back at your station or facility after the course is
over. The second is to train supervisors to a greater degree of compe-
tence so that they will be better able to deal with operating difficulties.
Recruiting team members is generally easy and can at times be over-
whelming when the response is particularly good. Each department
needs to have its own criteria to provide for a balanced effort.
Essentially you are looking for members who are physically fit,
mechanically minded, and adaptable. They need to be told what is
expected of them and the dangers that they will encounter. By the
same token, the recruits themselves need to discuss their expectations
with the rest of the team and its leadership.
In selecting a training site, establish a primary drill facility for the
majority of your work. This can be an academy facility or, as is the case
with most departments, a designated training area. Typically this is a
facility with sufficient room for on-duty companies and that has been
modified for rope rescue training. This can be as simple as using the
hose tower or a ground laddering mockup. It’s not so much the height
you’re worried about, but rather, getting the techniques right. The sec-
ond selection should be of structures in your jurisdiction that are rep-
resentive of those you may have to operate on. Size them up for their
suitability and safety. Seek permission from the owners prior to prac-
ticing on them, of course. Real-life sites are great; however, they have
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 35

Organization 35

problems that you must factor in prior to training on them. Many

have limited access and parking during business hours, and such
minor logistical faults can often cause the most headaches. Also, there
is a sideshow element involved—a problem for on-duty companies
that you can alleviate if you make arrangements to stage apparatus
close to the drill site prior to conducting practice. You have to be care-
ful not to create a hazard by putting on a good show that will attract
bystanders and snarl traffic. Operating at a real site almost always pre-
sents a higher risk than practicing at your fixed facility, and you must
make provisions for this. Sometimes the best sites are located in
remote areas of a given jurisdiction, but companies may have difficul-
ty covering their first-alarm assignments if called. If standby compa-
nies aren’t available, plan your training session during off-peak hours.
Most areas have peak run times, and you can factor this into your over-
all plan.
Climate will also affect your training activities. While the greater
portion of your hands-on training will be conducted outside, some-
times extremes of weather will force you to work indoors. You can
accomplish a good deal in a classroom setting, especially if it’s recur-
rency training. There are, however, operations that demand more
space. This is where you have to seek out facilities within your district
that have high ceilings and bombproof anchor points. Such structures
might include aircraft hangars, public works garages, large agricultural
storage areas, gymnasiums, and sport arenas. This is not to say that we
run for cover at the first sight of a snowflake or heat wave. On the con-
trary, it is important to train in adverse environments so as to ensure
that your personnel can operate in less than ideal conditions.
By analogy, rope rescue training can be compared with fire programs
that train new personnel to the Firefighter I level without conducting
live burns of any magnitude. All the information can be provided; how-
ever, the student can’t truly appreciate the lessons until he has experi-
enced them firsthand. On the fireground, these include the lack of vis-
ibility, rising heat, and not knowing exactly where you are, let alone the
location of the victim. Rope rescue has similar elements, height being
only the most apparent of them. Obviously we can’t train for every-
thing, but we do need to train in context as much as possible. Those
sterile techniques we learn in the classroom need to get dirty in the
field to prove their worth. Training in context is a methodology by
which more time is devoted to hands-on experience and less on lecture.
Some jurisdictions lack either a primary facility or adequate real-life
sites. One way around this problem is to set up a platform, either on a
tower ladder or similar apparatus. Setting up a tower ladder allows you
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36 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

to accomplish many tasks easily, anywhere in the district. You can use
its rated points of attachment as anchor points. A tower ladder also
allows you to change heights and locations in and around obstacles to
suit your needs. This is no small advantage, and it relates to certain cri-
teria that need to be observed prior to operating. The aerial has to be
rated for the intended loads; it must be properly maintained and cer-
tified per NFPA standards. Also, the turntable must be manned con-
tinuously; a safety person must have an unimpeded view of the oper-
ation and be in control; all moves must be slow and deliberate, and the
apparatus must be used within the manufacturer’s recommendations.
The term tower ladder denotes an apparatus that has a platform or bas-
ket at the end of the ladder that can hold personnel. The use of straight-
stick aerials concerns me—I prefer to use them in limited capacities. In
my region of the country, there are a lot of older aerials in service that
aren’t rated for this kind of duty. They lack the tip capacities and jacking
configurations needed for the evolutions being performed. This is where
mutual aid companies can get together for a joint drill if your particular
fire department doesn’t have a tower ladder.

INCIDENT COMMAND

By now, virtually everyone in the fire service is familiar with the

principles of incident management. The current terminology is chang-
ing from the incident command system (ICS) to the incident manage-
ment system (IMS). Whatever its name, anyone involved in the fire
service, law enforcement, emergency medical services, wilderness
search and rescue, and host of other emergency-related fields must use
some form of the management system to handle today’s incidents
effectively. For the purposes of this book, we will consider the fire
department to be the parent organization, and the management sys-
tem used will be the NFA model ICS. Several similar models are in use,
differing mainly in terminology and title. It makes no difference
which system you adopt as long as you use it consistently and all the
people involved understand their roles within it.
For those departments that still don’t employ an incident command
system, here are some thoughts to ponder. SARA, the Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986, requires organizations
that handle hazardous materials incidents to operate within a command
system. NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and
Health Program, Ch. 6-1.2, requires that all departments establish written
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Organization 37

NFA Model Incident Command System

Incident
Command

Safety

Liaison

Information

Operations Planning Logistics Finance

Staging
Resource Time Unit
Unit
Branch Branch Service Branch Service Branch
Situation Procurement
Division/ Division/ Division/ Division/ Unit Unit
Group Group Group Group
Documentation Communications Supply Unit Comp/Claims
Strike Strike Unit Unit Unit
Team Team
Demobilization Medical Unit Facilities Unit
Task Task Cost Unit
Force Force Unit
Food Unit Ground Support
Single Single Technical Unit
Resource Resource Specialists

procedures for an ICS; that all members of the department be trained in

and familiar with the system; that the system outline the responsibility
for safety at all supervisory levels; that the system provide for personnel
accountability at all levels; that the system outline safety requirements;
and that the system provide sufficient supervisory personnel to control
the position and function of all members operating on the scene. As you
can see, if your homegrown system isn’t providing at least these parame-
ters, then you should adopt a nationally known system.
Why bother to discuss incident command in the context of rope res-
cue? I’m reviewing it because our operations can take place at the
micro or company level with only a few members, or at the macro,
multicompany level with many. Teams can operate independently of
each other or in unison. In any case, you need to understand that you
are part of a larger organizational structure and that you have to oper-
ate within its framework. The ICS provides procedures for controlling
personnel, facilities, equipment, and communications.
Let’s review some of the highlights of the ICS. The system begins from
the time an incident occurs and lasts until such time as emergency services
are completed. The commander is usually the ranking member; however,
it can be anyone ranging from the first-arriving company officer to the
chief. Passing off responsibility from officer to officer must be done in a
coordinated way so as to accurately disseminate all the facts. Passing off
command at the company level, however, can’t occur more than twice.
The organizational structure can be established and expanded as the inci-
dent dictates. Only qualified personnel should staff the positions, and
they can come from agencies other than the fire service.
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38 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

OPERATING REQUIREMENTS
A properly designed system can provide for the following types of
operations:

1. Single jurisdiction/single-agency involvement.

2. Single jurisdiction/multiagency involvement.
3. Multijurisdiction/multiagency involvement.

COMPONENTS OF THE ICS

The following components working together interactively provide
the basis for an effective operation under the ICS:

1. Common terminology.
2. Modular organizations.
3. Integrated communications.
4. Unified command structure.
5. Consolidated action plans.
6. Manageable span of control.
7. Designated incident facilities.
8. Comprehensive resource management.

ORGANIZATION AND OPERATIONS

The ICS has five major functional areas:

1. Command.
2. Operations.
3. Planning.
4. Logistics.
5. Finance.

COMMON ICS TERMINOLOGY

Branch: The organizational level having functional/geographic
responsibility for major segments of incident operations.
Organizationally, the branch level is between section and
division/group.
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Organization 39

Command: The act of directing, ordering, and/or controlling; also,

the incident commander.
Division: The organizational level having responsibility for opera-
tions within a defined geographic area.
Finance: The entity responsible for all costs and financial aspects of
an incident.
Group: The organizational level having responsibility for a specified
functional assignment, such as ventilation, salvage, overhaul, or rescue.
Incident commander: The individual responsible for the manage-
ment of all the incident operations.
Logistics: The entity responsible for providing facilities, services, and
materials for the incident. They are the gofers of an operation, getting
what you need.
Operations: The entity responsible for all tactical operations at an
incident.
Planning: The entity responsible for the collection, evaluation, dis-
semination, and use of information about the development of an inci-
dent and the status of resources. This domain covers the technical spe-
cialists, including rope rescue personnel.
Single resource: An individual company or crew.
Staging: The location where personnel and equipment are assigned
to wait on an immediately available status.
Strike team: Five of the same type of personnel, with common com-
munications and a team leader.
Task force: A group of any type of personnel, not to exceed five
members, with common communications and a leader, temporarily
assigned to a specific mission.

What does all this mean? The bottom line is that the incident com-
mander is responsible for everything on the scene of an emergency. Is
it practical for one individual to handle all the various supervisory
functions? No! That’s why the ICS was developed, so as to delegate
responsibility, dedicate resources efficiently, and mitigate incidents
safely. Technically, if the IC doesn’t delegate a function, it becomes his
direct responsibility to see that it is accomplished. In the early stages
of development, many times this is a necessary evil; however, as qual-
ified personnel become available, they should be assigned to handle
the various missions.
The ICS review process is to inform those who don’t presently have
a system to get one and those who do to review the terminology.
Generally, when most departments respond to the initial call for a
structure fire, they operate in a task force configuration. In larger dis-
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40 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

tricts, for example, this may mean three engines, two ladders, and a
battalion chief. In rural situations, it may be two engines, two tankers,
and a chief that respond to the scene. During this phase of organiza-
tional structure, we can assume that they are operating in the com-
mand section, dividing into branches.
Let’s look at the larger department first. That three-engine, two-lad-
der assignment is going in, and additional information indicates that
a large fire is spreading to another building. Depending on your run
cards, an additional engine and ladder along with a rescue company
are sent to answer the alarm. There are many ways to handle this situ-
ation, most of which are beyond the scope of this book. Suppose, how-
ever, that after these companies arrive and begin operating, a rope res-
cue becomes necessary.
You should attempt a rope rescue only after all other avenues have
been explored and dismissed. The decision falls on the incident com-
mander as part of the ICS process. The IC depends on all the other
members operating on the fireground to be his eyes and ears. In this

ICS Structure for a Fire in a Multiple Dwelling

With Exposure Problems

Incident Command
Battalion 3

Fire Attack Search & Rescue Exposure B

Vent
Eng. 3 Officer Truck 1 Officer Rescue 1 Officer

Eng. 3 Truck 1 Truck 2 Rescue 1

Eng. 5 Truck 3 Eng. 7

Eng. 9

This is just one of the many ways to assign fireground tasks. Some
departments that have above-average staffing assign (per SOPs)
specific duties to incoming companies as they arrive. The companies
break up into teams that address specific areas of the building.
Example: The first-due truck searches the fire floor, the second-due
truck searches the floor above, while others vent and perform forcible
entry and search.
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Organization 41

case, let’s say that the roof man and the outside vent man have spot-
ted two civilians hanging from a fourth-floor window. They relay this
information to the incident commander, and he quickly determines
that the best course of action is a dangerous but calculated rope oper-
ation. Depending on many factors, such as staff levels on apparatus
and the percentage of fire involvement, the entire operational focus
can change to support the rescue effort. Sufficient personnel will be
assigned to undertake the mission; suppression strategy might change
from an aggressive offense in one part of the structure to a hold-the-
line defense in another. Basically, the fireground focus now is on pro-
tecting the members who are hanging from the rope, as well as the vic-
tims they are going to rescue. This strategy follows the premise that life
comes before property and that buildings are replaceable but people
are not. Although the rope rescue contingent itself may be small, clear-
ly the rescuers are operating within a larger organization readily adapt-
ing itself to the changing context of the incident.
Once those personnel get to the roof and begin their rescue, a smaller
but equally important substructure comes together. This is another area
where a number of options are available, depending on local practices.
Let’s look at six truckies who converge on the roof and set up for rope res-
cue. Generally an officer, if not a senior firefighter, makes it to the roof
and gives the go/no-go decision. The first and second firefighters should
be in harnesses ready to go over the edge to handle the two victims. The
third firefighter sets up the anchor points. The fourth assists with anchors
and rappel lines. The fifth is the edge man, who maintains eye or voice

ICS Structure to Support the Rescue

Incident Command
Battalion 3

Fire Attack Search & Rescue Exposure B Rope Rescue

Vent
Eng. 3 Officer Truck 1 Officer Engine 9 Officer Rescue 1 Officer

Eng. 3 Truck 1 Truck 2 Eng. 7 Rescue 1

Eng. 5 Eng. 9 Truck

Additional alarms are initiated as the fire magnifies in scale and the scope of the
operation grows. Incident commanders must be aware of the ramifications when
switching from one type to another.
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42 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

contact with the victims while the evolution is being set up. The officer
or senior firefighter can act as an overall safety person, stepping back to
assess the overall picture. There’s not much time, and they must set up
rapidly. To some, this scenario may be utopian in terms of the personnel
available; to others it will be the norm. These are issues that must be dis-
cussed within your own department and settled prior to any operations.
Applying the acronym LAST to this past evolution, the locating was
done by two firefighters. Access was made from the roof, which pro-
vided the operating platform. The victims were stabilized by the edge
man, as well as by firefighters on the ground giving verbal reassur-
ances. The transport was the rappel down the side of the building to
the ground.
This tabletop scenario can occur anywhere; however, the emphasis
here is on the dynamic change of the strategy and tactics. The IC envi-
sions one plan based on his size-up of the prevailing conditions, but
the fire has other intentions. Once the rescue effort is underway, the
commander has limited staffing to handle both buildings. Reviewing
the ICS matrix, you’ll see that this IC activated the command function
early and was headed toward other operations as additional assign-
ments arrived.
In the next scenario, imagine that a small aircraft has crashed into a
TV tower. The tower is located in a suburban and rural jurisdiction. This

ICS Structure for Initial Crash Investigation

Incident Command
Fire Chief

Fire Attack Extrication Water EMS

Eng. 2 Officer Sq. 1 Officer Supply Amb. 1 Officer

Eng. 2 Sq. 1 Tank 2 Amb. 1

Tank 1 Eng.1 Medic 12

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Organization 43

incident starts with a call to the county fire alarm to put the volunteer
fire department on standby. The call originated from the local airport,
which is receiving an ELT (emergency locating transmitter) signal from
an overdue aircraft. The airport controllers have tried several times to
contact the pilot by radio but to no avail. The fire chief waits until his
station is manned and he receives an update. The controllers get a pre-
liminary bearing on the ELT signal, and a ground search commences
with fire apparatus and police units driving through the more rural
areas first, principally with the rationale that if the aircraft had gone
down in a populated area, someone would have seen and reported it.
The airport is trying to get portable radio equipment together that can
triangulate the signal more precisely. Suddenly a fire alarm indicates
that Channel 5 has just lost its transmitter, which just so happens to be
in line with the initial ELT bearing. At once the chief assigns apparatus
to that location. On his arrival, the chief finds a small fixed-wing air-
craft lodged in the upper portions of the transmitter tower. The tower
appears to be relatively undamaged and in no danger of collapse. Sizing
up the environmental factors, the chief sees that nightfall is fast
approaching and that the temperatures will drop to around 30°F.
Prior to his arrival, the chief had envisioned a plane crash on the
ground. In the worst case, it would have been on fire with the occu-
pants trapped. He now establishes command and starts assembling the

ICS Structure for the Tower Rescue

Incident
Command
Fire Chief

Safety (Training Off. Mutual-Aid Dept.)

Information (Dept. PIO)

Operations Planning Logistics Finance

Mutual-Aid Chief Dept. Engineer Supply Supvr.
Staging Eng. 5
TV Sta. School Town Manager
Rescue Branch Stab. Branch Engineer Department
Mutual-Aid Lt. Firefighter Brigade
Town Manager State Police
Rescue Rescue Stab. Stab. Comm.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 2
Team 1 Team 2 Team 1 Team 2
Airport Director Ladies
Auxiliary
Team 1 Team 2 Team 1 Team 2
Structural
Engineer
Team 3 Team 4 Team 3 Team 4
Rope Team
Coordinator
Two large rescue Stabilization
teams broken teams comprised
down into two of firefighters
small teams. and contractors.
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44 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

rescue organization. He has to expand his ICS from the more routine
approaches because this sort of rescue will be far more difficult. He
foresees this to be a single-jurisdiction/multiagency response because
his department simply isn’t trained or equipped for this type of oper-
ation. While his on-scene personnel stabilize the situation as best they
can, numerous calls are made for help from other organizations.
This ICS was set up by the chief, and here’s how and why he did it:

1. The IC was the chief of the department.

2. The safety officer was the training officer from the mutual aid
department.
3. Liaison was performed by the IC himself.
4. The information officer was the department’s public informa-
tion officer.
5. The staging officer was a lieutenant from Engine 5.
6. The operations officer was an assistant chief from a nearby city.
7. The planning officer was a firefighter who worked as an engineer.
8. The logistics officer was the department supply supervisor.
9. The finance officer was the town manager.
10. The rescue branch officer was from a mutual aid department.
11. The stablization branch officer was a firefighter in the con-
struction field.
12. The rope rescue teams came from two nearby fire departments,
as well as a mountain search and rescue group.

Additionally, each rescue group was supervised by a team leader or

company officer from their respective home organizations. The plan-
ning section was comprised of technical specialists from various disci-
plines. The television station engineer was on hand to isolate power to
the tower. Airport personnel provided data on the aircraft that proved
useful in the rescue. The tower manfacturer was on the cellular phone
offering data and was sending a regional representative to the scene. A
structural engineer conferred with all of the above and devised a sta-
blization plan to allow for the rescue. The technical rescue specialist
from a responding team orchestrated the details with the operations
chief and the rescue branch officer to effect the rescue.
Logistics required shelter and hot food for the firefighters. It was to
be an extended operation ranging from 12 to 18 hours, and the res-
cuers’ basic physical needs had to be met. School buses and a couple
of campers were brought in for shelter. Food was provided by local
businesses and the Ladies Auxiliary. Logistics also got a state police
communications unit to be used as the command post. Finances were
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 45

Organization 45

tracked by the town manager for future reimbursements. The insur-

ance companies representing the aircraft owner, a renter, were on the
scene, as were those responsible for the TV station’s antenna.
This has been a quick look at the macro level of an incident using
the ICS. The vast majority of any department’s calls can and will be
handled by a smaller structure.
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46 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Which ICS position is responsible for tactical opera-

tions at an incident?
2. The overall goal that the incident commander wants
to accomplish is known as _______________.
3. Name the four components of the search-and-rescue
acronym LAST.
4. Organizations that handle hazardous materials inci-
dents are required to use the ICS by what act?
5. Name the five sectors of the incident command system.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 47

Chapter Three

Safety and
Personal
Protective
Equipment

S
afety is one of the most important subjects in any book of this
type, if not the most important. All too often, it is relegated to the
end of the text, near the credits or glossary. I feel that safety
should begin this sort of book. Keeping a semblance of order suggests
that you must first assess and understand your basic need for safety
before dealing with the actual hazards themselves. Once you recognize
that need, you’ll be in a better position to truly understand what
you’re getting your personnel into. You have to look past all the hype,
fancy equipment, and fads. When you complete your homework,
you’ll discover that rope rescue is really a safe and time-tested disci-
pline, albeit a demanding one. Still, behind all the best preparation, an
element of danger lurks, and individuals have been injured and killed
performing these techniques. One or more of these factors can con-
tribute to any mishap:

1. The human component.

2. The equipment component.
3. An environmental upheaval.
4. Being in the wrong place at the wrong time (bad luck).

This matrix takes the four primary factors and incorporates them into
a systems approach to rope rescue safety. A systems approach, whereby
you view components as interdependent and unified, is essential. A
firefighter’s cognitive skills are part of the system and not to be over-
looked. Too often you focus strictly on the physical and don’t build the
human factor or the effective attitude into the operational system. You
become totally absorbed with the psychomotor skills (raise the ground
ladder) to the exclusion of cognitive ones (avoid the overhead obstacle,
don’t trip, don’t get wrapped in the halyard).

47
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48 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

The fire service, for all fireground operations but particularly high-
risk rescue, cannot permit the cognitive skills or affective attitude to be
one of the weak links in its systems. There is simply too much at stake.
Let’s examine the four primary categories in rope rescue system safe-
ty, with an awareness of the importance of the human, as well as the
physical, components of the system.

THE HUMAN COMPONENT

In the training section in Chapter Two, we looked at the definition of

training itself. Training closes the gap between where we are and where
we want to be in our knowledge and competence of a given skill. It
sounds simple enough, but how do we achieve it? Three phrases from
the profession of education separate the domains of learning: the cog-
nitive, the psychomotor, and the affective. The cognitive domain per-
tains to objectives in which the firefighter needs to recall intellectual
knowledge or concepts. The psychomotor domain deals with objectives
in which the firefighter must demonstrate a physical proficiency. The
affective domain involves the area of appreciation or attitude that the
firefighter must have to accomplish his goal. One of the predominant
methods to ensure that the firefighter has grasped this triad of domains
is to test them. A cognitive test, for example, could be a written exam on
equipment specifications—straight, factual information. A psychomotor
test could be a hands-on, step-by-step evolution of an assigned task. The
affective domain, in my experience, is the hardest to evaluate with fire-
fighters. You can quantify their knowledge of a subject or their ability to
perform a job, but how do you put a numerical score on something as
vague as attitude? Yet it’s attitude that is the basis of safe operations, no
matter what the job is. A positive attitude goes a long way. It’s the sound
frame of mind that best judges a situation and makes a good decision.
It’s the positive attitude that takes the high road and balances the risk-
to-benefit ratio of every incident. The best way to score attitude is
through exercises whereby you examine the thought process of how one
arrives at a conclusion. Another method is a long-term observation of
the firefighter’s work habits to assess his liabilities. Judge the whole indi-
vidual rather than pieces. In essence, there are three components to
human performance, and if any one of those components isn’t up to
par, any one of us can have a bad day. Many other psychological factors
are involved, of course, and this in no way attempts to limit them;
rather, they are offered to show how important training is to safety.
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Safety and Personal Protective Equipment 49

Essential for both the individual and the overall team is a collective
mindset to aggressively learn, master, and maintain rope rescue skills. All
members must understand the hazardous nature of rope techniques and
be willing participants. We all have our different fears or appreciations of
the dangers involved. Members must constantly monitor each other for
subtle changes in their normal mannerisms—changes that might be criti-
cally detrimental to their performance. Regularly I watch students who
forget where they are in relation to the ground. They lose sight of their sur-
roundings and, were it not for the safety measures in place, might be
severely injured. The differences between engine and ladder companies
provide a good analogy to depict the variant levels of danger. In general
terms, if an engine man were to trip over a hoseline, he’d probably hit the
floor but remain relatively unscathed. If a truckie on a rooftop were to trip
over an obstruction, however, he might take a ride off the roof or down a
shaft. I use these to illustrate the need to be cognizant of your environ-
ment at all times. While many texts have been written on training, safe-
ty, and psychology, this book will treat such factors as fundamental
assumptions. The human component is a multifaceted variable encom-
passing far more than rope rescue skills. We’ll take a basic approach to
safety by using the domains of learning as the foundation of safety.
Let’s consider the components of a behavioral objective. Many les-
son plans formally take into account the components of the learning
process, commonly using a format of A, B, C, and D:

A = Audience, or who it is intended for.

B = Behavior, or what the required performance is.
C = Condition, or what tools and equipment are required.
D = Degree, or what the accuracy and time constraints are.

While lesson plans also list the objective as either cognitive or psy-
chomotor, many of our activities aren’t covered by lesson plans and so
need an umbrella principle instead:

Cognitive domain = knowledge.

Psychomotor domain = tasks.
Affective domain = attitude.

Consider the following examples. You issue new rechargeable flash-

lights to your members. They look like the old units, so members
maintain them the same way. After a short period of time, the units
begin to develop operating problems. One by one, the lights are
turned in as defective. Eventually you discover that when the units run
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50 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

low, the members are purposely draining them until they are dead.
These new-style lights can be charged as often as is necessary without
running them down. Is this a safety problem? Of course it is! Apply the
domains to this situation this way:

Knowledge: Require that the members read and follow the manufac-
turer’s information.
Tasks: Require the members to operate and maintain the lights as
directed.
Attitude: If you don’t operate and maintain a unit as required, it may
fail at a critical time. Your life may depend on it!

Here’s another example. You assign members to set up a lowering

system on a steel structure. They grab the equipment bags and ascend
to the top. Once they get going, they realize that they’re a little short
on hardware and slings. Since this is a training session and not a real
emergency, they opt to wing it with a bare minimum of equipment.
Afterward you debrief them and point out their shortcomings. Using
the domain approach, members should do better in the future.

Knowledge: The members need to know what equipment is required

to set up the system. This knowledge comes from specific training and
exercises.
Tasks: The members must pack sufficient equipment and transport it
to the operating site. If additional equipment is needed, they must
either get it themselves or have it delivered by other members.
Attitude: They must understand that operating with bare minimums
and jerry-rigging aren’t ordinarily acceptable.

EQUIPMENT COMPONENT

Hazard abatement is a process whereby hazards are reduced by way of

a planned program. In industry, hazards are minimized by engineering
safety systems into the design, having machines replace humans, per-
mitting minimal exposures, and providing personal safety equipment.
While the first three methods may work in general business environments,
we as firefighters knowingly enter dangerous situations. Ultimately, no
book can tell you what is a go and what isn’t. Every situation is different,
even if it occurs in the same location twice in the same day.
When we perform our jobs, we need to protect ourselves. One of the
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Safety and Personal Protective Equipment 51

primary methods is with personal safety equipment, and the foremost

area to protect is your head. As we all know, even a minor head trauma
can lead to a debilitating injury. One firefighter I know of was operat-
ing at a brush fire in an urban area of the city. He trotted back toward
the engine for more hose, when suddenly he struck his head, which
was properly helmeted, on a deck overhang. He was taken to the hos-
pital, examined, released, and was placed on the injured list. He suf-
fered from seizures, dizziness, headaches, and general weakness—and
could have been still worse if he hadn’t been wearing his helmet at all.
He slowly recuperated; however, it was a stressful, frustrating process for
him and those who love him, which brings me to another point: If you
don’t take safeguards for your own sake, do so for your family’s sake.
The type of head protection you wear should be approved for the
environment in which you plan to operate. The fire service uses the
NFPA standards as a basis when purchasing certain personal protective
equipment. NFPA 1972, Helmets for Structural Fire Fighting, covers per-
formance criteria for fire helmets.
Protect yourself for the highest level of hazard expected. This means
that if you are going to perform a rescue on or in a burning building,
you must wear a fire helmet. Other types and styles of helmets can be
worn while performing rope rescue. When operating in a confined
space, some prefer to wear a low-profile helmet—the size and over-
hang of a conventional fire helmet may cause it to get hung up and
create problems. Different helmets are available because different dis-
ciplines have created them to suit their needs.
Not only do helmets provide head protection, they can protect the
eyes as well. Helmets should be properly fitted and maintained, and
you should always use the chin strap.
The next area of concern is the torso. In general terms, you should
wear clothing that will protect you from the environment in which
you are operating. A wilderness rope rescue may find you wearing a
wool shirt and dungarees covered by a Gore-Tex® rain suit. That pro-
vides you with warmth, flexibility, and waterproofing. A fireground
rope rescue requires you to don a full ensemble, known either as
bunker gear or turnout gear. Again, look to the NFPA standards for
assistance. NFPA 1971, Protective Ensemble for Structural Fire Fighting,
lists the performance criteria for the garments we wear while working
in hostile environments. We must protect ourselves while operating in
or close to the fire scene and in the event that the rope rescue doesn’t
go as planned.
There are other environments in which we perform rope rescues,
such as on ice or in water. Generally speaking, when we operate on ice-
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52 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Left to right: cold-water immersion suit, flotation coverall, Type 1 life jacket.

covered lakes, ponds, and rivers, we wear full-body flotation gear, oth-
erwise known as the gumby suit. This closed-cell, neoprene suit total-
ly encapsulates the body, hands, feet, and head area. Barring any leaks,
it provides both flotation in the water and insulation from the cold. It
got its nickname from the cartoon character Gumby, since you must
shuffle along to walk in it.
All too often, you see pictures of firefighters attired in full bunker
gear working on ice. This poses a great danger if the individual hap-
pens to fall through and starts submerging. While it’s true that bunker
gear will float in water, it will only do so for a short period of time.
When you are going to work on or near ice, you must wear the prop-
er protective equipment. One particular benefit of having such a suit
is that it can be used for water-in-the-basement calls. The firefighter
will never get wet, and wearing it is a great public relations tool.
Remember to secure all power sources prior to entering the water.
A variation of this is the coverall-type flotation suit. This suit is
designed to be worn over your street clothes, but it can also be used for
day-to-day activities where a person might fall into water. It doesn’t
protect your feet or hands the way the gumby suit does; therefore, it
doesn’t afford the same level or length of protection.
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Safety and Personal Protective Equipment 53

These first two types of suits are designed to provide flotation, so you
won’t have to wear a separate life jacket. Whenever you enter or fall
into water, you must wear some sort of flotation. Most fire departments
use a commercially available U.S. Coast Guard-approved device. For
general purposes, any of these approved devices are usually sufficient.
For WETEAMS (water extrication teams) or any other organization that
specializes in water rescue, more specialized apparel is available.
Your feet are the next area of concern. Different types of environ-
ments require different types of protective footwear. Appropriately
selected footwear is important to everyone performing rope rescue
skills. The shoe or boot should be comfortable yet still provide com-
fort, ankle support, traction, and repellency as a minimum. Thermal
protection, waterproofing, and puncture-resistant characteristics are
other desired features for certain conditions.
Firefighters operating on the fireground are limited to a small selec-
tion of boot choices. An additional part of their protective ensemble
includes footwear as specified in NFPA 1974, Protective Footwear for
Structural Fire Fighting. Over the years, fire boots have changed for the
better. The ever-popular three-quarter boot is giving way to the short-
er bunker boot. Many firefighters are donning bunker pants; therefore,
they don’t need the additional weight of the rolled-down three-quar-
ter boot. In the past, some firefighters found the rubber boots to lack
sufficient ankle support. The newest rubber boots on the market have
been improved to give their wearers that “boot fit.”
Leather boots comprise the second type of approved footwear for
firefighting. These boots meet the standard’s criteria and are lighter in
weight, better fitting, and more comfortable by general consensus.
Some firefighters maintain that once the leather is scraped, however,
particularly near the toe, a boot loses its waterproofing features. Before
purchasing boots in large numbers, field test each type from several
manufacturers using your toughest people.
Unfortunately, I still see firefighters wearing nonapproved or sub-
standard boots while performing structural fire attack.
Boots or shoes for other areas where rope rescue is performed are too
numerous to list. If you are operating in an industrial area, the fire
boot or approved work boot may suffice. If you’re operating in a rural
or wilderness area, then a hiking or climbing boot from an outdoor
supplier may suit your needs. If you’re operating in water or doing
flood rescue, then a soft-soled boot, sneaker-type shoe, or kyacking
shoe from an outdoor supplier may do the trick.
Your hands are the next area of concern. This topic draws attention
from many in the rope field.
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54 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

The conventional sport climber generally wears a light leather glove

with the fingertips cut off. This gives his hands some protection plus
good fingertip dexterity for finding handholds. Some wear no gloves
at all or, if they do, take them off for rappelling. This prevents them
from sliding down the rope too rapidly, possibly burning or otherwise
damaging it.
On the fire service side of the issue, NFPA 1973, Gloves for Structural
Fire Fighting, covers the performance criteria for gloves worn by fire-
fighters while working a structural fire. Some firefighters don’t want to
do rope training evolutions with fire gloves on because contaminants
make the rope slippery. We all know that it’s important to keep a rope
as clean as possible; however, to train for fireground operations, I feel
that personnel should get used to handling rope while encumbered by
such gloves, which are bulky and have limited fingertip dexterity. This
isn’t to say that members can’t wear a clean pair or have gloves set
aside for rope purposes. Fundamentally, we need protection from the
environment and mechanical injury in the broadest sense. I believe in
wearing gloves anytime you climb around man-made structures. We in
the fire service should train with gloves because we need to protect
ourselves from the fire environment. During a roof rescue or emer-
gency egress, you’re not going to take the gloves off, so you’d better
get comfortable with them now. In my area of the country, the winters
are long and the wind chills go way below zero. There aren’t too many
arguments as to whether gloves should be worn or not. While operat-
ing, usually you do everything you can while wearing them, then fin-
ish up the detailed tasks as fast as you can when you take them off.
The lack of adequate lighting for the work area is the next area of
concern. Providing proper lighting is a constant battle against a vari-
ety of problems, including insufficient candlepower, dead or dying
batteries, environmental factors, incorrect lenses, and mechanical
damage. Personal lighting equipment entails handheld or helmet-
mounted lamps, not apparatus or hard-wired lights. Insufficient illu-
mination of dark or smoke-filled areas has caused injuries to firefight-
ers and slowed operations.
For years, the fire service has used rubber bands to attach disposable
lights to leather-type fire helmets. This provides a small light with one
drawback: You must move your head to shift the beam. The next hel-
met-mounted light to show up in large numbers was the Mini Mag®
light attached to the composite fire helmet. This light is adjustable
from flood to spot, and the batteries are replaceable; however, you still
have to move your head to aim the beam. Several small flashlights on
the market allow you to pivot the light to where you want it to be. In
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Safety and Personal Protective Equipment 55

the old days, coal miners wore carbide lamps on their helmets. Today,
flashlights mounted on helmets can be powered by smaller belt-
mounted rechargeable batteries.
The other popular form of personal lighting is the handheld or clip-
pable flashlight. For years, truckies have slung lights around their
shoulders. Many units are available that run on rechargeable or
replaceable alkaline batteries.
Some issues you must consider are how the environnment will affect
the duration of the power available, what the operational duration of
the light is under good conditions, the numbers of lights available,
and how many are available as backup. The other question that comes
up frequently has to do with provisions for explosive atmospheres.
Although some units are rated for such environments, once they’ve
been damaged or even repaired, there’s no guarantee that they’ll still
be explosionproof. Firefighters are notoriously brutal on their equip-
ment, and more than one repair technician has advised me never to
trust electrical items to be entirely safe. This goes for almost anything
from portable radios to flashlights to monitoring devices. It doesn’t
mean that you should simply keep specific equipment out of the
hands of those who may abuse it, however.
To wrap up lighting, think about your firefighting experiences and
your day-to-day requirements. Many of my department members use
a highly popular rechargeable flashlight that clips to their bunker coat.
Even a structure fire of moderate size, in warm weather, and of short
duration creates a traffic jam at the chargers back at the station. The
other problem is that many of the rechargeables are sealed, and new
batteries can’t be installed as they could in the past.

HARNESSES
Some departments consider rescue harnesses to be a part of safety
equipment; others as team equipment. Either way, you need them to
perform rope rescue. NFPA 1983, Fire Service Life Safety Rope and System
Components, Ch. 4-3, lists three classes of harnesses. In their essential
features, they are:

Class I— That which fastens around the waist and thighs, and under
the buttocks, and is designed for one-person loads only.
Class II— That which fastens around the waist and thighs, and under
the buttocks, and is designed for two-person loads.
Class III— That which fastens around the waist, thighs, and under the
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56 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

buttocks, and over the shoulders, and is designed for two-

person loads and whenever inverting can occur. This har-
ness is mandatory for confined space rescue because it
allows you to pull someone through narrow spaces and
remain upright.

Years ago, going down a rope was called sliding for life; today it’s
called descending. In the days of hemp, firefighters used pompier or
ladder belts as harnesses. The major problem with these is that they
tended to transfer all the body’s weight to the lumbar region of the
spine. This was uncomfortable, leading to injury for some and short
working times for all. Eventually members turned to sport climbing
equipment as an alternative.
The harness standard didn’t come out until 1985; however, sport
equipment and techniques were already taking hold in the field by
then. The inherent problem with sport equipment is that it tends to be
lightweight and thus unsuitable for the fire department. Having said
this, let me qualify that statement. Many of the currently available
sport harnesses aren’t designed to handle the two-man loads that res-
cue may demand. Rescue-grade harnesses have to be constructed with
6,000-lb. webbing as a minimum. In the international arena, particu-
larly in Europe, the philosophy follows a different approach, whereby
harnesses are made lighter in weight primarily because any stress over
12 kN (2697.6 lbs., one kilonewton equaling 224.8 lbs.) can cause seri-
ous consequences. Constructing a harness to handle well over 12 kN
isn’t prudent because of the effects of high g forces on the human
body; also because such decelerations will cause some other compo-
nent in the system to fail anyway.
Between the time of the ladder belt and sport equipment, members
used webbing to tie harnesses. This technique was derived from the mili-
tary background common to many firefighters. The ever-popular Swiss
seat showed up everywhere, and it was tied with both rope and webbing.
If you have ever used this device, you know that it’s uncomfortable to be
suspended in one for long periods. Many beginner training programs use
them for economic reasons, and more experienced rescuers use them for
quick or one-person emergency operations only. This category encom-
passes many of the similar quick-tie devices used in the field.
During this time we also went from three-strand rope to one-inch
tubular webbing for comfort and strength; however, it still didn’t
entirely meet the need. Individuals tried two-inch webbing for peace
of mind, but it wasn’t very comfortable. I purchased my first compli-
ant harness around 1985 and was quite happy with it. You stepped
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Safety and Personal Protective Equipment 57

into each leg loop and connected the waist strap and you were set.
Today, harnesses come with a variety of options. Do your homework
and ask around. It’s like shopping for a car—to each his own.

COMMUNICATIONS
One of my pet peeves is good radio communication. Many of my
colleagues consider the portable radio to be a life safety device and
critical to incident management. Every team, group, or company must
have at least one portable radio during an operation. More and more
departments are issuing portables for every riding position so that
their members can be more flexible and the span of control can be
maintained. Portable radios are available in a wide variety of designs,
wattages, capabilities, sizes, and prices.
Communication between companies or individual firefighters can
be more difficult than imagined. Many factors can impede effective
communications, including weak batteries, topography, structural
materials, natural interference, and operating on the wrong channel.
Each member should begin his shift with a freshly charged battery.
Many of the batteries that are currently available can last twelve or
more hours while monitoring and if few transmissions are made. Some
firefighters will use a portable all day and at the end of the shift put it
in the apparatus charger. What they don’t realize is that many of those
units are trickle chargers, designed to maintain the current energy
level without restoring it to max levels. Do this several times in a week
and soon you’ll have a dead battery. Among other things, this is a safe-
ty issue. Many departments have a primary alert frequency for appara-
tus movement; however, once on the scene, they switch to a fire-
ground or rescue frequency. Complex incidents may require several
tactical channels for proper control to be maintained. Two results can
occur from improper or insufficient frequencies: First, if intrasite com-
munications are on your primary frequency, members in trouble
might never be heard. Second, companies not aware of frequency
changes can’t get their messages to Command if trouble arises.
Topography and troublesome construction features can also dramat-
ically impede good communications. Public safety agencies use a wide
variety of frequencies in the various portions of the radio spectrum.
Frequencies are grouped and allocated by the FCC. We’ll call them
groups for simplicity and list them as low, mid, high, and ultrahigh
frequencies. Each group has different operating characteristics and is
chosen by professional radio contractors for your particular needs. The
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58 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

wattage output on a portable radio can be adjusted from, say, one to

five watts at the push of a button, a lower output allowing you to run
longer. Operating in and around steel or concrete buildings can hinder
the radio signal. Many fire service portables are midrange 150 to 175
megahertz units, and there are times when a five-watt signal can’t
reach companies one floor below in a city hospital or hit a repeater on
an adjacent hill. Companies that regularly operate in these types of
structures, aboard ships, or in caves should carry high- or ultrahigh-
frequency portables, since they seem to provide more reliable commu-
nications. When performing rope rescue in a dense urban environ-
ment, in a confined space, or below ground, carrying a portable slung
over your shoulder can get in the way. Worse, it might be totally inef-
fective. Instead, members can carry them inside their clothing, use a
chest pouch, or attach them to the harness and use a remote mike.
When working in explosive atmospheres, the same considerations
apply as were mentioned in the section on flashlights. Ask yourself
why you are in that environment and to what degree the portable is
explosionproof. New technologies are constantly being developed to
deal with a host of radio deficiencies.
Hardwired or confined-space intercom systems are now available to
facilitate smoother and more recognizable communications. The
major drawback to hardwired equipment is that, when exiting a con-

A hardwired confined-space communications set.

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Safety and Personal Protective Equipment 59

fined space, you must leave by the same route you entered. Many of
these systems are intrinsically safe, even in hazardous atmospheres.
Intersite communication involves talking between the incident
scene and dispatch. The usual methods include portable to base,
mobile to base, and portable to apparatus repeater and then to base.
There are times that, for whatever reason, the usual methods are inef-
fective or inoperative. Accordingly, there are a few ways to handle such
a situation. If possible, use a standard landline telephone to get
through to dispatch. The most popular method of alternative commu-
nication is the cellular telephone. These systems tend to have greater
coverage than municipal radio systems. Telephone companies are in
business to provide a service to their customers, and companies with
the best coverage tend to make the most money. The trick for you is to
be in range of a cell, which is the receiver for your signal. From there
you have as much access to the world as you would from your home
telephone. This is helpful in rural or wilderness areas, particularly if
the voter or repeater is inoperative. Another option involves using the
county or state police radio equipment. Many of these departments
have excellent radio systems in place, particularly the state agencies.
Using their equipment will generally suffice.
A final option worth mentioning is to rely on the public utilities.
These companies tend to have radio systems in place to provide cov-
erage across their service areas, which can be vast. One statewide
power company near me has radio coverage that rivals that of the state
police. Most of us take radio communication for granted simply
because it works day in and day out. Its frangible nature can often be
overlooked in the general scheme of things.

EQUIPMENT FAILURE
On the other side of the equipment issue is the possibility of failure.
Without cutting too much into future chapters, let’s look at a few situ-
ations that can get us into trouble.
First, it helps to divide our equipment into two categories: hardware
and fabric. Hardware includes carabiners, descending devices, ascend-
ing devices, and other auxiliary equipment. Safety issues involving
hardware usually center around correct use and loading. These devices
are designed to function in a specific plane or direction and, when
stressed inappropriately, distortion or failure can result. A common
situation is a cross-loaded carabiner on a system or in a descending
evolution. Instead of the forces pulling along the major axis, they pull
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60 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

along the minor axis, for which the unit wasn’t designed.
Fabric refers to the webbing and rope. Webbing is considered dis-
posable and takes the brunt of abrasive surfaces so as to save the rope.
This doesn’t mean to use it a few times and throw it out, however—
simply that it is more cost-effective to abrade a couple of 10-foot webb
slings than to damage a 50-foot section of rescue rope. Rope is the
main load-carrying medium throughout the length of any system.
The primary enemies of webbing and rope are abrasive and sharp
edges. To minimize fabric failure, use edge protection or remove the
trouble spots. Chapter Four will address this subject in more detail.
In any system failure, it’s usually one of the weaker links that starts
a chain of undesirable effects. Look at the top of the system, at the
anchor point. Is there more than one? If so, what type are they? Is
there a backup system? How much and what type of fabric is used?
Access and transportation systems (i.e., edge protection, rope grabs,
ropes, pulleys, racks, eights, carabiners) typically fail because (1)
dynamic loads and unforeseen stresses are placed on the system, (2)
the equipment is used incorrectly, (3) components have been jerry-
rigged in a pinch, (4) too much mechanical advantage has been creat-
ed, or (5) too many people are pulling. It is axiomatic that a simpler
system is less likely to fail because there are fewer links in the chain.

ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENT
In the section on personal safety equipment, I listed some basic
items that should be used, depending on circumstances. In terms of
rope rescue, some common environments require an additional degree
of planning. Again, rope techniques don’t stand alone—you must
combine them with all of your other firefighter skills and experience
to carry out the mission and return intact. Generally speaking, rope
evolutions are relatively safe; however, the environment in which we
operate always plays a role and often is the cause of failure. As fire-
fighters, we must never be so naive as to think that as long as a system
is right, nothing can happen.
Consider the deadliest environment of them all, the structure fire.
Some of its inherent dangers include the lack of oxygen, toxic gases,
high heat, and smoke. If you’re going to perform a rope rescue in and
around the fireground, you’re going to need respiratory protection—
an approved positive-pressure self-contained breathing apparatus, or
SCBA. Firefighters must be proficient at setting up and performing
their missions with their masks on. The mask shouldn’t make too
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Safety and Personal Protective Equipment 61

much of a difference. For some, however, it’s a distraction that must be

overcome. Many brands are available, but whatever mask you choose
must comply with NFPA 1981, Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing
Apparatus for the Fire Service.
Granted that the problems of setting up a rope system on or in a
burning building are too numerous to mention, I’ll list some of the
major ones:

1. Finding suitable anchor points.

2. Maintaining visual and verbal contact with team members.
3. Rapidly changing conditions.
4. Sharp edges such as glass, flashing, and gutters that can cut
your rope or webbing.
5. Heat and flames impinging on the rope.
6. The area of refuge being overtaken by fire.

Confined spaces present another dangerous environment, claiming

many lives and injuring many more. The subject of confined space res-
cue is presently in vogue, in part due to 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit
Required Confined Spaces, which has had a tremendous impact on pri-
vate industry and the fire service. This type of environment is note-
worthy because of the number of rescuers who fall victim to it.
A myriad of hazards are found in confined spaces; however, respira-
tory protection could eliminate many of them. Initial and continuous
air quality monitoring, coupled with appropriate respiratory protec-
tion, is key to success.
Once a firefighter enters the space, he must perform all of his activ-
ities with his mask on. Some can overcome this distraction with prac-
tice. Using respiratory protection in such environs can prove difficult
depending on the size of the space. Would-be rescuers have been killed
by removing their SCBAs to squeeze through an opening, only to have
their masks inadvertently pulled from their faces.
Currently, many industrial brigades and municipal fire departments
are using supplied air respirators for those entering spaces that would
preclude having an SCBA strapped to your back. This respiratory
device supplies air through a hoseline, either from cascade bottles, a
specialized air compressor, or a series of smaller air cylinders from an
air cart stationed outside the void. The wearer has virtually unlimited
air. In the event of a failure of any kind, he has a five- to ten-minute
bottle to rely on for his escape.
Consult CFR 1910.134, Respiratory Equipment, for more details on
such devices.
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62 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

The great outdoors is truly the ultimate environment. Here we must

endure heat, cold, wind, snow, rain, fire, flooding, and whatever else
Mother Nature throws our way. Any of these factors can cause injury
or death to a would-be rescuer. Extremes of temperature can rob us of
our senses and judgment. Rain and snow can make conditions slippery
and blinding. High winds can push us off mountaintops, bridges, and
towers. Clearly, repetitive evolutions and timely use of rope techniques
can save your life.
Industrial environments are ominous because they are both exotic
and man-made. Although many hazards can be described, the one I
want to discuss is noise. Often enough, rope rescue has to be per-
formed around operating equipment. Pump stations are prime exam-
ples of where you may be able to isolate some of the machinery; how-
ever, it is nearly impossible to shut it all down for obvious reasons.
Even brief exposure to loud noise without ear protection can prove
deafening, hampering your ability to perform. Noise also makes com-
munications difficult, if not impossible. Rescuers operating in high-
decibel contexts must use suitable ear protection. Traditional ear muffs
get in the way of helmets or when working in tight spaces. A variety of
squeezable foam or low-profile ear sets are available and should be used.
The last adverse environment is a matter of universal threat: being
in the wrong place at the wrong time. Why this last category? Because
there are those among us who sometimes forget how dangerous our
jobs really are. Even if you train extensively, equip yourself properly,
control the incident, and keep known risks to a minimum, you can
become a casualty. For all our strides in reducing death and injuries,
we cannot forget the imminent danger of our profession. It doesn’t
matter whether you belong to a 50-call-a-year company or a 5,000-call-
a-year company—members in either organization can fall prey to cir-
cumstances beyond anyone’s control. The best you can do is to pay
attention to those things that are within your power, keep your eyes
open, and always give yourself an out.
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Safety and Personal Protective Equipment 63

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. According to education theory, a hands-on, step-by-

step evolution is used to test ability under which
domain of learning?
2. What class of harnesses is recommended if inverting
is expected in a rope evolution?
3. The two categories of rope rescue equipment are
_______________ and _______________.
4. What are the primary enemies of rope and webbing at
an operating site?
5. The supplied air respirator is gaining popularity in
protecting firefighters in which type of rescue envi-
ronment?
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Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 65

Chapter Four

Rope

T
he first three chapters cover some of the important administra-
tive concepts that you must understand prior to performing any
rope evolutions. The principle of training in context is currently
in vogue, meaning more time is spent gaining hands-on experience
and less on lecture. Even before this method became popular, howev-
er, many students failed to grasp those boring classroom, skull-busting,
cognitive lessons. Studying nomenclature and technical material was
for officers and training guys, not those actively working in the field.
It’s this lack of concern for the details of any firefighting topic that can
spell the difference between success and tragedy.
By analogy, consider a recent conference of instructors and line offi-
cers. The question came up: What kind of threads are on your 13⁄4-inch
hoselines? In an area dominated by iron pipe threads, and with your
department adhering to national standards, what do you think could
happen on a mutual aid call, hooking up your hose to another depart-
ment’s pump? Pay attention to detail, technical or otherwise!
This chapter is devoted to webbing, rope, and other cordage. You
need to understand some of the nonglamorous details about this fab-
ric. Taking it for granted can quickly turn you into a statistic.

HISTORY
We’ll consider the modern fire service to have been born in the era
just after World War II. As in most other fields, this period has seen the
all-time greatest growth in technologies and skills.
The rope fibers predominantly available in the early days were the
natural-fibered manila or hemp products. These natural-fibered three-
strand ropes were the primary weight-carrying medium well into the

65
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66 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

1970s. What’s scary is that you can still find them being used for res-
cue purposes today. Old chiefs have old ways. Prior to the changeover
to synthetic fibers, the two natural mainstays were the 5/8-inch rope,
which had a breaking strength of 4,400 lbs. new, and the 3/4-inch
rope, which had a breaking strength of 5,400 lbs. new. That 3/4-inch
rope was quite a beast, but modern fabrics and techniques can con-
struct a rope of the same strength at a fraction of the size. Among sport
climbers, synthetic-fibered ropes had already been in use for some
time. Being dynamic in nature, they were generally considered inap-
propriate for the fire service. Synthetic materials such as nylon were
invented before World War II but didn’t gain acceptance into the
mainstream fire service until the 1980s.
So as not to take it for granted, what exactly is rope, anyway? Rope
is a highly versatile rescue tool. It is low in cost and requires little
maintenance but great care. Without it you could be stranded high
above or well below the rest of the world. Virtually every fire appara-
tus in existence has some on board for one reason or another. Rope can
be divided into two broad categories: that for utility use and that for
life safety. The thrust of this chapter will be on rope’s life safety use,
since that is where our futures are most at stake.
Whenever I teach this subject, I generally start with NFPA 1983, which
gives the criteria for the components we use. The logical sequence is then
to cover materials or fibers, construction, and management of rope. The
primary reason I reference the NFPA standard is to be comprehensive. I
don’t pretend for one minute that this or any other NFPA standard is
beloved by all in the fire service. I also realize that no standard is a shield
that will protect us from the dangers we encounter on the job. What
NFPA 1983 does provide is criteria for design, construction, and perfor-
mance of life safety components used by firefighters in critical opera-
tions. It doesn’t cover any specific techniques; rather, it gives you a base-
line for physical components to perform rope rescue evolutions safely.
The original standard came out in 1985 and was entitled Fire Service
Life Safety Rope, Harness, and Hardware. In 1990, it was revised. When
revised again in 1995, it was given its present title, Fire Service Life
Safety Rope and System Components.
Many firefighters out there still aren’t fully aware of the standard or
its impact, so I’m taking this opportunity to promulgate it. If this edu-
cational forum saves one life, then it’s worth the time. Every organi-
zation should have at least one copy of NFPA 1983 available for refer-
ence purposes. For ease and to cut down on repetitions, “standard”
will mean the NFPA 1983 standard.
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Rope 67

ENGINEERING ROPE
Two primary considerations when rope is engineered are what materi-
al to make it from and what method of construction to use. The word
fiber will refer to the material component of a rope, whatever its specific
characteristics. The first category of materials available to man were the
natural fibers from plants and trees. For centuries, humans have woven
ropes from a long list of regionally available materials. Today, natural
fibers aren’t even allowed in the fire service or in any other life safety situ-
ations because of their limitations. Natural fibers such as cotton, sisal,
jute, hemp, and manila were some of the common materials once used
to lay rope. Manila became popular in the fire service because of its
strength and reliability. Found in the abaca plant, it is graded according
to the quality of its fibers. That which is derived from the inner portion
of the plant has a Grade 1 designation. These plant fibers are limited to
about 12 to 15 feet in length by nature; when they are processed, they get
cut down even shorter than that. To manufacture cordage, fibers are
turned into yarns, yarns into strands, and strands into rope.
The standard requires that life safety rope be of block creel construc-
tion. This means that the fibers must run continuously throughout the
rope. As you can see, short natural fibers can’t be used because one fin-
ished rope is actually many little ones joined together. The issue of con-
tinuous reliability comes into play. Other references in the standard also
knock natural fibers out of the picture. In assessing materials for con-
struction, natural fibers have many drawbacks in terms of life safety use:

1. A rope of natural fibers absorbs everything it contacts. It’s one

long sponge. Years ago, new rope was soaked in water to soften
it up. This action also decreased its breaking strength, which
was poor to begin with.
2. Natural fibers rapidly degrade, even when properly stored.
3. A natural-fiber rope attracts mildew because it never really dries
out. It can also rot quickly.
4. Natural fibers burn and lose their load-carrying ability more
quickly than synthetics.
5. In prior years, the rope in service often wasn’t Grade 1, so the
incidence of failure was higher.
6. Natural fibers have low resistance to abrasive surfaces.
7. Natural-fiber ropes have low resistance to shock loading.
8. A rope of natural fiber can absorb 50 percent or more of its own
weight in water—a real drawback in any rescue.
9. Comparable synthetic ropes are dramatically stronger.
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68 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Currently, hemp products are making a comeback in the United

States in the form of clothing and other products. Still, natural fibers
have disappeared from the mainstream fire service and shouldn’t even
be used for utility work. Those departments that do downgrade their
life safety ropes should identify them appropriately to lessen the
chance of an error being made.
Synthetic fibers came out of the great World War II industrial
process. Like so many great inventions, they are children of the mili-
tary. The armed forces were looking for a lightweight yet rugged fabric
that would have many applications. In 1938, E.I. du Pont de Nemours
& Co. invented nylon, and the rest, as they say, is history. Today, sev-
eral synthetic fibers are in use in the rope rescue field. Let’s look at syn-
thetics in general and their attributes with respect to safety:

1. Synthetic fibers can run continously throughout the length of

the rope for greater strength.
2. They don’t degrade or age as fast as natural fibers.
3. They allow different engineering methods to be used, resulting
in a better finished product.
4. They have greater resistance to rotting.
5. They don’t absorb water as readily as natural fibers. This is due
to the particular polymer being used, the treatment of initial
filaments, and/or a postmanufacturing dry treatment.
6. They melt or burn at higher temperatures than natural fibers.
7. Their strength factor compared with natural-fiber ropes of sim-
ilar diameter is dramatically greater.
8. They have higher resistance to shock loads.

Some well-known drawbacks of synthetic-fiber ropes are:

1. Loading them over a sharp edge can cause them to fail.

2. Prolonged exposure to sunlight and its ultraviolet rays can
damage them or decrease their life expectancy.
3. Contact with acids or alkalies can degrade them.

The synthetic fibers of modern rope construction are grouped into

families. All of these families have specific characteristics setting them
apart from the others—characteristics that decide the design and man-
ufacture of a given rope.
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Rope 69

THE SYNTHETIC FIBERS

Nylon
Let’s look at the individual fibers used in life safety applications. The
polyamides are the nylon family. This multiuse fiber is used in thou-
sands of products today, ranging from rescue ropes to hunting socks.
Nylon is the predominant fiber for rope rescues and webbing. This
material has many more assets than drawbacks. There are many manu-
facturers of nylon fibers today since its invention by DuPont. When
promoting rescue rope, marketers will list the specifications as nylon
or as a manufacturer’s chemical formula for its specific fiber. In Europe,
you may see polyamides listed as Perlon in Germany and as Grilon in
Switzerland. In the early days, Perlon was used quite a bit. Perlon is the
name for Type 6 nylon, used in many world-famous climbing ropes.
The attributes of nylon are:

1. It is the predominant material for life safety ropes due to its

superior characteristics and cost-effectiveness.
2. It is more elastic than its closest cousin, polyester.

The drawbacks of nylon are:

1. It loses approximately 15 percent of its strength when it is wet,

though it will regain that strength when dried.
2. It can be damaged by various chemicals, including acids.
3. It has a melting point of approximately 480°F, a concern when-
ever high temperatures or direct flame impingement is possible.

When searching through manufacturers’ or distributors’ catalogs,

many times you’ll see references to nylon 6 or nylon 6.6. These num-
bers refer to the chemical formula of the polymer itself. For example,
DuPont manufactures nylon 6.6, then classifies the filaments accord-
ing to type. This further classification denotes the various properties
for specific customers, such as manufacturers of rescue rope. To com-
plete this illustration, sometimes you’ll see references to such fibers as
nylon 6.6 or DuPont 707. Out of the 13 types listed in the DuPont
Industrial Filament Yarns tech bulletin, two are often referenced in
rope catalogs: Type 707 and Type 728.

Polyester
Polyester is the second most common fiber used in the construction
of rescue ropes. Polyester fibers are also known as Dacron™ by DuPont.
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70 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Dacron ropes were popular in the three-strand laid version during the
late ’70s and ’80s. This was when pompier belts dominated; before sta-
tic kernmantle and technical rope equipment became more common-
place in the mainstream fire service. (Kernmantle rope, as will be dis-
cussed below, is comprised of a core of many fibers and an outer sheath
for form and protection.) At that time, Dacron ropes were purchased
from commercial cordage companies rather than traditional rescue
rope suppliers. Polyester is a fantastic fabric with many of the assets of
nylon but also a few differences worth mentioning.
The attributes of polyesters are:

1. Polyester doesn’t absorb water to any degree, being only about

two percent hydrophilic.
2. Polyester has a much higher resistance to ultraviolet light and
potential sunlight damage.
3. Polyester has better resistance to abrasive surfaces.
4. Polyester has better resistance to acids.

The drawbacks of polyester are:

1. Polyester’s strength is approximately 10 percent less than that

of nylon.
2. Polyester has approximately half the shock-absorbing capacity
of nylon.
3. Polyester can be damaged and weakened by contacting alkali
chemicals.

Several rope manufacturers produce rescue ropes made with nylon

kerns and polyester mantles, drawing from the best attributes of both
varieties.
Vectran HS® is a high-performance filament yarn spun from Hoechst
Celanese’s Vectra® liquid crystal polymer. This is the newest of the
fibers available, and it’s beginning to appear in the rope rescue field.
The attributes of Vectran are:

1. High strength.
2. Low moisture absorption.
3. It doesn’t creep.
4. It retains its properties over a broad temperature range.
5. It has extraordinary chemical resistance.
6. It is easily knotted.
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The drawbacks of Vectran are:

1. It costs approximately 15 times as much as raw polyester fibers.

Presently this fiber is being used in the production of accessory
cords.

The Polyolefins Family

Polypropylene and polyethelene are the lightest of the synthetics
discussed so far. They are divided into either monofilament or multi-
filament fibers. Modern fishing line is constructed from multifilament
fibers, as are these poly ropes.
The attributes of the polyolefins are:

1. They don’t absorb water.

2. They float on water.
3. They resist degradation by many chemicals.

The drawbacks of the polyolefins are:

1. They have low tensile strength.

2. They rapidly deteriorate from exposure to sunlight.
3. They knot poorly.
4. They have only about 60 percent the energy absorption of
nylon.
5. They have low melting points—approximately 200°F.
6. They have poor resistance to abrasive surfaces.

The bottom line is that this material shouldn’t be used for life-
dependent activities, including any technical rescue operation where
the rope will be supporting a life. This material is popular for water res-
cue situations where rescuers are supported by a primary flotation
device rather than the rope. If in doubt, use a rescue-grade rope.

The Aramid Family

Kevlar™ by DuPont is the latest material to enter the rescue service
field. Most people associate this material with bulletproof vests.
Southern Mills of Union City, Georgia, also blends it with PBI™ to
make turnout gear.
The attributes of Kevlar™ are:

1. It has a very high strength-to-weight ratio.

2. It has good stretch resistance.
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72 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

3. It doesn’t creep.
4. It has excellent tension-tension fatigue life.
5. It is usable over a wide temperature range.
6. It is electrically nonconductive.
7. It has outstanding environmental and chemical resistance.
8. Pound for pound, it is five times as strong as steel, having one-
fifth the weight of steel in air and 1/20th the weight of steel in
water.

The drawbacks of Kevlar™ are:

1. It has poor resistance to abrasive surfaces.

2. It has poor shock-absorbing qualities.
3. Bending it to small radii, as in tying and untying it, easily dam-
ages the fibers.

Presently, Kevlar™ is used in small quantities for the construction of

accessory cords for chocks. Usually it’s combined with another mater-
ial such as polyamide (nylon) in the finished product. It’s still a new-
comer in terms of acceptance and long-term performance in the rope
rescue field.

ROPE CONSTRUCTION
The actual method of construction is the second consideration in
the manufacture of rope. While the material is critical, so is the intend-
ed use of the finished product. This is where you, the customer, must
buy rope based on its attributes if it is to safely perform a given task.

Laid Construction
Laid construction was the predominant method for many years,
using both natural and synthetic fibers. When the fire service pur-
chased hemp or manila rope, it was a three-strand right-hand laid
rope. This method is still used and popular for commercial cordage. It
is also known as twisted, plain, or hawser-laid rope. I’m told that the
current term hawser is an indication of extremely large-diameter rope,
such as is used in the marine industry. Anyway, I grew up knowing it
as hawser laid—like many terms out there, it has taken on a life of its
own. Modern synthetic twisted ropes are available in a soft or hard lay.
The soft lay is indicative of commercial or nonrescue-grade ropes,
being supple and easily knotted. The hard or mountain lay is a tightly
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Rope 73

Laid Rope

Fibers

Yarns

Strands

Rope

twisted rope, providing some resistance to abrasion. It isn’t easy to tie

knots with it, and they need to be backed up. The brand manufactured
by Plymouth, called Goldline™, was quite popular well into the early
’80s. U.S. military personnel use a similar rope called greenline for tac-
tical air assault operations. This product is still available in military
supply catalogs.
Although sport climbing has had a tremendous influence on the res-
cue field, so too have the cavers. Many belong to the National
Speleological Society, and explorers such as these have developed spe-
cial techniques while pushing for technological advances. Among
their needs was a rope that could support them on long vertical
descents. In caving, such descents can reach more than 1,000 feet. To
meet such distances, single-rope techniques had to be developed and
refined. Single rope means just that—no belay or backup. The moun-
tain lay was decently suited for the abrasive environments that cavers
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74 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

encounter; however, its drawbacks were accentuated by the long

drops. Such rope passing through a descending device causes spinning
and kinking and makes for a tough time at the bottom of a rappel.
Although it took many years for it to appear on the scene, cavers
sought a replacement for the laid rope. Let’s examine some of the han-
dling characteristics of laid rope when it is made out of nylon rather
than natural fiber.
Common handling characteristics of nylon laid rope are:

1. It stretches under load.

2. It untwists when loaded and causes a spinning or kinking reac-
tion.
3. When its load-carrying fibers are exposed to the environment,
abrasive surfaces, and heat-generating mechanical devices, the
rope’s integrity can be compromised.
4. Nylon hard-laid ropes are difficult to manage for transport and
deployment because their stiffness limits your options.
5. More friction is created by laid ropes due to their bumpy
exterior.

In the final analysis, laid ropes are predominantly used for utility
work rather than life safety purposes. One of the problems experienced
by personnel who still use ladder belts or the pompier-style friction
device is that right-hand laid rope untwists itself. There have been
occasions when this untwisting has opened the gate of the descending
device, disconnecting the member from the rope. This has been reme-
died by using left-hand rope and aggressive training. By and large,
kernmantle ropes are what are predominantly used today. The largest
user of laid ropes for fire service rescue operations is the Fire
Department of New York, which uses a 9/16 left-hand laid nylon rope
with a snap link at each end, packed into a rectangular carrying bag.
FDNY employs specific techniques and hardware for lowering mem-
bers down to victims.

Plaited Construction
With plaited construction, the specific terminology involved seems
to depend on either the manufacturer or what region of the country
you come from. Essentially it is constructed by weaving eight strands
together to form a rope.
Plaited construction’s common characteristics are:

1. It forms a very supple rope.

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Rope 75

2. Its load-carrying fibers are totally exposed and subject to dam-

age.
3. It stands a higher chance of getting snagged by abrasive sur-
faces, a condition known as “picking.”

Plaited Rope

Because of its drawbacks, plaited rope isn’t suitable for life safety
applications.

Braid on Braid
This rope became the replacement for the mountain lay used by spe-
lunkers. It was adopted for use in the 1960s because of its high
strength and low-spin characteristics. Remember that the spin of the
laid rope used to be an operational nightmare. In those days, braid on
braid was called Samson rope, after its manufacturer.

Double Braid
This rope is essentially one braided rope over another. It is consid-
ered an early version of the kernmantle rope. It became popular with
the fire service along with the nylon- or Dacron-laid rope in the late
’70s and early ’80s. At that time, it wasn’t uncommon to see 3/4- to 1-
inch-diameter ropes with eyehooks spliced into the ends. They still
appear on apparatus in my region of the country.

Double-Braid Rope Showing the Sheath and Braided Core

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76 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

The common handling characterisitics of double-braided rope are:

1. It’s supple.
2. It’s prone to picking.
3. It’s prone to core and sheath slippage.
4. Contaminants are not easily cleaned from it.
5. Its load-bearing fibers are exposed to damage.

Although suitable for life-saving operations, double-braided rope has

largely been replaced by kernmantle varieties.

Kernmantle Rope
The term kernmantle is German in origin, kern meaning core and
mantle meaning sheath. Both words denote the two parts of the
rope’s construction. This is currently the predominant type used in
caving, sport climbing, and rope rescue operations in a variety of dis-
ciplines, including the fire service. Intrinsic to any discussion of kern-
mantle rope are the terms static and dynamic. At issue is the elonga-
tion ability of any given rope. Both types are important to rope res-
cue operations and offer different characteristics to suit different
needs. Static kernmantle was originally used for caving in the United
States. Dynamic kernmantle traces its origins back to sport applica-
tions in Europe. Regardless of variety, kernmantle ropes manufactured
in accordance with particular standards provide a high degree of safe-
ty to the user. Many times, people will arbitrarily refer to a rope as
being either dynamic or static, causing a controversy over terminolo-
gy. Since the predominant rescue rope is “kernmantle,” and that’s all
you use, then the lingo is probably okay. All you need to remember is
that all of these ropes have elongation characteristics, some more
than others.
Static Kernmantle: Like any rope, static kernmantle was created
with a specific purpose in mind. As mentioned above, spelunkers were
looking for a better rope to accomplish their single-rope techniques
during long descents. They needed a rope that had high resistance to
abrasion, low stretch, and low spin. Prior to its use in the rescue field,
this rope was even known as caving kernmantle. It was pretty much
exclusive to the sport from the late ’60s to the early ’80s. Then, in
1980, two FDNY firefighters fell to their death when their lifeline
broke during a fireground rescue. This event and a revised standard,
published in 1985, brought fire service rope problems to the fore and
evoked a positive change. Of all ropes, static kernmantle is now con-
sidered the best-suited for mechanical advantage systems and most fire
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Rope 77

service rope operations. Due to the influence of European dynamic

rope, static kernmantle diameters and lengths are expressed in metric
units. Ropes are sold as 9 mm or 11 mm diameter and 45 or 50 meters
in length. After much debate and consultation among manufacturers,
instructors, allied professionals, and union interests, a consensus has
specified life safety rope to have a breaking strength of 9,000 lbs. and
a working-to-breaking safety factor of 15. At the time, kernmantle rope
wasn’t mainstream, however, and the breaking strength requirement
was met by using 9/16- to one-inch laid nylon rope—the commonly
used 11 mm (approx. 7/16 inch) static kernmantle rope wasn’t strong
enough. I can remember two problems arising when trying to pur-
chase 9,000-lb. static kernmantle at that time. First, much of the
mountaineering hardware used by the fire service was designed for
ropes of 7/16 inch and smaller. Second, the only kernmantle rope
available in that strength range was the 16 mm (approx. 5/8 inch),
which had a rating in excess of 13,000 lbs. This rope went well and
above the requirement and filled our needs. Operationally, this 5/8-inch
rope was heavy and a chore to tie in knots. Also, it was difficult to find
suitable and inexpensive hardware for it. The standard, once it came out,
listed the requirements for a one- and two-person load only, not a spe-
cific diameter (although it does give minimum and maximum circum-
ferences). Eventually manufacturers reengineered the 1/2-inch rope to
meet the 9,000-lb. requirement. I remember calling a manufacturer and
asking him what his company had done differently. The spokesman’s
response was that they’d “stuffed more fibers into the sheath.”
As an aside, the metric measurement is currently being replaced by
inches due to the large demand for static rope and almost exclusive
production by U.S. companies.
Dynamic Kernmantle: This type has been around longer than static
kernmantle. Europe’s infatuation with its beautiful mountain ranges
required a special rope to provide sport climbers a higher degree of
safety. Besides its greater ability to stretch, it has a lower resistance to
abrasion than static kernmantle. Because it has been engineered to
absorb energy by stretching, it is used in situations where shock load-
ing might occur—obviously this is better than having the human body
bear the full force of a fall. Dynamic rope has limited applications on
the fireground at this time, either because of prejudice, lack of knowl-
edge, or needs that are variant to its characteristics. Many of the evo-
lutions performed on the fireground require a low-stretch rope for a
variety of reasons, and static kernmantle remains the reigning fire and
rescue rope. Generally speaking, dynamic rope would be used in situ-
ations where a firefighter might fall or need to be belayed.
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78 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Yarn filament purchased by the beam.

Construction of Kernmantle
There are several U.S. companies that now manufacture dynamic as
well as static kernmantle. The overall construction process is about the
same. At the beginning is a filament yarn that comes by the beam, a
large roll containing the smallest unit of fiber to be used. The core sec-
tion is constructed into bundles from the base yarn, and this is where
each particular style gets its operating characteristics. Static kernman-
tle’s elongation runs at about 1.5 percent with a 200-lb. load to just
under 20 percent at yield. Dynamic kernmantle’s primary trait is that of
high stretch or energy absorption, important to any belaying evolution.
Elongation of this type runs at about six percent at a 176-lb. load to just
under 55 percent at yield, depending on the manufacturer. The core
accounts for about 70 percent of the rope’s strength and the sheath for
the other 30 percent. These ratios can fluctuate depending on the
manufacturer and how a given rope was engineered. In many instances,
the fibers used in construction are pretreated at the point of manufac-
ture for added water repellency prior to being braided. Special lubri-
cants are sometimes used to reduce friction. In general terms, static
cores are constructed in parallel fiber bundles, although new advances
in technology are allowing static ropes to be manufactured in ways sim-
ilar to dynamic types. Both dynamic and static cores are braided or
twisted in a specific pattern of Z’s or left-handed twists and S’s or right-
handed twists. This creates a balanced and torque-free end product. The
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Rope 79

Dyed yarn on bobbins,

ready to be processed.

core fibers are usually white, since this helps control cost. Also, they can
easily be identified if they pop out of the sheath. The mantle can come
in a whole host of colors from plain white to motley. Static ropes typi-
cally are of one solid color and a contrasting tracer. Dynamic ropes tend
to come in three to four colors. This is one way departments can iden-
tify their ropes for members who don’t quite understand the difference.
During manufacture, a basic white filament yarn can be colorized in one
of two ways. The first is to add a colorant to it during the original extru-
sion process; the second is to dye it afterward. Dyeing is the more com-
mon practice. The yarn is sent out to be dyed at a facility that specializes
in this process. Obviously, this adds to the cost of the finished product.

Dynamic kernmantle in the making.

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80 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

The difference in price for a static rope is approximately ten cents a foot.
Next, the fibers are wound onto braider bobbins, small spools that
hold the smaller yarn fibers so that they can be set into the braiding
machine. Other machines make the core fiber bundles and prepare
them for final setup. The core bundles are drawn through the braiding
machine while the sheath is woven around it. To construct a rope with
multiple colors requires the dyed yarns to be placed in a specific order
so as to be properly braided.
Besides type, diameter, and color is the consideration of dry-treating
a rope. Increased awareness of what moisture can do to a rescue rope
has placed more and more emphasis on treating the core and the
sheath. Wet ropes have lower tensile strength. They can freeze more
quickly and are more likely to experience failure if shock loaded. Also,
water in a rope increases the difficulty of using auxiliary system com-
ponents, besides adding to the load.

PURCHASING ROPE
Purchasing rope is like buying a car from the top-five list: All are pret-
ty good, but all look and feel different. Rope is the same way, and each
manufacturer is looking for your business. I don’t buy rope that I can’t
try out first. There are about five or six major manufacturers in the United
States who produce static ropes. I always call for a sample before making
a purchase. Most have sent me a good 75- to 100-foot section to rappel
on. This gives me a feel for the rope’s handling characteristics, and these
sections of rope tend to be too small to sell, anyway.
To begin, you’ll want to compare specifications, such as:

1. Materials used in the core and sheath.

2. The weight per 100 feet of rope. A heavier product may indicate
greater strength or higher abrasion resistance.
3. Sheath thickness can affect abrasion resistance. Some ropes are
designed to take more abuse; however, the trade-off is a stiffer rope.
4. Some ropes are coated in an effort to increase their abrasion
resistance.
5. Do you need or want colored rope? Many are white with a trac-
er for contrast. As mentioned above, colored ropes cost more
per foot because they have to be dyed.
6. What length do you need? Rescue rope can be cut to almost any
reasonable length. There’s at least one U.S. company that can
make a 3,300-foot spliceless rope if you’re in the market for it.
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Rope 81

Until recently, dynamic ropes were purchased primarily from

European manufacturers. Their lengths are generally 45 or 50 meters
(approximately 150 and 165 feet, respectively) and are 11 mm (7/16
inch) in diameter. These are considered one-person ropes under the
standard. Today, dynamic kernmantle is available from several U.S.
manufacturers. These companies produce not only quality and fea-
tures that rival their European counterparts, they also produce stan-
dard lengths from 45 to 200 meters without additional cost.

ACCESSORY CORDS
Accessory cords are small-diameter cords primarily used to form grab
devices (prusiks) that work on rescue rope. They are also used for chock
slings, equipment tie-downs, tag lines, and many other nonlife safety
applications. Cordage under 8 mm is generally considered accessory
cord. As with rescue rope, accessory cords come in many sizes, options,
and handling characteristics. When you read marketing catalogs, you’ll
see several different terms used in connection with them. These aren’t
just little kernmantle ropes; they aren’t rated for self-supporting life safe-
ty applications. Terms such as accessory cord, prusik cord, and rescue
cord designate them in the catalogs. A vast majority are of nylon static
kernmantle construction and are available in various diameters and
sheath thicknesses.
When used to tie a prusik knot on a rescue rope, these sheath thick-
nesses influence the grip on the rope. In general, the stiffer the cord,
the less effective the grip; the softer or more pliable the cord, the more
effective the grip. Consequently, there is a trade-off in the manufac-
turing process between strength, wear, and suppleness.

WEBBING
Webbing is the last member of the fabric family to discuss. Webbing
is also known as tape, flat rope, and sometimes slings. It is a common
and highly versatile component in many rope rescue systems and is
used to construct individual harnesses, presewn slings and runners,
hastily tied harnesses, pretied slings, and much more. Webbing for rope
operations comes in two broad styles, flat and tubular. A quick look and
you’ll find them both to be flat in appearance. It’s when you look at a
side view or roll them in your fingers that you’ll be able to tell that one
is solid and the other hollow. Flat webbing resembles seat belt con-
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82 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

struction, except that it’s stiffer and difficult to tie into knots. Tubular
webbing is supple and easy to work with; therefore, this is the type
most widely used for rescue operations. The construction method for
tubular webbing varies and needs to be considered. Only buy it from a
reputable dealer. There are three methods used in its construction, the
first being an older style of chain or edge-stitched webbing. The second
is spiral or shuttle loom webbing. The third is called needle loom. The
problem with the older style of chain webbing is its low resistance to
abrasion and the likelihood that it will unravel once the stitch is
exposed. This type is pretty much extinct among the major suppliers of
rope rescue equipment. Spiral-constructed webbing resembles an
enclosed tube that is flat in appearance but hollow in the center.
However, the spiral is being replaced by the needle loom, since the spi-
ral or shuttle loom machines are no longer available. All new machines
produce the needle loom style. The needle loom resembles the chain
loom but is actually superior to the shuttle loom type.
Webbing is available from 1/2 inch to three inches in width in both
varieties, depending on the manufacturer, in both flat and tubular
styles. One-inch tubular is perhaps the most widely used type in the res-
cue services field, although a lot of two-inch webbing is used. Many
anchor systems are built with it because webbing takes the brunt of the
abrading surfaces and it’s expendable. Webbing is also relatively cheap-
er than rescue rope and is considered disposable so as to prolong the life
of the rope. When purchasing webbing, make sure that it conforms
with the applicable mil-spec; for example, a one-inch tubular meets
mil-spec type Mil-W-5625 from the manufacturer.

QUALITY CONTROL
Unbeknownst to many, a multitude of influences can affect the qual-
ity of all rope rescue equipment. To protect the user, manufacturers
that produce this equipment must follow a series of standards, admini-
strative guidelines, and regulations. Let’s define those terms:

1. A standard is a document put together through a consensus of

individuals sharing interest in a specific field. Standards are cre-
ated to fill a gap and establish some rules as a basis for opera-
tions. In the case of NFPA 1983, the standard is essentially a
document that lists performance criteria for components used
in the fire service’s rope rescues. A standard doesn’t have the
force of law, since many come from nongovernmental associa-
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Rope 83

tions. A standard may be used against you in litigation, howev-

er. You may be held to one because that is what your peers use
in performing their duties. A standard may have the force of
law if it’s adopted by your organization or incorporated by state
law.
2. Administrative guidelines tend to be methods, procedures,
processes, and the like that are promulgated by associations,
industry trade groups, and government agencies. They can be
considered standards; however, they are usually a small piece of
a larger document.
3. A regulation is issued by a government entity and is considered
a law, carrying the force of compliance and penalties for non-
compliance. An OSHA regulation would be a good example.

Following are some organizations that directly influence the techni-

cal outcome of components used by the fire service for rope rescue:

NFPA
National Fire Protection Association
Batterymarch Park
Quincy, MA 02269-9101
(800) 344-3555

NFPA 1983, Fire Service Life Safety Rope and System Components, is the
document that fire service personnel look to when purchasing this
type of equipment. Contained within this and many other NFPA stan-
dards are references from other associations, agencies, and trade
groups. Such references are technical attributes that ensure quality
control or minimum performance.

UIAA
Union of International Alpine Associations
c/o American Alpine Club
710 Tenth Street, Suite 100
Golden, CO 80401
(303) 384-0110
E-mail: 10064.3042.@[Link]

This organization establishes performance criteria for equipment

used by moutaineers. This encompasses hardware, harnesses, and
dynamic ropes.
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84 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

ANSI
American National Standards Institute Inc.
11 West 42nd Street
New York, NY 10036
(212) 642-4900

This organization approves standards from other organizations with

regard to technical accuracy. Organizations such as the NFPA and the
ASTM are accredited standards developers who submit their documents
to ANSI for approval as an American National Standard. ANSI is the coor-
dinating body for national standards and is the U.S. representative of
ISO. ANSI also sets standards of its own for a variety of occupations and
products. ANSI has a strong interest in standards for safety belts, har-
nesses, lanyards, life lines, and drop lines for construction and industrial
use. This directly relates to equipment used for confined space rescue.

ASTM
American Society of Testing and Materials
100 Barr Harbor Drive
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
(610) 832-9728

This organization is involved with setting standards for materials and

techniques used by a wide variety of industries. It establishes a standard
by using a consensus of all affected parties. This includes designers,
manufacturers, marketers, and customers. Presently the ASTM F-32
Committee on Search and Rescue is working on a rope and hardware
standard for equipment used in search and rescue operations.

OSHA
U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Department of Labor
200 Constitution Avenue
Washington, DC 20210
(202) 219-8191

This organization is involved in workplace safety. OSHA doesn’t

have any regulations specific to fire service rope and ancillary equip-
ment presently; however, some of its regulations may preclude using
regular rope techniques in certain situations. 29 CFR 1910.146, the
confined space regulation, is one that comes to mind. Check with your
local federal or state OSHA or equivalent for interpretations.
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Rope 85

TESTING
To ensure the safety of the user, many of the primary components
critical to life safety are tested against the applicable standard. For
example, NFPA 1983 lists the minimum breaking strength for one- and
two-person ropes, which are 4,500 lbs. and 9,000 lbs., respectively. You
must read the fine print when purchasing rope, since some manufac-
turers list the average and not the minimum.
The Three-Sigma Process, found in the 1995 revision of NFPA 1983,
spells out how to determine minimum breaking strength. It is deter-
mined by subtracting three standard deviations from the mean of five
test samples. Manufacturers will also test their ropes over an abrading
surface to see how many repetitions it will take to break through the
sheath. This is a good marketing tool.
The UIAA standard tests dynamic ropes for overall strength and the
number of falls it can handle. Anytime fall factors approach 0.25, you
need to work with dynamic rope. The test assesses how many falls a
rope can take under simulated conditions. In this test, a sample of
dynamic rope is attached to an 80-kg (approx. 176 lbs.) weight to sim-
ulate a climber and is then dropped. The rope pulls tight over a 30-
degree edge, which simulates a carabiner located below the climber. To
receive the UIAA certification, the rope must withstand at least five
drops without breaking. You’ll see manufacturers’ catalogs listing ropes
that withstood nine to twelve falls. This doesn’t mean that you can
arbitrarily fall that many times and not have a failure. Depending on
conditions, any rope can fail on the first occasion of dynamic loading.

ROPE MANAGEMENT
Rope management encompasses readiness, deployment, and on-
scene handling of rescue ropes. All ropes, webbing, harnesses, hard-
ware, and other items should be bagged or stored in a way that pro-
vides quick access and easy deployment. Time-honored methods are to
store ropes in bags and to clip carabiners to an equipment sling. The
items should be stored in a clean, cool, and dry area of the station, and
the area should be of limited access so that the items don’t disappear.
When stored on fire apparatus, the equipment’s compartment should
likewise be clean, dry, and oil-free. It should hold only the rescue pack-
age. Don’t store the package in the same compartment as the hydraulic
spreaders or vent saw. The cleaner the equipment stays, the longer and
more reliable a life it will have. Readying rope for deployment is pretty
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86 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

(Top) Harnesses stored and ready to go. (Left) Gearbags and an SAR system.
(Right) Long lengths of rope stored on spools for quick deployment.

simple these days, since kernmantle is easily bagged. Over the years,
many different methods were used to get rope from one point to the
next. Today, the primary method of storage and deployment is simply
to stuff the rope into a rope bag. Stuffing the rope on top of itself, layer
by layer, works quite well, and usually it will pay out cleanly. It’s recom-
mended that the first end in the bag have a figure 8 stopper knot tied
into it, since this will hopefully prevent the rope from slipping through
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Rope 87

a device once the end is paid out. Only one rope per bag is allowed, since
this keeps it ready and easily transported. Once you get to where it is
needed, tie off the working end to a substantial object, then throw the
rope bag down to the ground. I’ve seen rope bags thrown over the edge
without being tied off—what’s the problem there?! You should commu-
nicate to anyone below where the bag is going to be thrown. You want
to keep the rope’s path away from the victims, since they may jump for
it or otherwise do something to stall the rescue operation; also, you
don’t want to hurt them. You can yell, transmit on your portable, or do

Tie a figure 8 stopper knot in the end of

the rope that will be placed in the bag
first. The other end should have a loose-
ly tied figure 8 on a bight plus a safety.
Some teams leave the end untied and tie
the knots on-scene.

When stuffing rope, have someone hold the bag open to make the job easier.
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88 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

both to broadcast your intentions. Yelling “rope” and then waiting a few
seconds before making a drop is an accepted practice, and if someone
yells back “hold” or “no rope,” then you have time to stop yourself. Of
course, dropping a rope and bag is hard as hell on the equipment, any-
way. Not dropping it under most circumstances eliminates the need for
most of these precautions and makes for a safer work environment.
Lower what you need and keep the rest on top for use.
Managing different ropes during certain evolutions can be difficult
and presents safety concerns. Knowing the difference between static
and dynamic kernmantle and how each fits into an operation is a good
start. When multiple lines of rope of the same construction are used in
an evolution, you have to differentiate them in some way. This is
where different colors are valuable.

ROPE CARE
Proper care of ropes and other fabrics is critical for successful rescues.
You need all of those life-dependent components ready and defect-
free. I prefer the term care rather than maintenance because care con-
notes a more nurturing, all-encompassing attitude. Care starts from
the day you purchase the product, put it in service, use it, and prepare
it for future use. Your life actually depends on how you treat that or
any other component. Here are some general points to remember:

1. Never step on a rope. This can force sand and other contami-
nants into the core and break down the fibers.
2. Protect rope from prolonged exposure to sunlight.
3. Protect rope from sharp or abrasive surfaces.
4. Protect rope from heat, flames, and chemicals.
5. Protect rope from shock loading.
6. Protect rope from contacting other fabrics. Friction between
ropes or any other fabric can cause it to melt, burn, and fail.
7. All ropes, webbing, and accessory cords must be washed and
dried according to the manufacturer’s guidelines.

Washing Rope
Many of the modern fabrics used to make rope can be washed in a
solution of mild soap and cool water. Rinse the rope thoroughly sev-
eral times to remove the soap. Don’t be afraid to wash the rope—mini-
mal strength is lost while it is wet, and it regains all of it when it is dry.
Never use bleach or stiff scrub brushes to clean rope or other life safe-
ty fabrics.
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Rope 89

Drying Rope
Don’t hang the rope, webbing, or accessory cords in direct sunlight,
which can deteriorate the fabric’s strength. Don’t use mechanical heat-
ing devices. Air drying is best and can be done in most fire stations.

Frozen Rope
If ropes become frozen on the scene, don’t force them back into their
bags. Instead, lay them, secured in long lengths, in the hosebed or
along the top of the ladder truck for transport back to the station.
Thaw them out in a grease- and oil-free area of the apparatus bay.
Forcing frozen ropes into their storage positions before they are
thawed will damage them.

INSPECTING ROPE
Slowly run rope, webbing, and accessory cord through your hands to
inspect it. Feel the fabric inch by inch from one end to the other. Be alert
for any discoloration, depressions, core slippage, abrasions, and flat spots.
The inner fibers of kernmantle, because of the way it is constructed, aren’t
visible as they would be in twisted or laid ropes; therefore, you must care-
fully inspect the outer sheath as a skin. Feel it for flat spots, depressions,
core slippage, and lumps on the inside. Any or all of these indicators gen-
erally mean that there is some internal fiber breakage. It is commonly held
that if the sheath is intact and damage free, so is the rope’s core.
There are occasions when some of the aforementioned indicators
need further analysis. One way to confirm fiber breakage and retrac-
tion is to stretch out the rope and tension it with the equivalent of a
one-person load. If a rope under tension displays a decreased diameter
or localized reduction, then take it out of service. Also, cut it to expose
the damage. No doubt you’ll feel better about your decision once
you’ve been able to see the defect firsthand.
Some common visual indicators that need to be addressed immedi-
ately are:

1. Sheath worn through to the core.

2. Core fibers popping out of the sheath, either with or without
sheath damage. Fibers popping out occurred in the past when
cores were spliced rather than of block creel construction.
Contact the manufacturer, especially if the rope is fairly new. It
may replace the rope free of charge for reasons of quality control
and company reputation.
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90 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

3. Any discoloration.
4. Shiny markings that indicate heat or friction burns. If you have
these, then most likely you have flat spots—the normally
round rope is flat and melted.

The issue of sheath fuzziness comes up often. This fuzz is created when
the individual fibers of the sheath are broken during normal use. This
relates directly to the abrasion resistance of the sheath and the rope’s
overall life expectancy. Ropes that are used for rapelling or that operate
under abrasive conditions tend to build up this fuzz, unlike ropes that are
used in pulley or belay situations. Generally speaking, a little bit of fuzz
spread out isn’t an automatic ticket to the retirement home. Presently,
there is no guaranteed method to determine when enough is enough,
though retiring a rope after a one-time lifesaving rescue is a good idea.
All rope, webbing, and accessory cords must be clean, dry, and
inspected prior to being placed in ready status. Some administrators
and chief officers feel that the ropes purchased should last forever.
They don’t have to swing from them, so it’s not a personal issue that
affects them. Good-quality rope is expensive, but so is human life.
Many fire departments downgrade used ropes to applications such as
knot-tying training or utility use. All cordage must be used and cared
for according to the manufacturer’s guidelines.

RECORD KEEPING
Record keeping is an important administrative task that must be
done for accountability, legal, and budgetary reasons. Keep current
inventory records and complete, accurate history cards on every piece
of equipment. This includes each length of life safety rope, which
must be tracked from the day it is purchased to the day it is destroyed.
A history card can be put in a resealable clear plastic bag and kept in
the rope bag. Once the card is full, it should be turned over to the indi-
vidual in charge of the equipment tracking, who should store it and
issue another card.
Individual lists of what is carried on each apparatus should be avail-
able so that personnel can cross-check the status of equipment as a
backup. Such records can be kept on cards, on specially designed
forms, or in a computer.
Each department must develop a system suited to its needs. The cards,
along with an inspection, can help determine the serviceability of equip-
ment. When in doubt about the integrity of any item, exclude it from life
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Rope 91

HISTORY OF RESCUE ROPE

Assigned apparatus :________________________________________________________

Date of Purchase: ______/____/_____ Purchased from: _________________________
Rope Size: dia:________ length: _________ Static_________ Dynamic___________

Date of use: _____/_____/_____ Officer in charge: ____________________________________

Manner of use: ____________________________________________________________________
Condition after use: ________________________________________________________________

Date of use: _____/_____/_____ Officer in charge: ____________________________________

Manner of use: ____________________________________________________________________
Condition after use: ________________________________________________________________

safety operations. A tracking system and inspection program will also be

extremely important should liability issues arise.

EDGE PROTECTION
Edge protection refers to techniques that prevent rope from contact-
ing abrasive or sharp surfaces. Ropes and other cordage need protec-
tion because destructive surfaces can weaken or even cause immediate
failure. Rope requires protection whether it is in a static situation (not
moving) or a dynamic one. An example of a static situation would be
rope used for a rappel, whereas a dynamic situation would be the line
in a pulley system. In either case, the common denominator is that the
rope is loaded and bending. One of the most common reasons for rope
failure is mechanical damage caused by sharp surfaces. Protection of
rope and other cordage is accomplished with a variety of techniques
and equipment.
When we talk about abrasive surfaces, we mean hazards such as
masonry, cement, rocks, roof shingles, and other ropes. When we talk
about sharp surfaces, we mean glass, metal edges, narrow or pointed
rocks, and the like. Equipment to provide protection against such haz-
ards can either be store-bought or fashioned from common items as
needed. Store-bought equipment includes commercial rope pads, rope
guards, metal edge rollers, pulleys, A-frames, and tripods. Improvised
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92 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

equipment includes canvas rope pads, fire hose rope pads, metal fire
hose rollers, gear or carry bags, and turnout clothing. Even carpeting,
bedding, and draperies can be used in an emergency for edge protection.
The operating environment dictates the type and level of effort
required. Individual situations will be covered in the applicable chap-
ter as specific rope techniques are discussed.
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Rope 93

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Which NFPA standard covers the rope and system

components that firefighters use during rope rescue
operations?
2. What term indicates that fibers run continuously
through a rope?
3. Name the two most popular synthetic materials used
in constructing fire service ropes.
4. What are some of the common handling characteris-
tics of nylon laid rope?
5. Which rope construction method is best suited for
mechanical advantage systems and most fire service
rope operations?
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Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 95

Chapter Five

Hardware

T
he term hardware encompasses many of those connecting, grab-
bing, and friction devices critical to an operation. Whereas rope
and webbing are considered software, carabiners and descenders are
considered hardware. A wide variety of both are needed for any system.
This chapter will focus on many of the devices available and their use.

CARABINERS
Carabiners are various-size connecting links that are heavily used in
many systems. Generally, they connect fabrics together, such as rope

Notch Pin

Latch

Spine

Gate

Hinge
Locking
nut

95
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96 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

to rope or rope to webbing, to prevent heat damage. They can also

connect other hardware to a rope. Carabiners are constructed of either
aluminum or one of several types of steel. Like anything else, each
material has its attributes and drawbacks.
The attributes of aluminum carabiners are:

1. They’re lighter weight.

2. They require minimal maintenance due to rust resistance.
3. They’re cheaper than steel.

The drawbacks of aluminum carabiners are:

1. They’re generally not as strong as steel models of the same size.

2. Heavy shock loads may permanently distort or completely
break an aluminum carabiner.

The attributes of steel carabiners are:

1. They’re more rugged and stronger than aluminum.

2. They may tolerate shock loads better than aluminum.

The drawbacks of steel carabiners are:

1. They tend to be much heavier than aluminum. Lightweight

aluminum carabiners can weigh several ounces; steel models
can weigh more than half a pound each. Carrying large quanti-
ties for long distances or periods of time can be fatiguing.
2. They’re more expensive than aluminum.
3. They generally require more maintenance due to rust.
4. They could be an ignition source in a flammable atmosphere.

The 1995 edition of NFPA 1983 lists two categories of carabiners, per-
sonal and general use, and they are stamped appropriately (P for per-
sonal, G for general). Team carabiners, or those that may support two-
person loads, must be general-use types and have a breaking strength
of 9,000 lbs. or greater. Personal or one-person loads require a break-
ing strength of 6,000 lbs. It is true that many of the carabiners in use
don’t even come close to the 9,000-lb. rule. There are many 5,500- to
6,000-lb. models out there, since many were purchased from moun-
tain climbing or outdoor equipment suppliers. This doesn’t mean that
you have to throw out your old carabiners and purchase new ones,
however. The standard, like many others, describes the performance
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Hardware 97

A carabiner is strongest A carabiner is weakest

along its major axis. along its minor axis.

criteria for all new equipment to be purchased from the effective date
of the document. Just make sure your future purchases comply with
that section of the standard. Whenever any standard’s criteria are
increased or upgraded, there tends to be some real-world concern
prompting the change. In the meantime, there’s no reason you can’t
provide a higher degree of safety with your current inventory.
Doubling up your locking carabiners instead of using a single one for
two-person or shock-loading situations is a good idea.
The next consideration is the shape of the carabiner, as well as the
gate. Carabiners come in a variety of shapes and are tailored to differ-
ent applications and manufacturers’ selling points. The first ones, used
in mountaineering, were oval in shape and nonlocking. As time went
on, the snap link evolved, taking advantage of modern technological
design. Carabiners are intended to be used along the longitudinal axis,
since this provides the highest degree of strength and function. Avoid
lateral or minor axis loading, since this can cause a failure.
Some common shapes of carabiners are the standard, oval, D, gym
D, offset, and pear. Different manufacturers have gone a step further,
combining particular shapes and offering them in several sizes. In the
past, some weren’t suitable for certain operations because of their
shape and how stress would affect them. Also, the actual opening of
the gate wouldn’t allow them to get around obstacles such as stokes
stretcher rails. Today, you can get almost any shape you want in a vari-
ety of sizes to suit the task at hand.
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98 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Carabiners come in standard, large, and extra large, and the larger
the size, the larger the gate. When you read manufacturers’ literature,
you will see gates expressed as, say, from .74 to 1.25 inches. This is the
actual gap of the gate, and you must purchase a size that can get
around whatever you’re connecting to.
Carabiners have limits in terms of direction of loading and the num-
ber of fabric components that can be attached. Remembering that
carabiners are to be used along the longitudinal plane, there are times
that multiple pieces of fabric may pull from several different direc-
tions, thus stressing the link in ways for which it wasn’t designed. Two
such common situations occur. The first is three-way loading from har-
nesses that get secured with an auxiliary piece of fabric. This situation
may be handled either by using a wider carabiner or a screwlink.
Screwlinks are close relatives of the carabiner and have limited appli-
cations at this time.
The other situation that comes to mind is when multiple anchor
points come together. If you connect all the attachments to a common
carabiner, distortion or failure of the link may result. This hazard can
be eliminated by using an anchor plate or by narrowing the angle of
the converging anchor points.
Your inventory of carabiners should include a variety of different
shapes and sizes in both steel and aluminum.

DESCENDERS
The Figure 8 Family
These are devices that provide friction to lower personnel and equip-
ment. They can be used in a fixed or moving brake configuration.
Depending on local terminology or practices, the devices that first
come to mind are those in the figure 8 family. Such devices are nick-
named figure 8, rescue 8, rappel ring, and 8 plate. They can be con-
structed of either aluminum or steel and come in a variety of sizes and
shapes. The basic figure 8 has evolved over the years from a lightweight
sport-climbing model to a heavy-duty device with ears. It is used in rap-
pelling and lowering operations. There are two schools of thought
regarding earred versus nonearred descenders. Some prefer the non-
earred version if they are setting up a rappel in which they are rolling
over an edge. Without the ears on the descender, some feel there is less
chance of snagging the edge. Others prefer ears because they can pre-
vent the rope from rolling over itself, creating a rope lockup situation.
I prefer the figure 8 with ears for this reason. I’ve seen situations where
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Hardware 99

A sample of the figure

8 descenders avail-
able.

firefighters have rolled off a flat roof in a tie-low evolution and have
gotten girth-hitched with nonearred devices or have hooked them-
selves to gutters with earred ones. The bottom line is that you must pro-
vide enough slack in your rope to clear the edge at all times. Once you
master this technique, using either device will be smooth.

Brake Bar Rack

The next descending device, the brake bar rack, is sometimes listed
in a category by itself. It has gained much popularity over the past few
decades due to its management and control of friction. Previously, the
figure 8 family performed the bulk of the lowering operations, includ-
ing rappels and stokes baskets. The very design principle of the figure
8 creates a situation where the rope can twist and create problems at
the far running end. The current practice of many in the field is to
limit the use of the figure 8 to short distances of a hundred feet or so
and to one-person loads, if possible. The brake bar rack is superior in
situations where you have long rappels or lowering distances. The
operator can increase or decrease the friction, thus controlling the rate
of descent more safely.
Control of the friction is accomplished by a combination of reeving
a number of brake bars and increasing or decreasing the distance
between them. These bars are made of aluminum or steel and are set up
according to the user’s liking. Steel bars tend to allow the rope to move
more quickly, whereas aluminum provides more friction because the
rope actually wears down the metal, leaving deposits on the rope. The
current contention of preferences among the experts comes down to a
matter of past experiences, the situation at hand, and training issues.
Many out there are still using the figure 8 for all lowering operations.
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100 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Many feel that it should be the first choice in emergency egress or res-
cue operations on the fireground. It’s easily transported and relatively
idiotproof, provided you maintain your skills. The brake bar rack isn’t
practical to carry in your turnout pocket or to reeve up in the fast-
paced fire environment. Perhaps in time the prejudices against it will
change due to aggressive and relentless training. As always, the user
must understand the pros and cons of each and train with all of these
devices to be fully competent.
Author’s note: During the writing of this book, a new NFPA-compli-
ant two-person brake bar rack was introduced. This rack resembles the
older-style racks in many ways; however, there are some notable dif-
ferences. The standard training groove that is normally located at the
first bar position has been moved to the second bar position. The
manufacturer made this change to get the device to pass the 6,000-lb.
test. The next change incorporates a triangular metal tab. This tab is
permanently attached to the open side and is slid over to the eye side
and secured with a carabiner when the device is attached to a harness.
Being a two-person-rated device, all six bars must be engaged and
reeved by the rope. This new metal tab ensures that whatever bars are
engaged for the descent stay engaged. This new arrangement doesn’t
allow for the customary adding or removing of bars at the descender’s
will. Operating these new racks requires specific training and practice.

The new-style, NFPA-compliant brake bar rack.

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Hardware 101

Trying to set up and use the new-style brake bar rack like the older
style can be dangerous. Follow the manufacturer’s directions for use.

PULLEYS
Pulleys are designed to reduce the friction created by moving ropes.
They are most often used to develop mechanical advantage, to change
direction, and to reduce or eliminate contact with an abrasive surface.
Rescue-grade pulleys are primarily constructed of aluminum and
stainless steel for strength and corrosion resistance.
In the not-too-distant past, achieving mechanical advantage was
done by a block-and-tackle arrangement. The block was the predeces-
sor of the modern pulley, and the tackle was the rope properly reeved
between the blocks to create the mechanical advantage.
Rope is commonly bent during knot tying and at various points in a
system. Bights, round turns, and loops are essential to forming a vari-
ety of combinations, depending on the knot. When rope bends in a
system, it is usually loaded and turning sharply against an edge, cara-
biner, pulley, or some other device. Whenever a knot or series of knots
are tied in a rope, they weaken that rope a certain percentage. The type
of knot is a factor. Anytime a rope bends around an object or system
component, in fact, strength is lost. Once a rope is bent around an
object, approximately half of the internal fibers are in tension and tak-
ing the load, while the other half are in compression and not effec-

Assorted pulleys.
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102 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

A Block-and-Tackle System

Standing block

Fall line

Running
block

Leading
block
LOAD

tively taking the load. The exact percentages are highly variable, but
drops in line strength and too many sharp bends can cause system fail-
ure. Of course, even one sharp edge is too many.
In the past, tensioning a rope or changing its direction was done by
running it through a carabiner. It is now known that even a carabiner
can diminish line strength and compromise safety. Current techniques
include using a pulley instead. A pulley creates less of a bend and pro-
vides a movable surface for the rope to transit. Manufacturers have
determined that a rope shouldn’t bend around any object less than
four times its diameter, and this is a minimum ratio. Some manufac-
turers and instructors suggest ratios as high as 12:1; however, the 4:1
ratio is commonly used. This rule is applicable to many points in any
given system.
Rescue-grade pulleys are constructed to handle 1/2-inch and 5/8-
inch rope categories. This means that a 1/2-inch pulley is suited for
any size rope up to 1/2 inch, and a 5/8-inch pulley for any size rope up
to 5/8 inch. You can reeve a 1/2-inch rope through a 5/8-inch pulley,
but you can’t reeve a 5/8-inch rope through a 1/2-inch pulley. The size
of the sheave or wheel is important and relates directly to the 4:1 rule.
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Hardware 103

The outer-bend fibers are in tension.

The inner-bend fibers

are in compression.

Manufacturers designate pulleys in terms of the diameter of the

sheave. Following the 4:1 rule, you would need at least a two-inch pul-
ley for a 1/2-inch rope. If you were using 5/8-inch rope, a two-inch
pulley would be a little too small. You’d need a three-inch pulley at
minimum.
Many who use 5/8-inch rope make it a practice to employ four-inch
pulleys. They are opting for larger sizes where weight isn’t a critical fac-
tor, especially when heavy loading is anticipated. This introduces the
concept of the tensionless anchor, which is created by wrapping a rope
around an object that is at least eight times its diameter. This will be
discussed more thoroughly in the chapter on anchoring.
There are two types of bearings germane to pulleys, the Oilite™
bronze bushing and the sealed ball bearing.
The attributes of the Oilite™ bushing are:

1. It has great strength and the ability to handle heavy loads.

2. It can be broken down for maintenance.
3. It’s widely available.
4. It’s less expensive than the sealed ball bearing.
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104 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

The principal drawback of nonsealed bushings is that they are more

likely to get contaminated by dirt, sand, and grit than the sealed type.
The attributes of the sealed ball bearing are:

1. The sealed assembly is permanently lubricated and isolated

from the operating environment.
2. It allows the sheave to turn somewhat more quickly than the
Oilite™ bushing.
3. It is widely available.

The drawbacks of the sealed ball bearing are:

1. It doesn’t handle sudden or heavy loads as well the Oilite™

type. The ball bearings can damage the races when shock
loaded, putting a unit out of service.
2. They tend to cost more than the Oilite™-type bushing.

While the sheave diameter relates to the pulley size, the tread size
relates to the width of the sheave. The larger the rope and/or the heav-
ier the load, the larger the pulleys you should use.
The sideplates provide the housing for the sheave and make it pos-
sible for the pulley assembly to be attached to an anchor or grab
device. These plates should be movable to facilitate placing the pulley
anywhere along the rope; otherwise, you’ll have to reeve it from either
end, if that is even possible. When you bring both sideplates together,
you align the hole where the carabiner will be clipped, then attach the
pulley to an anchor or rope grap. For ease of operations, use pulleys
that allow multiple carabiners to be clipped through the top hole. The
axles and axle nuts of a pulley should be constructed of steel or stain-
less steel for strength. The nuts should be rounded and smooth and
present a low profile so as not to snag the rope.
Specialized pulleys are available for specific evolutions within a
rope system. The knot-passing pulley is designed with a wider tread
to handle knotted rope. They are used when two ropes are tied
together for long runouts and can be inserted for that particular evo-
lution and removed when completed. When purchasing them, pay
attention to the strength ratings, since some are pretty low and may
not be compliant.
The prusik-minding pulley is designed to allow a prusik to be
attached to a rope without causing binding problems. A normal res-
cue-grade pulley is designed with rounded edges, which allows the
prusik to get pulled into the sheave, stalling the movement. The
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Hardware 105

A combination pulley (on top) set

up in a 4:1 block system.

prusik-minding pulley has a larger, squared-off bottom to accommo-

date the larger bulk of fabric passing through.
The last type of pulley to be covered combines the features of a rescue-
grade pulley and a mechanical rope grab. This device is relatively new in
the field compared with others yet is already becoming commonplace in
confined space rescue. When constructing mechanical advantage sys-
tems to pull personnel out of an opening, a 4:1 block system is the typ-
ical arrangement. While it does a fine job, you need to add some type of
brake or safety mechanism. The combination pulley allows you to per-
form the operation without some of the attendant hassles.

ASCENDERS
Ascenders are categorized as either soft or hard. The soft type are
prusik knots tied onto a rope to function as rope grabs. The hard type
are metal devices that come with or without handles. This section will
discuss the two categories of hard-type ascenders. Devices without
handles are generally used where two-person loads or other heavy
loading is expected. The handled devices are generally for personal
ascending, not rescue loads. Therefore, the emphasis will be on the
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106 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Assorted low-profile, shell-and-

cam mechanical ascenders.

low-profile shell-and-cam device for general or team use.

The purpose of any ascender is to provide a grabbing mechanism
that will attach to a rope without causing any lasting effects. The
Gibbs ascender is one of the preferred grab devices when constructing
a hauling system. The inherent problem that must be overcome is the
fine balance in grip—enough grip must be exerted when needed yet be
fully releasable so as to take another bite. Dirt, moisture, ice, and other
contaminants interfere with the natural bite of the fabric. The Gibbs
device consists of an outer shell of either aluminum or stainless steel,
plus an inner cam that pinches the rope. Once the shell is slipped
around the rope, the cam is placed in position and locked with an air-
craft-style quick release pin. Once in place, it won’t come off unless the
rope fails or the device breaks apart.
The Gibbs ascender is designed to pull from one direction and
release from the other. To make things simple, I tell my students to
point the arrow toward the load and it will work correctly (see also the
section on hauling systems). This series has two general sizes: 1/2 inch
for 7/16- and 1/2-inch rope, and 3/4 inch for 5/8- and 3/4-inch rope.
It’s important that you use the correct size, since the grip is achieved
by the cam pushing the rope against the shell. These devices have vari-
ous breaking strengths but, more importantly, they also have a nomi-
nal working capacity. Most of the older versions have a 1,000-lb.
capacity, relating to the amount of grip available without damaging
the rope. Current catalogs are offering a new Gibbs model that pro-
vides a 3,000-lb. working load. This model features a thicker shell with
interior protrusions that are curved in shape to increase the grip with-
out inflicting damage to the rope. The basic operation of the Gibbs is
to secure it to the rope and clip a carabiner into the hole provided on
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Hardware 107

the cam. Most models are spring-loaded and stay in place, which is an
asset. Otherwise, the unit might slip out of your reach.
You can use other mechanical ascenders as well. Do your homework
before making any purchasing decisions.
The second type of hard ascender is the handled device. This is
familiar to many who have seen mountain climbers ascending rope.
To ascend a rope, you need a minimum of two ascenders; however,
three are highly recommended. These devices are sold in pairs, one left-
handed and the other right-handed. Ascenders such as these are slipped
onto the rope and locked on by engaging the rope between the handled
shell and the cam. As you release the cam to take another bite, a safety
mechanism prevents the device from disconnecting itself entirely. The
operator must remain cognizant because such devices have been
known to disconnect anyway. These ascenders are for one-person loads
only and must not be used in evolutions where rescue loads occur.
There are two schools of thought regarding the use of hard ascenders.
One is to use them anytime you haul or need to ascend. The other is to
use them only when the soft type can’t do the job. The fear is that the
hard type will shear the rope and cause failure or damage the rope dur-
ing general use. The one thing that most users agree on is that hard
ascenders must not be used for belaying or where severe shock loading
can occur. Each type of ascender has its attributes and drawbacks.
The attributes of soft ascenders (8 mm cord tied into a prusik on a
rope) are:

1. They are readily available and adaptable.

2. They have great strength.
3. They won’t disconnect unless the rope or cord fails.
4. The prusik’s grip is bidirectional.
5. They’re inexpensive.

The drawbacks of soft ascenders are:

1. They can melt and fuse with rope.

2. They can be difficult to tie in inclement weather.
3. Their holding power on icy or muddy ropes is problematic.

The attributes of hard ascenders are:

1. They are easily installed on a rope.

2. Depending on the model, they have superior holding power on
icy or muddy ropes.
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108 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

3. They can be installed and moved into position quickly.

The drawbacks of hard ascenders are:

1. They are more costly than soft ascender cords.

2. They can damage the rope at lower loads.
3. They can shear the rope at lower loads.

Of course, manufacturers are coming out with new products all the
time. When purchasing any device, think about its intended applica-
tion and whether it complies with the standards.
The issue of what type of ascender to use in hauling systems can gen-
erate some debate. The bottom line is that, if the system is overstressed
or is somehow dynamically loaded, and if the rope grabs must arrest
the fall with a rescue load, then severe damage or failure will occur.
This is a possibility! Thorough training, knowledge, and safe practices
are mandatory. What happens if that equipment bag didn’t make it to
the scene, or if it fell over the edge? You have to go to your second
option, which you’d better know how to execute. Operating the haul-
ing system correctly with communications between the haul team and
the ascending load is critical. For instance, suppose 600 pounds of res-
cue load is being hauled up the side of a cliff. As long as that load is
totally dependent on the hauling system and the haul rope is ten-
sioned, then there shouldn’t be any opportunity for dynamic loading!
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Hardware 109

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. According to NFPA 1983 (1995 edition), team cara-

biners must be those rated for _______________ use
and have a breaking strength of _______________ lbs.
or greater.
2. For safety, always load a carabiner along its
_______________ or _______________ axis.
3. Which type of figure 8 descender can best prevent
girth-hitching during a tie-low evolution?
4. One advantage of this device is that you can increase
or decrease the friction against the rope, and thus
more safely control a long descent.
5. Name the three most common uses of pulleys.
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Chapter Six

Knots

W
hen I instruct on almost any fire service topic, I talk about
my orphans. Orphans are skills that many hate to train on
or practice; however, they are also skills that may be put
into action at a moment’s notice. In our profession, you’re expected to
perform a host of skills correctly, efficiently, and safely. When it comes
to fireground skills, ground laddering and hose stretching are orphans
in many companies. When it comes to rescue skills, structural search
and rescue is a prime candidate. So is knot tying.
Knots are critical in terms of forming a connection in rope or web-
bing. Rope wouldn’t be an effective tool without them. It’s the knots
that create a secure bight in a rope for a carabiner to attach to or that
allow us to wrap around a pipe to form a tensionless hitch. Knots con-
sist of weaving or interconnecting cordage into bights, loops, or round
turns, depending on the particular knot being tied.
The term bend is also part of the knot vocabulary and refers to when-
ever two ropes or pieces of webbing are connected together. Although
not technically correct, many use the term knot anytime they form a
connection in rope or webbing. A popular method to tie two sections
of webbing together is with a water knot. This is actually a bend; how-
ever, water knot is a more common term than water bend.

Bight Loop Round Turn

111
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112 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

The firefighter has many knots to choose from but only has to mas-
ter eight to ten. Learning and maintaining proficiency in them are crit-
ical. Knot tying is one of the most basic skills performed, yet shortly
after you master the common rescue knots, your ability to tie them
diminishes. Individual initiative must make up for any deficit in for-
mal recurrent training. Leaving a short piece of practice rope in the
bathroom stall at the station works for many.

SELECTION
There are a few basics to selecting a knot:

1. Use the KISS principle (Keep it simple, stupid).

2. Standardization.
3. It should be easy to tie and untie.
4. It should be easily identifiable by others.
5. You should be able to tie the knot in harsh environments.
6. Choose the knots with the least amount of loss.

You should also be able to tie the common rescue knots in the dark
while wearing bulky gloves. Do as much as you can with your gloves
on, then take them off for the rest. Obviously, some knots require fin-
gertip dexterity from start to finish—even so, keep your hands pro-
tected from high heat and cold wind chills. When working in wind
chills of -10°F, gloves aren’t optional.
Our need for a variety of knots is predicated on where in a given
length of rope a knot is required. Knots tied at an end, as opposed to
in the middle, are loaded and stressed differently. This is the reason
one knot may be better for one application than another.
Knots in the rescue services area may be grouped into three families:

1. The bowlines.
2. The figure 8s.
3. The hitches.

The bowline family was the mainstay for many generations in the
fire service. In the past decade, the eights have taken over as the knots
of choice. The third family consists of knots that wrap or lie on top to
conform tightly.
One of the major concerns is how much strength is lost when you
tie a specific knot. Any knot can violate the 4:1 rule with regard to
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Knots 113

bending. It’s this bending that diminishes the line strength and
becomes a necessary evil. We need knots and must choose those that
provide the least amount of loss for a given application.

The following knots and bends will be shown step by step without being
safetied with a finishing or dressing knot. This is done for reasons of clarity.
See the section on the single fisherman for safetying.

THE BOWLINE FAMILY

The Simple Bowline
This knot is still a fireground mainstay because you can tie it around
yourself or a stationary object.

The Double Bowline or Bowline on a Bight

This knot can be used to connect to anchor points or to form the leg
straps for a hastily tied rescue harness.
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114 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

The Triple Bowline

This knot starts out like the double bowline; however, instead of
pulling the small bight over the two large loops, you continue to pull
the bight until it forms its own loop.
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Knots 115

THE FIGURE 8s

The Basic Figure 8 or Figure 8 Stopper Knot

This is the base knot for other knots, such as the figure 8 follow-
through. The name stopper knot comes from the practice of tying it in
the end of a rappel line before stuffing it into a rope bag. This prevents
a rappeller from sliding off the end of the rope.

The Figure 8 on a Bight

This is the preferred knot when a secured loop is needed, particularly
at the end of a rope. Although not technically correct, many out in the
field use the term “figure 8 loop.” This knot has lower strength loss
than the bowline.
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116 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

The Figure 8 Follow-Through

This knot allows you to tie around an object such as an anchor point
or a harness and have the benefit of the figure 8 on a bight.
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Knots 117

The Figure 8 Bend

This is used to connect two ropes together when a greater length is
required. The knot starts out with the basic figure 8 in one rope and the
tracing of it with another rope from the opposite direction. This forms
a strong yet reversible union. It works best with same-diameter ropes.
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118 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

The Double Figure 8 on a Bight

This knot provides two bights (loops) instead of one. It allows for
two points of connection.
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Knots 119

The In-Line Figure 8

This allows you to tie a figure 8 on a bight anywhere and as many as
you need throughout the length of the rope. You may have a single- or
double-bight tied already. Tie the inline figure 8 as shown.

The Butterfly Knot

While this knot isn’t part of the 8 family, it’s included because of its
versatility and strength. You can tie it anywhere along the rope’s
length, particularly when you need a secure loop and the rope is tied
off at both ends. The butterfly is used by many who don’t want to tie
a figure 8 in a tensioned rope—the pull will come from two directions.
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120 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

THE HITCH FAMILY

The Girth Hitch

This knot is used either to prevent sliding or to act as a grab. It isn’t
a life safety knot. Extreme loading and misdirection of stress can set it
up for failure.

The Prusik Loop

Select a piece of cordage to form a secure loop. Most in the field use
5/16-inch or 8 mm prusik cord for a 1/2-inch or 12.5 mm rope. Tie the
cord into a loop with a double fisherman’s bend (knot). This is also
known as the grapevine bend (knot).
This is a self-locking and high-strength knot commonly used for a
rope grab. Its very composition nullifies the need for backing it up.

Tying a Double Fisherman's Knot

Pulling on the two legs

of the loop (arrows)
will draw the two single
fisherman's knots together.

Prusik loop
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Knots 121

Tying a Double-Wrap Prusik Knot

Completed double-wrap prusik knot

Once you form the secure loop, you’re ready to wrap it around the
rescue rope. Wrapping the loop two or three times around is the norm.
The more wraps, the higher the holding power.

The Single Fisherman or Barrel Knot

This knot, also known as the double-overhand bend or grapevine, is
used anytime you need to back up a knot.
Author’s note: There is some contention in the field regarding back-
ing up a knot. Some feel it isn’t necessary and some do. I side with the
advocates of backing up. Some of the contention boils down to train-
ing issues as each new step is introduced. My feeling is to start every
one the same and back up all of them except for a limited few. This
makes it second nature. Consider it dressing up a knot and locking
down or safetying it.
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122 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Single Fisherman Knot

The Tensionless Hitch

This knot is considered a superior method of attachment and is list-
ed as a viable anchoring method. The key here is to find a round
object, such as a pipe, tree, or rock. Rope manufacturers recommend a
4:1 ratio as a minimum for bending; however, an 8:1 or greater ratio
will result in a minimal loss of line strength. A 1/2-inch rope wrapped
around a four-inch pipe results in no loss of strength.
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Knots 123

Tensionless Hitch With a Carabiner

Single fisherman

Figure 8 on a bight
Rope

Carabiner

Pole

The Load-Releasing Hitch

This is used in both rope and webbing as a release device. It allows you
to control the release of a load in such a manner as to prevent shock
loading. This and the prusik hitch are used in knot bypassing evolutions
on rappel lines. Release knots are beneficial when tensioning is required
and, once loaded, would be difficult to get released from the load.

To anchor To anchor To anchor To anchor

Carabiner Carabiner
The end goes
through the
middle.

Carabiner Carabiner
To load To load To load To load

A Load-Releasing Hitch
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124 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

The Munter Hitch

This is used in a belaying evolution instead of a belay plate. It relies
on the friction of the rope contacting itself as it pulls through the cara-
biner. This can be difficult to use above one-person loading, and it may
be damaging to the rope.

Tying a Munter Hitch

KNOTS FOR WEBBING

This section will look at the few knots available for webbing. Knots
for rope and knots for webbing aren’t interchangeable in most cases
due to design and construction characteristics. Webbing is flat and
wide, whereas rope is round and compact. Knots in webbing are
designed to take advantage of the available surface area that webbing
provides. Much of the knot’s strength is predicated on one surface act-
ing against another to create a tight bond.

The Water Bend (Knot)

This bend is one of the primary ways to tie a piece of webbing into a
secure loop. Once tied and loaded, it’s usually permanent. This knot is also
for connecting two pieces of webbing together to create one long one. It’s
made by tying an overhand knot, then retracing it from the opposite
direction. Once cinched down, it must be compact, neat, and flat.
Author’s note: You’ll find that working with webbing can be slippery
and that it may creep on you. When working with rope and webbing,
you must leave some extra tail for safety. Not only must you tie safety
knots on either side of the water knot, you must also leave some extra
tail on those knots as well. Some in the field back up the water knot
with overhand knots tied on each tail; some back up the water knot
with a single fisherman or barrel knot on each end.
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Knots 125

A Water Bend

Double Fisherman Bend (Knot)

There are those who tie their webbing slings permanently into
secure loops with the double fisherman knots. Once these are tied and
loaded, you will find them extremely difficult to undo, yet why would
you want to undo them? Once tied correctly, all that is usually need-
ed is some extra tail. The very nature of the knot doesn’t require the
usual backup.
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126 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

GENERAL COMMENTS
Many knots are available to the rescuer these days. One problem
with this abundance is the lack of data regarding the percentage of line
strength loss once a particular knot is tied. This is why those in the
rope rescue business have standardized and limited themselves to a
group of reliable knots. Always use the correct knot for the job at hand.
Tie every knot correctly and back it up accordingly. A correctly tied
knot should be neat and easily identified on visual and physical
inspection. Dressing up a knot refers to the basic housekeeping of the
final product. Making sure that the knot is properly cinched and
loaded is important to its security and longevity.
If in doubt, retie it!
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Knots 127

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What is the proper term describing two ropes or sec-

tions of webbing tied together?
2. Knots used in the rescue services may be grouped into
what three families?
3. What knot is commonly tied into the end of a rappel
line for safety?
4. The prusik loop is commonly used for what purpose?
5. To retain line strength, what is the minimum recom-
mended bend ratio to use when wrapping a rope
around a stationary object?
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Chapter Seven

Anchor Points

I
n Chapter Two, we discussed breaking down the technical aspects of a
rope rescue into three parts: the anchoring system, the access system,
and the transportation system. This chapter will begin to illustrate the
components needed to construct an anchor system. When you mention
this term, many envision a complicated, multifacted, living and breath-
ing organism. In reality, it can be as simple as one rope wrapped around
a pipe. It can also be as complex as a self-equalizing system. In either case,
the premise of such a system is that we must attach our human and
equipment assets to a substantial object to effect any type of rescue.
There are four basic types of anchor systems:

1. Tensionless.
2. Equalizing.
3. Nonequalizing (load sharing), including single-point anchors.
4. Multiple.

Common to all of them is their need for suitable, substantial anchor

points, which are objects that ultimately support the load of people and
equipment during a rope rescue. An anchor point becomes part of a
larger anchor system consisting of webbing, rope, carabiners, and what-
ever other hardware is fashioned around it. I purposely refer to an
anchor point as an object merely to point out the essential physicality
of it. None should be considered truly safe. In reality, you must back up
even the most fortresslike object, because it may be a hazard in disguise.
Some additional considerations are:

1. What type of loading do you anticipate on the system? Realize

that you may set it up for a one-person load, later to discover
that it needs to carry two. Do you have the reserve built in?

129
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130 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

2. Is the load in line with the intended anchor point(s)?

3. Is the pull directional or nondirectional in nature?
4. Don’t construct a system for sport activity if you are going to
impose a rescue load on it.

Anchor points fall into three categories:

1. Natural (bushwhacking).
2. Man-made stationary (steel, concrete, or wood structures).
3. Man-made improvised (created on the scene where nothing
else is available).

There is no fancy formula or rule of thumb for selecting truly

bombproof anchor points. This information is to serve only as a refer-
ence. Actual selection must be made only by trained, experienced,
qualified, and responsible personnel. An anchor that may hold today
may not hold tomorrow, since situations and conditions can change
beyond anyone’s control at any time.

NATURAL ANCHORS
Natural anchors can be whatever stable objects Mother Nature has
provided in the rescue environment, whether animate, such as trees,
or inanimate, such as rocks and boulders. Countless resources are
available in this realm, but if they aren’t present at your particular
location, you will have to resort to man-made objects.

MAN-MADE STATIONARY
Man-made stationary anchor points refer to components or con-
struction features that exist prior to a given incident, such as buildings
and special structures. Bridges, towers, stanchions, roadway guard
rails, and a myriad of other fixed objects can readily serve to support
the load of a rope rescue.

MAN-MADE IMPROVISED
It’s the improvised anchor points, fashioned on-site, with which we’re
most concerned. Your operating environment may not already have ade-
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Anchor Points 131

quate anchor points, in which case you’ll have to create them, whether
incorporating preexisting features into the design or not.
Improvised anchor points take advantage of a given location’s attrib-
utes, particularly some of the nontraditional ones. This can encompass
both what the site has to offer and what can be constructed with basic
equipment and techniques. Improvising involves the use of common
fire service tools and equipment to create suitable anchors. These in
themselves require other anchors for stabilization purposes rather than
act as primary weight-bearing members. With natural and man-made
stationary systems, you tie directly to substantial objects to create a
dependable base. In improvising, you construct an anchor point by
transmitting the load through a medium, such as a ladder or tripod, to
some reliable footing. The newly constructed on-site assembly holds
the load while stabilization anchor points secure the operation. The
critical point in this process is the newly created anchor point, which
in most cases must be centered directly over the load. The overriding
question is, how strong are those stabilizing anchor points?

Tripods
Tripods are commercially produced or improvised three-legged
devices common to confined space rescue. They support the load of a
rescuer or victim to be raised or lowered through a narrow opening. A
tripod incorporates a man-rated hand winch that provides the mechan-
ical advantage for hoisting. Some employ a rope system akin to a 4:1
pulley to perform the same function. Follow the manufacturer’s guide-
lines for whatever specific tripod you are using. When shopping for a
manufactured model, be aware of the different capacities and options
available. You can buy an industrial-grade or a rescue-grade model.
Also, read the fine print to see what the capacity is at a particular
height. Raising a tripod from a minimum transport length to maximum
extension can affect its load capacities. You need to understand the dif-
ferences between these devices. Matching up a mechanical winch or
other hoisting device with the tripod is equally important.
A tripod can also be hastily constructed in the field using substantial
timbers or metal piping to form a cohesive load-bearing unit. Its overall
integrity will depend on the strength of its components.
The critical dimensions in building a tripod are:

1. The members of improvised wood tripods should be 4 ! 4 inch-

es or greater, and be insect- and rot-free.
2. Steel piping should be of three-inch outer dimension and be
thick-walled as well as dent- and rust-free (Schedule 40).
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132 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

A Hastily Constructed Tripod

Heavy-duty webbing
or rope sling

Strong lashing

Heavy-duty webbing
or rope sling

Carabiner

Wrap each leg

by the tensionless
method; tie all of
the legs together.

Tripod centered over opening

3. Tree limbs and tree trunks from six to ten inches are used in
wilderness situations.

You must stabilize the distal legs of the tripod to prevent them from
slipping or collapsing. The surface that you build on has a lot to do
with maintaining a stable footing. On cement or other hardened sur-
faces, you must tie all three legs together to prevent a shifting load
from popping out a leg. On commercial tripods, the legs are chained
together for this very reason.
On soil surfaces, you can drive a steel rod into the ground and tie it
directly to the legs. On wooden surfaces, you can nail a rod directly
into the floor or box the legs with scrap wood. In any instance, you
must tie the legs together as a minimum precaution.
The anchor point is created by looping two webb slings around the axis
to form the point of attachment for the mechanical advantage system.
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Anchor Points 133

Improvised A-Frame Arrangement

Strong lashing
of rope or webbing

24-foot extension ladder 14-foot roof ladder

Opening

The A Frame
An A frame is an improvised arrangement using two ground ladders
secured together at one end and then raised. You must use rated and
annually tested NFPA-compliant fire service ground ladders. I’m being
specific because, believe it or not, some fire departments use commer-
ical-grade ground ladders because of old habits. The A-frame assembly
must be secure at the top and reinforced in the middle to provide sta-
bility. The wider the stance, the higher the ladders must be. You don’t
need ladders that are exactly the same length, as long as the finished
A is centered over the opening and you have enough height for the
job. Many engine companies carry a standard 14-foot roof ladder and
a 24-foot extension ladder as a package. You can extend your 24-foot
ladder a couple of rungs and secure the roof ladder to it to create your
working anchor point. Such an arrangement is limited to between 400
and 500 lbs. of load. Still, this is a highly versatile method of improvi-
sation. It’s a little more stable than the ladder gin and more suited for
situations where uneven or differing topography presents a problem.
Critical points with respect to A frames are:
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134 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

A Completed A-Frame System

Top rungs are

securely lashed
Ladder beams
securely lashed
with rope or webbing
End view

Lashing Guy line to Lashing

picket system

Pike pole Pad hook

for stability ends

Pickets

1. Use only NFPA-compliant and annually tested fire service

ground ladders.
2. Connect them together so as to form a 70- to 75-degree climbing
angle. The ladders are at their strongest in this configuration.
3. Use rope, webbing, and hardware that are rescue grade and able
to support the intended loads.
4. Keep all loading concentric within the ladder beams, and avoid
any lateral loading. Side loading or unexpected shifting can
cause a collapse.
5. Use a belay line in addition to the main rescue line.

The A-frame assembly transmits the load down the beams of the two
ladders, and stability is provided by guy lines that run laterally to
remote anchor points (see Pickets, below). Tie off the guy lines to
anchor points at a distance roughly equal to three times the height of
the A frame. Spread the ladder butts about one-third the height at
minimum. Tie the two ladders together at the bottom, as well as at the
middle, to form a cohesive unit. You can set up a belay line and con-
nect it to the beams and rungs. You can use a static line if you mind it
and carefully control it. A firefighter should do this independent of
other operations. If any member is in danger of sliding or falling off
the grade, secure him to an anchor point with a tether and harness.
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Anchor Points 135

A Ladder Gin

Roof ladder

Guy lines of 1/2-inch rope

secured to beams and
anchored pickets
Pickets Heavy-duty slings
or other wrapped around
backstops ladder beams to
a common point

Gin Pole
A gin pole is a vertical assembly made of metal or wood, supported
at four points, that upholds a mechanical advantage system. The fire
service’s variation is the ladder gin, using a fire service ground ladder.
Anchor the ladder into the ground and lean it outward to form an
anchor point over an edge or opening. The ladder gin transmits the
load from the proximal anchor point to the distal grounding surface.
The anchor point, directly over the load, can support 400 to 500 lbs. if
properly constructed. Applications for the ladder gin include vertical
shafts, wells, pits, vaults, and many other confined spaces. Its critical
points are the same as those for A frames. You must support it both
vertically and laterally, and it must not take stresses for which it was
not designed. Make sure the guy lines are secure, running at 45 degrees
and fixed to a ground anchor (see Pickets, below). To create an elevat-
ed anchor point, you need a suitable surface backstop for the ladder to
butt against. A wall, curb, stump, vehicle, boulder, or the like may suf-
fice. The load will kick out the ladder if it isn’t supported properly.

Pickets
Pickets allow you to create reliable anchor points almost anywhere
there is soil. A picket is a steel rod or solid hardwood stake. The steel
versions are about one inch in diameter and four feet long at mini-
mum. Rebar is popular. The system of picketing relies on a series of
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136 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

A 3-2-1 Picket System

Windlass

To load

three pickets that are properly tensioned and spaced apart. Such an
assembly usually constitutes an anchor point.
The strongest picket arrangement is the 3-2-1 configuration.
Although the 1-1-1 is similar in appearance, the 3-2-1 groups a num-
ber of pickets together to form a stronger holding system. Drive the
pickets into the ground with a sledgehammer, inclined at a 15-degree
angle away from the load and sunk about two-thirds of their length.
The distance between each picket assembly should be approximately
four to five feet. Then connect the pickets with tubular rescue web-
bing, 7/16-inch static kernmantle, or 1/2-inch nylon laid rope. You
need enough cordage to connect each picket assembly and to wrap
them five or six times. The lashing begins with a clove hitch and safe-
ty tied to the base of the rear picket. After wrapping, secure the cordage
to the forward picket assembly with another clove hitch and safety. For
tension, insert a short hardwood stake or steel rod between the rope
lashing and twist it until the ropes are taught. The correct amount of
tension is indicated by the movement of the forward picket assembly.
Once the cordage is under proper tension, drive the short windlass
stake or rod into the ground. This stake or rod must be long and strong
enough to maintain tension throughout the operation.
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Anchor Points 137

The weight-holding capabilities of such a system depend on such vari-

ables as the type of soil and its moisture content. The holding ability of
the 3-2-1 system is between 2,000 and 4,000 lbs. There are smaller pick-
et systems; however, the 3-2-1 is generally considered to be heavy duty
and very reliable. The completed assembly comprises the anchor point.
The connecting cordage and/or hardware is attached to the first picket
assembly facing the load and at the lowest point near the ground.

Exterior Leaning Ladder

This technique uses an NFPA-compliant and annually tested fire ser-
vice ground ladder to create an anchor point above a window opening.
It has been taught in the basic firefighter curriculum for many years
and is used for the evacuation of victims from upper floors of buildings.
Lowering a load (one person) is managed by friction created by a res-
cue rope that is reeved through the rungs. To haul, you can attach a
mechanical advantage system to the ladder with webb slings, although
lowering will be the appropriate task in most instances.
The critical points of the exterior leaning ladder are:

1. Position the ladder tip above the desired opening of the building.
2. Position the ladder at a 75-degree angle to the building.
3. Properly foot and supervise the ladder.

Exterior Leaning Ladder

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138 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

4. Determine whether you are setting up to lower or haul.

5. Reeve the belay line through the rungs like the lowering line, or
establish a topside safety line to a substantial anchor point.
6. Properly package and secure the victim according to his injuries
and the urgency of the rescue.
7. Use a harness, stokes, or other suitable, hastily tied rescue knot
to transport the victim.
8. Attach a belay line directly to the victim.
9. You may need a tag line to maintain clearance from the building.
10. Have a minimum of two firefighters manage the lowering line.

The above technique is used by companies lacking the proper rope

rescue equipment or during extreme emergencies. An alternative to
wrapping the rescue rope around the rungs is to wrap a web sling to
each beam, connecting them with a carabiner. Then, attach a figure 8
plate as a friction device.

Interior Leaning Ladder

This technique uses an NFPA-compliant and annually tested fire ser-
vice ground ladder to create an interior anchor point when no other
reliable objects are available. This improvised anchor point will allow
lowering operations of one-person loads, limited by the length of the
rescue rope.

Interior Leaning Ladder

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Anchor Points 139

The critical points of interior leaning ladders are:

1. They work well in commercial and industrial environments.

2. A ground ladder that will fit between the ceiling and floor is
required. Don’t use attic ladders! The small 14-foot extension
ladder carried by truck companies will work in tight areas.
Remember, this setup is for one-person loads only.
3. Maintain the 75-degree climbing angle.
4. You must properly place and foot the ladder for stability and
have members supervise it. You can ladder for low ceilings by
removing ceiling tiles or pulling out gypsum board for addi-
tional clearance. Many older buildings have several layers of
ceilings due to numerous renovations.

Ladder Jib
The ladder jib uses an NFPA-compliant and annually tested fire ser-
vice ground ladder to form an anchor point based on the jib principle.
Place one end of the ladder out a window or over a parapet.
The critical points of a ladder jib are:

1. You must keep at least seven rungs of the ladder behind the
edge where the ladder beams rest.
2. You must not extend the newly created anchor point more
than one rung beyond the edge where the ladder beams rest.

Ladder Jib

One rung max.

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140 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

3. You must continuously supervise the activity.

4. A member acting as a counterweight must be in position at
least seven rungs behind the edge. This human counterweight
kneels on the ladder to avoid slipping. Using more than one
member is recommended, as is tying off the ladder’s end to a
suitable anchor point.
5. Limit the loads to one person.

Cantilever Ladder
This provides the same capabilities as the ladder jib but without hav-
ing a window or parapet to lean against. The cantilever ladder is used
for flat roofs or low openings in industrial situations. Its critical points
are the same as those for the ladder jib.

Vehicles
Fire apparatus and other vehicles can be helpful in establishing anchor
points if you follow specific criteria. Two obvious hazards accompany
using a vehicle: (1) Someone inadvertently moving it, and (2) connect-
ing to a substandard component. Many recommend that you turn off
the engine and remove the key from the ignition. There may be times
when you have to connect to an operating apparatus, however. It would

Cantilever Ladder

One rung max.

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Anchor Points 141

be impossible to turn off an engine while it’s pumping or when the aer-
ial is in use. At the very least, place the transmission in park or neutral,
as long as this doesn’t interfere with the truck’s specific function.
Other factors involved in using vehicles are:

1. Consider the vehicle’s weight in relation to the load being

imposed. Lightweight utility or fast-response vehicles may not
be sufficient for low-angle evacuations that include six mem-
bers and a victim.
2. Environmental conditions such as ice, mud, and rain, along
with various grade deviations, can influence the suitability of
using a vehicle this way.
3. You must double-chock the chosen vehicle, meaning chocks on
two separate tires on the front and rear and with the parking
brake set.
4. If the vehicle’s engine isn’t secured, then someone must be
assigned to sit in the driver’s seat to guard against any unau-
thorized use.
5. Supervisors on the ground and in the air must maintain control
and clear communications with all involved so that the vehicle
isn’t moved during the rescue phase.
6. Prospective anchor points on the vehicle must be substantial
enough to handle the anticipated loads. Frames, axles,
bumpers, and rated tow hooks are likely candidates.

Be careful! Just because it’s a tow hook bolted into diamond plate does
not mean that it will hold even a one-person load. The following event
illustrates this point. In most vehicles, there are two bolt types that you
generally don’t have to worry about. One is the nader bolt, the other is
the one for the seat belt assembly. A recently purchased pumper in my
area had a well-hidden deficiency. A firefighter belting in for a call
yanked the retracting belt assembly right out of its mount. A subsequent
investigation revealed that the assembly hadn’t been mounted into the
frame with a bolt, but rather, with a sheet metal screw into diamond
plate! Don’t take anything for granted when lives are on the line.

EMERGENCY MAN-MADE IMPROVISED

This section deals with situations in which there is a likelihood of
catastrophic injury or death unless a timely self-rescue is performed.
Being trapped in a structure by advancing fire and with no other egress
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142 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

options is the situation that readily comes to mind. When the stairs,
escapes, ladders, and adjacent structures are all cut off and no other
firefighter can reach you, self-reliance may be the only means of sur-
vival. The number of civilians who either jump or throw other family
members out the windows of burning buildings is staggering. Reports
of such instances are prevalent during the winter months. You proba-
bly have seen photos of a firefighter being saved in the nick of time by
a hastily thrown ground ladder. The chance of being caught in an
involved building is a very real and present danger.
The problem with establishing stationary anchor points in such a
circumstance is that there is no time to hunt around for them because
the heat and flames are making your location untenable. Your options
are to stay and be burned or to get out that window. Getting to the
ground safely is the challenge. Lacking other routes, your roof rope or
personal escape rope may be your best option. The specific techniques
involved in getting down it will be discussed further in the section on
rappelling; right now we’re concerned with improvising a viable
anchor point for the rope.
Attaching to furniture, stockpiles, shelving, and the like is for
extreme life-threatening situations only, where if you did nothing you
would surely die. There is no guarantee that any of these will support
even a one-person load. Still, they may be all that you have available.
You must tie to a substantially large and heavy object. The basic
principle is to wrap the rope around that chosen object and tie a secure
knot, such as a bowline, or clip the rope to itself with a permanent
hooking device, if so equipped. Depending on the weight of the
object, pull it as close to the opening as possible to avoiding a dynam-
ic loading situation. As long as the object is larger than the opening
and it stops at the frame, then you shouldn’t lose your anchor point.
Tying to several large and heavy objects follows the multiple anchor
principle, as will be covered in Chapter Eight.
Do not employ this technique lightly or without realizing the poten-
tial consequences. Even if your anchor holds, many other variables
can get you injured or killed. This is your last-ditch effort to try to sur-
vive.
Participants in sport or rock climbing routinely improvise their own
artificial anchor points. When climbing a rock face, climbers must
install points for running protection. These anchor points are spaced
out during the ascent and protect climbers during a fall. Man-made
improvised anchors are created by installing metal chocks, pitons,
friends, and bolts into the rock face, either by fitting them or driving
them in. Such devices will not be covered in this book. Using them
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Anchor Points 143

requires specific techniques, extensive instruction, and practice to

master. Snow anchors and deadman holdfasts are also beyond the
scope of this text. Instruction in these techniques may prove valuable,
however, and can be acquired through wilderness search and rescue
groups and mountain climbing schools.
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144 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Name the four basic types of anchor systems.

2. Tripods, A frames, gin poles, and pickets are all exam-
ples of what category of anchor point?
3. When constructing an A frame, the ladders will be at
their strongest when they are connected at approxi-
mately what climbing angle?
4. The strongest picket arrangement is the
_______________.
5. List four parts of vehicles that may provide suitable
anchor points.
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Chapter Eight

Anchor Systems

I
n Chapter Seven, we covered anchor points, the stationary objects
that we use to support a load. In this chapter, we’ll cover the actual
systems built on them. Anchor systems encompass all of the soft-
ware, hardware, techniques, and anchor points that form the complete
weight-bearing assembly.
The issue of anchors and anchor systems can get convoluted, so let’s
start from the beginning. I set up Chapter Seven as a specific skill so
that you will understand the components necessary to create a good
system. To start without good anchor points can set the stage for criti-
cal failure. You need at least one bombproof anchor point for any
operation. An anchor point must be able to hold the intended load
and then some. All too often, the best bombproof anchor isn’t where
you need it. When you connect to an anchor, use a one- or two-inch
webb sling or short rescue rope. Prudent practice dictates using two
webb slings as a backup measure if you’re connecting to only one
anchor point. Be aware that this technique strengthens the connecting
point, but if you lose the anchor point, you lose both slings, and the
life-supporting anchor system will go with them.
Consequently, you need to back up your anchor point to have built-
in redundancy and reserve capacity. A viable anchor system generally
uses two or more anchor points to form one substantial point to sup-
port the intended load. The critical question to ask is, What intended
load is to be imposed on the system? Is it a one-person emergency
egress, a two-person rope rescue, or a load even greater? Let’s talk
about that last case. Rescue loads are considered to be 600 lbs., includ-
ing both people and equipment. NFPA 1983 presumes one person to
be 300 lbs., so a two-person load is 600 lbs. Having said that, there are
those who will pack a victim into the stokes and have two litter ten-
ders hanging on to the sides. At minimum, they must be supported by

145
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146 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

a 1/2-inch static rescue rope backed up by an independent and redun-

dant system. Notwithstanding extenuating circumstances, if you fol-
low the two-person stipulation of NFPA 1983, then 600 lbs. means two
persons, not three. I realize that some firefighters have low body
weights; however, you must take into account all their clothing and
equipment. Yes, firefighters are being protected by lighter-weight fab-
rics and SCBAs; still, the average member is pushing 250 lbs. when
equipped to fight a fire. A technical rescue in an industrial setting may
find members in a duty uniform, personal protective equipment, or
team equipment. The point is, the fewer people hanging on a rope, the
better. In the event of a failure, two casualties are better than three.
Such decisions can be sorted out prior to any incident by creating team
operating guidelines. These guidelines are tools for the incident and
team commanders who must make rapid decisions in the best interests
of the victim and members.
Of course, every situation and location is different, even within the
same building. This text can’t replace hands-on instruction and expe-
rience with respect to anchor system construction.
Let’s establish a few ground rules:

1. A simple anchor system entails attaching to a single anchor

point—the more stable, the better.
2. A complex anchor system entails attaching to two or more sim-
ple anchor points.
3. Realize that calling a simple anchor point a “system” may stray
from traditional thinking; however, if that’s what you go with,
then it’s a simple system.
4. Do you, in fact, need a simple or a complex system? The situ-
ation at hand and all its variables govern this decision.

You can set up an anchor system based on one of four types: the ten-
sionless anchor system, the equalizing anchor system, the nonequaliz-
ing (load-sharing) anchor system (including single-point), and the
multiple anchor point system. Let’s look at the general attributes and
drawbacks of each.

TENSIONLESS ANCHOR SYSTEM

This is the simplest of the four options, requiring only one secure
anchor point and 1/2-inch static rope. As described above, this anchor
uses a tensionless hitch wrapped around an object (see page 123).
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Anchor Systems 147

Remembering the discussion on pulleys, the 4:1 rule, and the effects of
rope bending on the internal fibers, we now expand our parameters to
an 8:1 rule. What this hitch provides over the others is minimal loss
of rope strength when tied. A 1/2-inch static rescue rope wrapped
around a four-inch pipe would retain most of its strength. Obviously,
one wrap around isn’t sufficient. The suitability of an object depends
on its roundness. Any squared edges will diminish the rope’s strength.
Padding those edges is prudent and may help to reduce bending.
Just how many wraps around the anchor point are appropriate?
There’s no scientific formula that I’m aware of, but the principle of
wrapping takes advantage of the surface area contacted by the rope.
Six to ten wraps around industrial piping of six- to eight-inch diame-
ter is reasonable. It depends on the load and other variables, such as
weather conditions. When you pull on the standing end and the work-
ing end doesn’t move (and the securing knot remains untaught),
you’re pretty much set. Practice and experience give you the edge.
The attributes of a tensionless anchor system are:

1. It is an extremely simple technique.

2. Rope strength loss is minimal.
3. The rope is held without a knot. The finishing knot is for secu-
rity only and doesn’t diminish line strength.

The drawbacks of a tensionless anchor system are:

1. If the main line fails, you have no backup.

2. If the single anchor point fails, your operation fails.
3. Loss of this simple system can lead to catastrophe.

Tensionless Variations
Wrap your primary anchor point with the tensionless hitch. Then,
wrap a second bombproof anchor point in close proximity the same way,

Tensionless Backup

Top view

Single fisherman
Figure 8 on a bight

Pipe
Pipe

To load
Carabiner
Rope
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148 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

and secure it with a finishing knot. One attribute of this variation is that
it backs up the first anchor point. A drawback is that, if the primary rope
fails, the backup becomes useless. Also, if the primary anchor point dam-
ages the rope and fails, then the backup anchor becomes useless.

Tensionless Anchor with Prusik Hitch

There are two versions of this arrangement, the tensioned prusik
hitch and the relaxed prusik hitch (see below). The tensioned prusik
hitch entails tying the regular tensionless anchor setup around a
secure anchor point. You then tie a three-wrap prusik hitch on the 1/2-
inch static rescue rope and attach this to a bombproof anchor.
This variation puts the load onto the prusik hitch and not directly
onto the tensionless anchor. This provides a backup and an indicating
mechanism. A three-wrap prusik made from 8 mm prusik cord and

Tensioned Prusik Hitch

Top view

TREE Rescue rope or webb slings

Double fisherman

Tensioned prusik loop

Carabiner Single fisherman

Figure 8 on a bight
TREE

To load

Carabiner Rope
Slack in main rope

attached to a 1/2-inch static rescue rope will slip at about 800 to 1,500
lbs. The variables include any rope coatings, the amount of grip of the
cord, and the weather conditions. This variation is used by some who
feel uncomfortable not having a mechanism to indicate trouble before
a failure occurs. This method should show slippage, indicating that an
extreme load occurred, but without causing a failure.
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Anchor Systems 149

Relaxed Prusik Hitch

Top view

Rope or webb sling

Single fisherman

Figure 8 on a bight

Tree
trunk
Rope or webb sling To load
Carabiner Two-wrap
prusik
Double fisherman

Pipe

Carabiner

Relaxed Prusik Hitch

This arrangement is set up almost the same as the tensioned prusik
hitch, except here the load is on the 1/2-inch static rescue rope and the
hitch serves as a backup. Obviously, if both anchor points were equal
in strength, the rescue rope attachment would be stronger than the
prusik cord attachment. Some use this technique to gain redundancy
and because the primary anchor point may not be ideally secure.
Remember, this is a single-rope technique. This variation is a primary
choice for an emergency egress operation or when equipment may be
scarce. Also, the tensionless anchor technique can become one of sev-
eral anchor points in an equalizing system, which we’ll cover shortly.
You must understand the ramifications of this and any other anchor
system to use it properly. You must also work within the scope and
operational guidelines of your team or host department.
The next three anchor systems get to the heart of the critical-angle
principle. When using two or more anchor points, it’s important to
limit the arch, or interior angle of the rope, to less than 90 degrees.
The intent of using more than one anchor point is to divide the load
between the anchor points to create one load-bearing assembly. As you
know, rope, webbing, or a combination of both is used to form the
anchor system. The critical angle affects not only the rope, webbing,
and hardware but also the actual anchor points themselves. Increasing
the angle between the anchor points increases the stress imposed on
them.
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150 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Angle Chart

The effects of loading between two anchor points.

The greater the angle, the greater the stress imposed.
1140 lbs.
on each leg 150°
at 150°
600 lbs.

600 lbs. 120°

on each leg
at 120° 600 lbs.

90°
420 lbs.
on each leg
at 90° 600 lbs.

60°
342 lbs.
on each leg
at 60° 600 lbs.

306 lbs. 30°

on each leg
at 30°
600 lbs.

300 lbs.
on each leg
at 0°

This chart denotes the effect of loading 600 lbs. between two anchor
points. To correct or minimize the stress on your system, you can
choose anchor points closer together and/or increase the runout to
lower the angle.
For many years, the emphasis has been on the stress imposed on the
anchor points with minor emphasis on the other system components.
Suppose you connect two bombproof anchors that are 120 degrees apart.
You can see by the chart that a 600-lb. load will be imposing 600 lbs. on
each anchor, or a total of 1,200. Say that you use one-inch tubular web-
bing in a self-equalizing arrangement. The safety ratio of 10:1 for webbing
(rescue rope is 15:1) will yield a 400-lb. working strength for a new and
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Anchor Systems 151

unused sample. Therefore, even if 1,200 lbs. didn’t affect your anchor
points, it still exceeded the working strength of the webbing by three
times (1,200 : 400 = 3). There’s your red flag to trouble!

EQUALIZING ANCHOR SYSTEM

The simplest equalizing anchor system encompasses two anchor
points. This forms a nondirectional anchor system that divides the
weight as evenly as possible, allowing the new artificial anchor point
to be moved where it is needed. The safety twist or notch is there in
the event you lose one anchor point. Otherwise, the load-attaching
carabiner may slip off the end and you’ll lose your system entirely.
(The loss of any anchor point can stress the remaining points to such
a degree that they, too, can fail due to shock loading.) Many equaliz-

Simple Equalizing System

Double
fisherman

Pole Pipe

Rescue rope tied

Safety into a secure loop.
twist
Safety
twist

Carabiner

ing anchor systems that support 600-lb. rescue loads use three or four
anchor points (see page 152, top). The more points you use, the more
time and equipment you will require.

Anchor Plate Equalizing System

This technique is gaining popularity because of its simplicity and ver-
satility. The age-old problem of estimating the size of the anchor harness
and knot is eliminated. This technique is based on the creation of the
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152 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Webb or Rope Sling Option (Secure Loop)

Rescue rope or webb slings

Anchor Anchor Anchor

Carabiner
Carabiner
Webb or rope sling
Double fisherman
Safety
twists

Carabiner
Carabiner

Anchor-Plate Self-Equalizing Anchor System

Rescue rope or webb slings

Anchor Anchor Anchor

Carabiner
Carabiner
Rescue rope
Single fisherman
Figure 8 knot

Rope attaches
to carabiners

Anchor plate
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 153

Anchor Systems 153

anchor plate, which is an aluminum plate set up to accept the carabin-

ers from the anchor points to distribute the load and attachment points.
It manages the system, keeping everything neat and clean.

Traditional Self-Equalizing Anchor System

This entails tying a 1/2-inch rescue rope into an anchor harness.
Short lengths of 25 to 30 feet are useful.
Note: Rescue rope is more beneficial than webbing not only because of
its inherent strength, but also for reasons of less friction and easier
movement. Theoretically, the load is divided between the objects. In
reality, some anchors may bear more of the load than the others for a
variety of reasons. Generally speaking, in the field you consider them to

Rescue rope or
webb slings Rescue rope or webb slings

Anchor

Anchor
Anchor
Anchor

Carabiner

Carabiner

Large-loop
Small-loop section
section

Double figure 8
on a bight
Single fisherman

Main rescue rope

(From here, several options can be employed)

This harness is constructed by tying a double figure 8 on a bight. The trick is to

pull one of the bights out much farther than the other. The resultant harness
has one very large and one very small loop for the carabiner attachments.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 154

154 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

divide the load evenly. If you lose one of your anchor points, the load
gets imposed on the other ones. The inherent problem is that the shock
load can be enough to cause the remainder to fail. This is why it’s impor-
tant to balance the need for narrow angles between the anchor points
and to limit the length of the rope or webbing in the finished loop.
Let’s look at the drawback of having extended rope run out in the
anchor harness. In the accompanying diagram, a 10-foot run of rope
is in place between the anchor point and the connecting hitch. If you
lose one anchor point, you’ll get an additional 20 feet of rope into the
system. This additional slack will accelerate until it runs out. This can
cause the system to fail because the length of the drop times the

Rescue rope or webb slings

Failed anchor point

Anchor

Anchor
Anchor

Carabiner Sling
Carabiner 10'

Carabiner

10' 10'

Rescue rope

Double figure 8
on a bight
Single fisherman

Blown Anchor Point

Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 155

Anchor Systems 155

weight that it was supporting may overtax the other anchor points
and blow them out. Using a smaller harness or tether option may bet-
ter suit your needs. This is also why an independent and redundant
system should be in place to catch the load before the 20-foot rope is
added to the primary system.

The Tether Option

To eliminate long runouts, you can use a series of tethers run from
anchor points to the self-equalizing harness. You can employ a wide

Rope or webb sling

Pipe

Standpipe
Carabiner Radio
Antenna
Leg
Carabiner
Webb sling
Carabiner Webb sling
Carabiner

Carabiner

Double fisherman
Safety
twists

Carabiner

Carabiner

LOAD

The Tether Option

Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 156

156 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

variety of techniques, software, and anchor point selections. To differ-

entiate this from the previous example, look at the size of the harness.
The first one contained 60 to 70 feet of rope, whereas this one is much
smaller. The individual tethers allow the connecting to be done from
a considerable distance. If you blow out an anchor, the acceleration
distance is shorter; hence, the shock will most likely be smaller.

Load-Sharing or Nonequalizing Anchor System

The load-sharing anchor system is a directional anchor system that
uses two or more anchor points to create a system.
The attributes of this type of system are:

1. It is easy to set up.

2. It can be put into operation quickly.
3. It may be the only option, depending on the anchor point and
topography or building setup.

The drawback of the nonequalizing anchor system is that any shift-

ing of the load from the center will put the entire load onto one of the
anchor points. If that anchor point is marginal and can’t hold it, then
the system fails.

Load-Sharing or Nonequalizing Anchor System

Close to Edge Far from Edge

Rescue rope or webb slings Rescue rope or webb slings

Anchor Anchor
Anchor Anchor

Carabiner Carabiner
Carabiner
Carabiner

Rope or
webb slings

Single fisherman

Figure 8 knot
Carabiner
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 157

Anchor Systems 157

Multiple Anchor

TREES

Rope or webbing joined

Carabiner

MULTIPLE ANCHOR POINT SYSTEM

This technique is only used for extreme emergencies. It could be
your only option during a rapidly deteriorating situation when injury
or death is a great possibility. This technique entails the firefighter
tying off the rescue rope, hooking up to the harness, and egressing the
location, most likely the roof. Again, this is for life-and-death situ-
ations—just another option in your toolbox.
The attributes of the multiple anchor point system are:

1. It’s simple to set up.

2. It requires a rescue rope and a bowline knot and safety.

The drawbacks of the multiple anchor point system are:

1. Without edge protection and proper placement, the chance of

rope failure is increased.
2. The 90-degree rule may inadvertently be violated if not enough
slack is provided.
3. Correct tying and safetying of the bowline are critical.
4. Loading is limited to one person at a time due to the many vari-
ables.
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158 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. According to NFPA 1983, a two-person load is defined
as being how heavy?
2. Which anchor system provides the minimal loss of
rope strength?
3. When using two or more anchor points, what should
be the maximum interior angle (arch) of the rope?
4. In both equalizing and nonequalizing systems, what
simple device can be used to distribute the load of
numerous attachment points?
5. Which anchor system is to be used under extreme
emergency conditions only?
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 159

Chapter Nine

Belaying and
Running
Protection

B
elaying simply means securing someone by rope to a substantial
anchor. Belaying protects the individual from a fall, since the
rope, friction device, and anchor are set up to catch the individ-
ual before hitting the ground. The rope is controlled by a belayer, who
lets out or takes in line as needed. Any firefighter who needs to climb
up, out, or down, or who may have poor handholds and footholds, is
a candidate for a fall. Thus, you should set up a belay system ahead of
most other protective measures.
The fall matrix consists of three components: (1) the type and qual-
ities of the rope, (2) the length of rope that is out in the system, and
(3) the static components of the system, such as the anchor points,
carabiners, and webbing.

FALL FACTORS
The fall factor principle is relatively easy to use once you grasp it. To
figure it out, divide the length of the fall by the length of the rope that
is out in the system.

Length of Fall
Fall Factor = ——————————————
Length of Rope Out in System

This is one subject that NFPA 1983 doesn’t address. It is mentioned

in Appendix A for informational purposes only. The primary guiding
organization is the UIAA, which sets the standards for climbing equip-
ment. Whenever someone falls and is caught by a protective or arrest-
ing system, the resultant impact forces can injure or kill if not proper-

159
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 160

160 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

ly managed. As they say, “It wasn’t the fall that killed him, it was the
sudden stop.” Tolerances to shock force are figured into equipment
and rope to comply with UIAA standards. It has been determined that
a 12-kilonewton fall is about the maximum that a human body can
sustain without injury.
Let’s look at a simplistic illustration of figuring fall factors. These are
stand-alone belaying situations without running protection. Fall fac-
tors are scaled numerically from less than one to two in this type of
evolution. The underlying premise is that you can only fall twice the
length of the rope. (This can be greater when clipped into a ladder
with a short halyard, which will be covered later.)
Consider the following scenario. A rescuer is anchored to a substan-

Fall Factors

Rope is fully paid out.

Fall factor = 0. Rescuer falls the
full length of the
rope from the
anchor point.
Fall factor = 1.

Rescuer falls from

full extension of
the rope above to
full extension of the
rope below the
anchor point.
Fall factor = 2.

Rescuer falls half

the length of the rope.
Fall factor = .5.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 161

Belaying and Running Protection 161

tial overhead anchor. The rope is pulled taut. Should the rope become
shock loaded as the result of a fall, the fall factor would be about zero.
In a situation where a substantial anchor is above the rescuer’s head,
100 feet of rope is out, and the rescuer is 50 feet below the anchor
point, then the fall factor would be 0.5. Falling from the level of the
anchor presents a fall factor of 1. If the rescuer climbs the full length
of the rope, then falls past the anchor point until the rope shock loads,
that is considered a fall factor of 2.
Running protection goes hand in hand with belaying in certain situ-
ations and will be covered later in this chapter.

STATIC COMPONENTS
Static components are divided into two categories, equipment and
the human body. Equipment components are designed or selected to
withstand forces higher than 12 kN, since their utility demands it. A
225-lb. firefighter with equipment is a constant. Outside of shedding
some of the equipment load, which is highly unlikely, he will still be
225 lbs. when he falls and be restricted to normal human limitations.

CHOOSING THE BELAY ROPE

Choosing rope for a potential fall factor of greater than 1 means that
you should use dynamic kernmantle, which has high energy-absorb-
ing qualities. Vertical climbing and performing a bottomside belay
automatically put you in this situation.
Why are we so worried about fall factors, stress, and types of rope?
The concern centers around how much stress the human body can
withstand in a fall, limited to 12 kN by UIAA standards. In the indus-
trial sector, OSHA Regulation Subpart M, Fall Protection for Workers,
covers situations commonly encountered in the workplace. The
premise is to eliminate the problem or engineer permanent safeguards
where falls can occur. The OSHA regulation covering fall protection
limits the maximum arresting force on an employee to 8 kN when
wearing a full-body harness. In reality, there is no standard that covers
these specific issues when operating in locations without fixed fall pro-
tection systems in place. The principles of belaying and its system
components provide fall protection where none exist. Our emergency
operations occur where there are no safeguards in place and belaying
provides the protection to the firefighter. Whenever a fall factor
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162 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

approaches .25 or greater, a dynamic kernmantle rope must be used for

belaying evolutions.
What absorbs the shock load? The rope component is the most
important in terms of absorbing the shock load of a fall. While some
of the equipment items in the static component may yield somewhat
when shock loaded, most will do so only above the 12-kN limit. The
predominant types of rope being used by the fire service today are the
static and dynamic kernmantle. The UIAA standard covers rope used
for belaying evolutions in the climbing world. UIAA-compliant ropes
are tested to withstand a fall factor 2 situation using a test weight of
176 lbs. (80 kg) and limiting the force to 12 kN. This is the reason
using dynamic kernmantle is critical to surviving a fall in lead-climb-
ing situations.
Let’s look at some common scenarios. A vast majority of belaying is
for horizontal situations such as working on a bridge or vertical situ-
ations such as rappelling or being lowered below an anchor point. In
the case of a horizontal belay to a rescuer with running protection
installed and controlled by a cognizant belayer, a static rope may be
suitable. In a vertical descent, such as rappelling with a topside anchor
and little slack, any fall should be minimal, and the static rope may
also be suitable for this. One of the reasons this topic has been moot
is because some teams don’t have dynamic ropes in their inventories,
and they haven’t been trained in running protection techniques.
When dynamic rope is discussed, they fear that they must use it in all
situations, which isn’t true. Still, the need for different sizes, lengths,
and types of rope for the multitude of situations that you’ll encounter
is absolute.
The full issue of fall protection is an entirely separate discipline deal-
ing with workers’ safety in the course of their daily duties. The belay-
ing techniques provide a measure of protection to the person operat-
ing in a situation without which a fall and injury could occur. The
critical balance in belaying is to manage the rope so that enough line
is advanced to permit the member to work but not so much as to add
to the shock load if a fall occurs. You can see that when the issue of
what rope to use comes up, the different concepts and terms can
become convoluted. When I talk about belaying, I am generally refer-
ring to the safetying of a one-person load. This means that each per-
son requiring a belay should get his own rope, anchor, friction device,
and belayer. The associated terminology can have different meanings
to different people. Raising and lowering a stokes with a victim and a
rescuer requires a main line and a redundant backup system. I don’t
consider that second rope to be a belay line. It is a system backup, even
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 163

Belaying and Running Protection 163

though the victim and rescuer may be tethered to it. I consider the
belay to be a personal and dedicated life safety system. As always, each
department or team must discuss these issues and formulate them into
their operational plans.
Using dynamic rope may be foreign to some in the fire service; how-
ever, you must apply different techniques to different situations. The
predominant dynamic rope on the market today is the 11 mm (7/16
inch), which has a breaking strength of 5,000 to 6,800 lbs., depending
on the manufacturer. Currently the most common static kernmantle
rope is the 12.5 mm (1/2 inch) with a minimum breaking strength in
excess of 9,000 lbs. Depending on where your belay station is, climb-
ing above your anchor point can put you into a fall factor 2 situation
until you place your first piece of protection. You absolutely and posi-
tively don’t want to climb above your anchor with a static rope. For
anything over a .25 fall factor, you should be using dynamic rope. This
runs contrary to the myth that static rope is the only rope suitable for
fire service operations.
The lion’s share of rescue work is done with static ropes. The prob-
lem is that, when you fall any distance, the ultimate shock of arrest is
transferred to the rope, the anchor, the harness, the equipment, and
your body. You have to worry about not only equipment failure but
also the resulting stress on the human body. This is why the emphasis
is on dynamic rope in the sport climbing disciplines. For many years,
dynamic rope has been instrumental in the successful arrest of one-
person falls in vertical climbs.
The guideline to follow, along with manufacturers’ recommenda-
tions, is to use static rope for most belaying situations where the fall
factor is less than .25 and to use dynamic rope for all one-person
belays where the fall factor is greater than .25 or whenever you’re
climbing above your anchor.

SIZE-UP AND SAFETY

Setting up a basic belay system starts with scene size-up. Assessing
scene safety involves first determining the safest route to your destina-
tion and accessing the start point with a substantial anchor. There are
many variables to scene safety, but the primary one to consider is: How
tenable is the belay point? You need to find any attendant hazards
besides the obvious ones of fire and collapse. Electrical lines, chemicals,
gases, machinery, and water can all ruin your day. Those who have
dealt with confined space rescue have a good understanding of these
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164 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Before Fall After Fall

Radio tower
Rope

Anchor and belayer 0

No Running Protection
Fall factor = 2

Before Fall After Fall

Protection point

Anchor and
belayer

Running Protection in Place

Fall factor less than 2
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 165

Belaying and Running Protection 165

hazards. The route to a victim may be safe, but the operating area can
be deadly. Keep the start point as close to the victim as possible to make
rope runouts short and systems uncomplicated. Substantial anchors in
the immediate area must be able to support the load of a belay opera-
tion; if not, then an anchor system must be devised. Long-distance or
remotely created anchor points are an option, but keep the anchoring
principles in mind. Anchors must be able to support the rescuer and
victim even if they are using a one-person rope—the victim may jump
onto the rescuer and load up the system. Be prepared for such eventu-
alities, and choose your anchor points with care.
Of next concern is ensuring that everyone operating in the danger
zone is wearing a harness and is tethered to a substantial anchor. You
don’t want the mission to be impeded by a personal injury before it
even begins.

SETTING UP THE BELAY POINT

There are as many ways as there are situations for doing this.
Generally you need an anchor point, rope, a friction device, carabin-
ers, webb slings, edge protection, harnesses, and personal protective
equipment. Wrap two webb slings around the anchor points and con-

Belay Plate

Carabiner
Harness

Belay rope
Belay plate Webb slings

A belay point arrangement using a belay plate. When the belay plate is
pulled back, it locks up and prevents any further movement. The belayer
must maintain firm control.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 166

166 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

nect them to a common point with a locking carabiner, using edge

protection as necessary. The first attachment will be for the belay line
and must be strongly reinforced. Do the same wrap with a webb sling
for the belayer, creating two independent anchor points. The top sling,
for the belayer, should be the longer of the two, and the bottom one,
for the belay device, should be shorter.
The choice of rope depends on the task at hand. Previously we have
discussed choosing rope based on construction and handling charac-
teristics. Now we’ll take this a step further. Your choice of a friction
device can relate directly to what rope you may use. The primary belay
devices are the figure 8, the belay plate, and the brake bar rack.
Dynamic rope will fit into any of these devices. Static 1/2-inch rope
won’t fit into the belay plate. The belay plate is designed only for rope
up to 7/16-inch diameter. Belay plates are a popular choice of friction
device when using dynamic rope. Tandem 8 mm prusiks, figure 8
plates, and brake bar racks are the preferred choices for static rope.
There are many other devices used by teams in different regions and
in different countries. When you go above one-person loads, many of
these devices have difficulty arresting falls. This is why belaying isn’t
for multiple-person loads.
Rope selection and belay devices go hand in hand and create yet
another area of contention among the experts in the field. Each depart-
ment and team must make informed decisions as to which techniques
and equipment work best for them. A side issue to choosing the right
belay device is using a fixed brake in conjunction with it. This entails
using prusiks on the rope to act as a backup to the belayer. To many
experts, this is a matter of training and safety. The more complicated
techniques get, the more recurrent training is required. Let it be said
that using prusiks on a belay line for a one-person load has its merits.
If you do elect to use the prusik brake, it’s highly recommended that
you incorporate a load-releasing hitch between the prusik and anchor
point. In the event of a fall while paying out slack and the prusik gets
loaded, you’ll need a mechanism to release the secured load to con-
tinue any movement (See page 241).

THE BELAY OPERATION

With both the rescuer and the belayer in their harnesses, attach a
rope first to the rescuer using an appropriate knot. The belayer is then
attached to the anchor so as to be independent of the rope. This is
where people sometimes become confused. Belayers don’t stop falls by
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Belaying and Running Protection 167

wrapping the rope around themselves. The belayer simply pulls the rope
through the friction device as the rescuer moves away, keeping the
rope as taut as possible to eliminate runout, thereby lessening the
potential fall distance. When the rescuer comes back toward the belay
point, the belayer likewise takes in the slack. The purpose of securing
the belayer to an anchor point is to prevent him from falling—since
operations usually take place in dangerous areas, an injured belayer
could shut down a rescue. The belayer must be independent of the
rope and not “body belay,” because the stress of arresting a fall could
injure or kill him. In the event of a problem, the belayer can tie off the
line, leave the belay point, and assist as needed.
In short, belaying is a critical skill that requires thorough mastery of
the art. It is a true life safety operation because someone directly
depends on your ability to perform the task correctly.

COMMUNICATION
Communication is essential for safety and efficiency. In general,
rope rescue lingo is simple and easy to understand. Before throwing a
rope bag over a precipice, look to see whether the area is clear, then
shout, “Rope.” When the rescuer is hooked up to the belay system and
is ready to move, he should yell, “On belay.” The belayer confirms this
by answering, “Belay on.” This ensures that everyone is both ready and
alert. When coming off the belay for any reason, the rescuer yells, “Off
belay,” and the belayer answers, “Belay off.”
If distance or noise makes direct verbal communication impractical,
use portable radios.

PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Team commanders must assess the need for what type and what level
of personal protective equipment is necessary. It is essential that you
protect yourself against the situation at hand. The ongoing question
regarding handling rope is whether rope rescuers should wear gloves.
Those who say no back up their position with the argument that oper-
ating barehanded provides the rescuer with a constant feel for the rope
and thus more control. They also feel that it forestalls a rappeller from
taking the extremely fast descents that might otherwise burn and dam-
age the rope. Their basic contention is that standard firefighting gloves
are too bulky and dirty from fireground operations to be used on ropes.
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168 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Those who advocate gloved operations cite the need to protect the res-
cuer’s hands, especially when operating on steel structures. They believe
that fireground work is usually done in full protective gear, including
gloves, and that rope rescuers should train this way. For true technical,
nonfireground activity, a thin leather glove is usually sufficient, but fire-
ground operations and colder climates necessitate a greater level of pro-
tection. On one cold February day, I held a class out on the roof. There
wasn’t any question as to whether to wear gloves or not!

RUNNING PROTECTION
This technique and belaying complement each other nicely to pro-
tect a firefighter in certain situations. For running protection, webb
slings are wrapped around substantial components and connected
with a locking carabiner to form a secure loop that the belay line will
run through. The problem of operating on structures or exaggerated
topography is that the belay line can be damaged or entangled by the
very object you’re operating on. Belaying is called for and used more
often than running protection; however, belaying operations can be
compromised if running protection isn’t used in the appropriate situ-
ations. It eliminates many of the rope management problems typical-
ly encountered and changes the fall factor facing the lead ascending
firefighter. Running protection can be used on many vertical struc-
tures, such as radio towers, water towers, and highway billboards. It
can also be used on horizontal structures, such as cranes, scaffolding,
bridges, catwalks, and pipelines.
Consider the scenario of a rescue from a bridge as depicted. In an
attempt to reduce the victim’s anxiety and to stabilize the incident, all
equipment, nonoperating personnel, and bystanders should be kept
remote from the immediate scene of negotiation. By keeping your
anchoring point far away, however, you increase the distance that your
rope must pay out. As the incorrect setup shows, operating without
running protection can result in disaster should a mishap occur. The
rescuer could plunge to the terrain below or slam into the structure. It
is a common misconception that simply weaving the rope in and
around the girders of a bridge is sufficient. When you shock load a
rope with the weight of a victim or rescuer, rusty steel edges can cut
through it like a knife.
Setting up running protection is relatively simple once a belay point
has been established. Before using this technique , you must first meet
all of the criteria associated with belays: Prepare the rescuer climbing out
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 169

Belaying and Running Protection 169

80' rope

In the event of a fall, the rescuer

70' could fall the full distance to the
terrain below.

Bridge Rescue—No Running Protection

Webb loops and carabiners

Belayer

Victim Rescuer

Bridge Rescue—Running Protection in Place

Webb loops and

locking carabiners

150'
In the event of a fall, the
rescuer falls only the distance
from the closest protection
point plus whatever stretch
is in the line.

Belayer

Vertical Tower—Running Protection in Place

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170 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

or up, establish the belay point and belayer, and have the supervisory
clearance. In the meantime, team members can assemble the necessary
equipment for the running protection. One-inch tubular webbing tied
into secure loops with a locking carabiner snapped to it are the primary
components. The loops should be of sufficient size to go around the
intended substantial objects. Ladder rungs or beams would require small
loops, while structural steel on bridges calls for a larger size.

Zig-Zag Running Protection

Protection point

Protection point Protection point

Protection point Protection point

Protection point Protection point

Zig-zagging requires
more time and equipment,
and presents rope management
Anchor point problems—not a good setup.
and belayer
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 171

Belaying and Running Protection 171

One of the logistical problems is that most of the slings carried by

teams are medium to large in size. Two- to four-foot slings would be
sufficient for most applications. On-scene size-up will determine
which size you need. If you use larger slings, you may have to wrap
them several times to shorten them.
Setting up the system at a rescue begins with tying off to a substan-
tial object to create the belay point. Then, you essentially create artifi-
cial anchor points at intervals with webb loops and carabiners.

Running Protection

Protection
point

Protection
point

Protection
point

Protection
point

Belay rope Webb sling

Anchor point
and belayer
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 172

172 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

There is no hard and fast formula for the distance between each run-
ning protection point. Consider the distance to be traveled, how much
equipment you need to carry, and the degree of difficulty that the
operation presents. With that said, the biggest consideration should be
how much impact would result if a fall were to take place. The discus-
sion of fall protection criteria becomes important at this juncture.
While the distances that rock climbers cover may at times be consid-
erable, I think that you need to calculate for such distances as they
relate to fire service operations.
Take, for example, the scenario of a rope rescue on a 150-foot verti-
cal tower. Place the first protection point just above your head when
standing on the ground. Then, place another one every five feet on the
lower end for several points. Placing the protection even closer at
lower levels may be necessary because, if a fall were to occur at this
level and too much rope were available, the firefighter might hit the
ground even if the belay is tight. Higher up, at the middle and upper
levels, you can place the protection points a maximum of ten feet
apart. Using this example, you will require 12 to 15 loop and carabin-
er assemblies.
In this operation, use dynamic kernmantle rope, which will react dif-
ferently from static rope. In the event of a fall, the distance would be
10 feet on the lower end and 20 feet in the middle and on the upper
end. The basic reason for this is that, when your fall occurs, you’ll fall
a distance equal to the length of rope that is out between you and the
last point, plus an equal distance beyond that until the belay arrests
you.
Be sure to place the webbing and carabiners on substantial points
and to align and center the carabiners. If questionable points appear,
or if distances are increased, wrapping several points to a common
connection may be helpful. The running protection point must be
able to sustain the impact load without failing. The downside to hav-
ing too many carabiners or eccentric placement is that it creates drag.
You may be surprised how much friction there is when you pull a rope
through several carabiners at different angles. That’s the reason vary-
ing lengths of webbing are needed.
The webb sling should be looped around the object and the carabiner
clipped in with the gate down and out to facilitate proper loading and
easy use. If equipment is in short supply, you can double 8 mm acces-
sory cord tied into secure loops as a substitute. Most dynamic belays are
limited to about 125 feet, depending on the run path of a standard 165-
foot (50-meter) rope. On towers and other high objects, multiple belay
and running protection operations can and do take place.
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Belaying and Running Protection 173

Another technique is to establish a belay point for a running protec-

tion point to the midlevel and to secure both ends. This is useful if the
lead climber needs to be replaced due to exposure or fatigue.
The interconnection between belaying and running protection is
important and needs to be clearly understood. Let’s look at a vertical
tower where the lead climbing firefighter has ascended to the top. The
belay line is secured at both ends with running protection in place.
Subsequent firefighters will climb the tower superstructure or built-in
ladder with the aid of tethers to the belay line. In this evolution, you
need to secure your harness to the vertical belay in some manner.
There are several ways to do this, all with merits and drawbacks.
Note: You must not overload a structure such as a tower or crane with
firefighters. Incident commanders must assess these situations for
wind, ice, rain, and type of loads. Structural damage can severely
diminish safety margins. Operate on such structures with a minimal
number of personnel.

Technique 1
Connect two short webb slings to your harness with a locking cara-
biner. At the opposite end, connect two more locking carabiners. Clip
both to the vertical belay rope, then climb (see page 174).
Once you hit a protection point, unclip one carabiner and clip it to
the opposite side of the protection point. Do the same with the sec-
ond carabiner. With both on the same side, you can proceed up to the
next point. Two carabiners mean that at no time can you be detached
from the belay line.
The problem with this evolution is that, if a fall were to occur, the
firefighter could actually exceed a fall factor of 2 (see page 175). This
method is the quickest in terms of advancing up the structure, pri-
marily because the carabiners don’t have to be moved along individu-
ally. Its overall level of security is for positioning purposes. This fall
can exceed the 12-kN limit.

Technique 2
This technique follows the same course of webb tethers and locking
carabiners; however, prusik loops used as rope grabs are attached to the
vertical belay line. Doing so provides more positive control and pre-
vents you from falling the full distance to the protection point below,
as long as the prusiks are gripping correctly. The ascending firefighter
must move the prusiks along as he goes and not get ahead of them.
The best method is for the prusiks to be advanced between each
ascent, the reason being that, if you climb too far above your rope
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174 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Vertical Running Protection—Technique 1

Belay rope

Protection
point
Webb slings

Connect two short webb slings to your harness

using a locking carabiner. At the opposite end,
connect two more locking carabiners, one at each
end of the webb slings. Clip both to the vertical
belay rope, then climb.

Protection
point

Once you reach a protection point, unclip

one carabiner and clip it to the opposite
side of the protection point.

Protection
point

Once that carabiner has been secured,

do the same with the second carabiner,
then proceed up to the next protection
point.
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Belaying and Running Protection 175

Fall Factor Greater Than 2

Secured end

The ascending firefighter

is tethered to the run pro
line. Before the firefighter
clips above that point, a fall
occurs between the protection
points.

10' between protection points

Length of fall 8'

= = 4
Length of rope out in system 2'

Fall factor = 4

= Protection point

Anchor point
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 176

176 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

grabs, you can increase your fall factor. Let’s say your tethers are three
feet long and that you climb above your rope grabs. While attempting
to pull them up from below, you slip. Now you are dependent on your
fall protection.

Length of Fall 6
Fall Factor = ————————————— , or —— = 2
Length of Rope in System 3

You can put yourself into a fall factor 2 situation. Outside of the
belay line being in place, all of your other components are static and,
for all practical purposes, unyielding. This fall can yield impacts high-
er than the 12-kN limit.
Other problems with prusiks are that they can be extremely difficult
to tie correctly while hanging on a structure. Many firefighters have a
hard enough time placing them on a rope on level ground, let alone
high in the sky. It can be time-consuming and tedious work, especial-
ly if the climb is to any great height. Also, the gripping power of
prusiks on wet, muddy, or icy ropes can be marginal at best. This is the
reason mechanical ascenders are now preferred over soft ascenders in
some circumstances.
Class III harnesses (full body) are recommended in these types of
situations. They allow the wearer to handle a higher level of impact
force. Fall protection is attached to the upper torso area, usually to the
center of the back above the shoulder blades.

Technique 3
This method essentially follows the premise of Technique 2, only
substituting mechanical ascenders instead of prusiks. These devices are
easier to place in service while working in the vertical environment.
Also, they grip better on slippery ropes. Using them for this purpose is
not without disagreement, however. Some people prefer not to use
hard ascenders for this application. The argument is that the shock
load of a fall could severely damage the rope. According to Dr. Peter
Gibbs, president of Gibbs Products Inc., using his company’s hard
ascenders in this manner is permissible as long as two ascenders are
used on the belay line. Gibbs manufactures one of the most popular
mechanical ascenders in the fire service field.

Technique 4
Petzl Manufacturing of France has come up with a new shock-
absorbing lanyard called the Zyper™ that can handle a fall factor of 5
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 177

Belaying and Running Protection 177

with a four- to six-kN yield. As mentioned earlier, traditional fall fac-

tors don’t normally exceed 2, since you can’t fall twice the length of a
rope unless it breaks. A unique situation arose in Europe, however, in
answer to which this device was created.
The via ferrata is a situation in which individuals climb a fixed lad-
der along the vertical face of a cliff. A cable runs parallel to the ladder,
and climbers hook into that cable for fall protection. This is similar to
Technique 1; however, this is cable and not rope, so there is no elas-
ticity. If a fall were to occur, you would fall until you hit the next pro-
tection point, where you and your equipment would be shock loaded.
This type of fall is possible in running protection evolutions, particu-
larly along the vertical plane. Although rescuers who install their own
running protection use dynamic rope instead of cable, they can expe-
rience forces that can destroy carabiners, webb loops, anchors, and the
human body. This lanyard is designed to arrest an 80-kilogram (176-
lb.) person in situations up to a fall factor of 5. The length of fall
allowed is five meters divided by the one-meter lanyard, yielding a fall
factor of 5. When the fall is arrested, the maximum yield on the

Harness

Protection
point Friction
device

Attach the lanyard to the harness and belay line as shown. When you hit a protection
point, clip the free end above it. Once you have clipped the second part of the lanyard
above the protection point, you MUST disconnect the lanyard from below the protection
point and let it hang freely. You need that second section to hang freely, since it will
absorb the shock load by sliding through the friction device in the event of a fall.

Shock-Absorbing Lanyard
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 178

178 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

climber is to be less than six kN. Remember that it is designed for a

176-lb. person, so a heavier person may want to decrease the distances
between each protection point so as to gain a greater margin of safety.
This device has made its way through the prestigious CE (Comite
European de Normalisation) certification process in Europe. Like all
other pieces of equipment, it must be used according to the manufac-
turer’s recommendations.
Technique 4 provides the greatest amount of mobility with a high
level of fall protection.
Each of the techniques discussed in the vertical running section have
their advantages and disadvantages. Many times, it’s the devices that are
time-consuming to operate, either because of weather conditions or the
relative experience of the user. Having several practiced techniques in
your repertoire is prudent, since your preferred technique might be inap-
propriate for a given situation or the necessary components might not
be available. In addition to deciding these issues before performing any
evolutions, your team must be highly proficient and versatile.
In case the requisite equipment or skills aren’t available, two other
secondary techniques are. The first is to belay a lead climbing fire-
fighter to his intended location, placing running protection as he goes.
Then have that firefighter secure himself to an anchor point and con-
struct a topside belay station. He can now belay the subsequent
ascending firefighter from above. Obviously, the first firefighter must
bring all of the needed rope and equipment during the ascent. The sec-
ond technique follows this design except that, instead of setting up a
belay station, the topside firefighter connects a pulley to a bombproof
anchor point. A rescue rope, reeved through the pulley and lowered to
the ground, is tied to the next ascending firefighter. The remaining
rope in the bag is dropped to the ground and gets connected to a belay
device. Basically, instead of belaying from topside, you are doing it
from below. The pulley only changes the direction of the rope—it
offers no mechanical advantage. This technique can require a great
deal of rope and may not be possible to employ.

HORIZONTAL RUNNING PROTECTION

Horizontal running protection evolutions generally run at waist or
shoulder height. To use the protection in place, you must tether your-
self to the system. Connect two webbing loops of equal length to your
harness’s weight-bearing connecting point. Then, clip two locking
carabiners to the opposite end. Clip into the belay line and climb to
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Belaying and Running Protection 179

Horizontal Running Protection

Reclip the carabiners one at a time to move past horizontal running protection.

Webb slings

Harness

the next point. Once you hit a protection point, you have to unclip
one carabiner and clip it to the opposite side of the point. Do the same
with the second carabiner. With both carabiners on the same side, you
can proceed forward to the next point. To come back to the belay
point, reverse the process. You must always have one of the tethers
connected in case of a fall. This is the reason you need two slings and
two carabiners. Using the upper lanyard in this case is also suggested.
Using a shock-absorbing lanyard such as the Zyper™ may be more
advantageous. It allows rapid movement and additional fall protection
in vertical and horizontal situations.
Several options are available to you. You can leave the first lead
climber in place and secure both ends, since they can become a belayer
to the second lead climber. Otherwise, once the running protection sys-
tem is in place, firefighters can connect to it and move about as needed,
provided the structure can support the weight. Beefing up the running
protection line with static kernmantle is possible because the member
pulling it through is protected by the secured dynamic rope.
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180 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. To calculate the fall factor, divide the length of the fall
by _______________.
2. What is the maximum number of kilonewtons that
the human body can briefly sustain without injury?
3. When safetying a one-person load, what sort of rope
should be used for belaying evolutions when the fall
factor is .25 or greater?
4. During a belay evolution, what piece of equipment
absorbs most of the shock of a fall?
5. What technique is used in conjunction with belaying
to protect a firefighter in both vertical and horizontal
evolutions?
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:00 PM Page 181

Chapter Ten

Access and Packaging

A
fter anchoring, access is the second step in the rescue process. It
is divided into three subcategories:

1. Making visual, verbal, or direct contact with the victim for res-
cue.
2. Getting firefighters and rope systems in place to facilitate the
rescue.
3. Stabilizing the victim, meaning to package for transport.

This sequence can go in any order, depending on how the operation

unfolds. Firefighters may first need to get a rope system in place before
being able to make contact with the victim, for example.
Generally, the strategy of taking the higher ground to operate from
above allows for simpler tactical objectives and a mission of less com-
plexity. This shouldn’t be any secret to anyone, since rope systems
require anchor points above the operating area.

GAINING ACCESS ON THE MACRO LEVEL

In Chapter One, we assessed our jurisdiction’s liabilities according to
four categories: topography, construction, demographics, and in-house
capabilities. The first two are germane to our current discussion.

Topography
One segment of a location operating plan is to survey a given envi-
ronment for access points, both for rope system setup and for reach-
ing the victim. When you look at topographical locations, the issue

181
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182 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

that presents itself is how to get to the high ground. Many times, road-
ways provide that advantage. Mountainous locations can require a
large logistical effort just to get into position. Reaching that higher
ground can be a matter of sheer brute strength if vehicles can’t get
there. Gaining access to the general theater of operations can expend
a tremendous amount of time and resources, and I’m not talking about
climbing Mt. McKinley by any means. A moderate hill or ridge in a
park may be easily accessible in the summertime. With snow on the
ground and strong winds, however, the situation changes tremen-
dously. There are many locations in the biggest city and the smallest
town from which typical municipal fire departments might not be able
to operate by relying on traditional equipment and apparatus.
Locating the victim via third-party information usually starts the
process. Helicopters can be extemely useful in rural and wilderness set-
tings as long as good weather prevails. Unfortunately, many jurisdic-
tions don’t have access to helicopters, or the ones that are available
aren’t configured for rescue operations. In my state, neither the state
police nor the fish and game departments provide direct rescue heli-
copter support. If the need arises, the local agency makes a request to
the fish and game department, which in turn contacts the State
National Guard Aviation Wing—not exactly a timely event. Regional
medical centers that provide air ambulance or medevac service could
be your ace in the hole. While they probably wouldn’t transport your
members, they might pick up your victim from the remote area, there-
by increasing his chances of survival. U.S. Coast Guard helicopters
may also be available, particularly in the maritime areas. Summertime
boating and man-overboard calls in my jurisdiction have brought in
several of the Coast Guard’s specially equipped helicopters, along with
U.S. Navy helicopters from a distant Naval Air Detachment.
One of the best, albeit least known, of the air rescue organizations is
the U.S. Air Force Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Service (ARRS). A
request received at Scott Air Force Base in Illinois alerts one of the
many pararescue (PJ) units located around the world. These units are
comprised of helicopters, specially equipped fixed-wing aircraft, or
both. They have the capability of flying long distances across the
ocean, then parachuting PJs into the sea to assist injured persons.
Closer to home, they can reach areas during inclement weather or at
night.
With the aid of global positioning satellites and handheld receivers,
pinpoint navigational accuracy is available even for ground personnel.
Establish a list of these resources and purchase according to your
department’s potential needs.
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Access and Packaging 183

Construction
The traditional fire service is more at ease and better equipped to
deal with man-made structures than wilderness or other natural
locales. Reaching a victim in a building will likely take advantage of all
the conventional operations that are the firefighter’s stock in trade.
Rope rescue operations in man-made structures can take an internal or
an external approach. Getting above a victim in an interior environ-
ment might be as simple as climbing the stairs to a superior position.
External operations might entail climbing the sides of the building,
being raised by an aerial ladder, or being lowered by helicopter.
Specialized training is available by many of the providers of these more
exotic services.

GAINING ACCESS ON THE MICRO LEVEL

The micro level pertains directly to the operating level and can
encompass an endless variety of details. This stage of any operation is
comprised of many tactical objectives that must be carried out to sat-
isfy the overall mission.

The Fireground
Most likely, victims here will be trapped on the fire floor, the floor
above, or the roof. Gaining access and setting up may require a
tremendous effort. Whatever positions you establish must be tenable
throughout the operation—often a dubious matter when a building is
well involved. On the fireground, prudently aggressive tactics are usu-
ally ingredients of success.

Man-Made Structures
Access to towers and antennas is gained by unconventional means,
whether by climbing an aerial or a built-in ladder or by ascending the
superstructure. Belaying and running protection are necessary to pro-
vide safety for the firefighters. The lowering maneuvers to get the vic-
tim to the ground again can be equally involved. You often have to
work out many details at a rapid pace to effect a successful rescue.

Confined Spaces
If, as a minimum, every facility correctly incorporated the required
safety systems, and if employers and employees alike abided by 29 CFR
1910.146, Permit Required Confined Space Regulation, there would be lit-
tle use for this growing rescue service. Unfortunately, this is not the
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184 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

case. Spaces are improperly configured, and people cut corners to save
time and money. Access in the realm of confined spaces typically
implies using the openings that the entrants used and sizing up the
anchor points. Depending on the particular industry and facility lay-
out, there may be spots where you can’t deploy a tripod and winch.
Such spaces need engineered and rated anchor points as part of their
design yet often lack them. Consequently, industrial incidents are hor-
ror shows in the making. If an entrant goes down, just providing
access for rescue personnel and equipment can be a nightmare. A rope
tied to the worker in trouble lends a terrible false sense of security and
serves as no more than a route to the victim. You must also gain access
to the myriad of other hazards in and around the space that you must
secure—utilities, chemicals, and machinery, for example. I can attest
that the facility lock-out/tag-out program can be extremely flawed or
nonexistent, and this may be the primary cause behind many injuries.
Rope rescues in industrial settings can involve anchor systems,
mechanical advantage systems, and belays at minimum.

PACKAGING
Packaging is done to help prevent further injury, to ensure easier
handling of the victim, and to provide a transportation mechanism.
Packaging of patients in the emergency medical prehospital setting
occurs daily. A typical auto accident patient receives a short board and
collar plus a long board and straps. Any fractures will be splinted to
provide maximum protection. On a ground level, usually this happens
in a rapid, systematic fashion with very few impediments. Packaging a
victim in need of rope rescue, however, presents firefighters with
numerous ancillary problems. My intent in this section is to make you
aware of the limitations of our equipment and to stimulate some
thought. There are occasions when maximum prehospital protection
can’t be given. Maybe the equipment won’t fit into the opening, or the
operating area is rapidly deteriorating, or the firefighter will be endan-
gered somehow. Many times individuals requiring rope rescue only
need transportation to safety, but injuries among such victims are
common enough that traditional techniques of stablizing them in the
rope context need to be discussed.

Immobilization Devices
The Short Board: Short boarding is a generic term for installing a
device on a victim’s back to provide rigid support from the cervical to
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Access and Packaging 185

the coccygeal regions of the spine. In the not-too-distant past, the

short board was constructed of plywood and attached by several
straps. New technologies have brought about many devices that con-
form better to the curves of the victim’s back. One of the problems
with the traditional short board was that it wouldn’t fit into some of
the newly configured automobile seats. Modern devices are flexible yet
still provide ample support once secured to the victim. Such types are
commonplace on most ambulances today. The KED™, or Kendrick
Extrication Device, is well suited for confined space rescues. Another
short board that is available is the OSS II, or Oregon Spine Splint II™.
This device was developed to interface with the SKED™ stretcher sys-
tem, which we’ll cover later in this chapter.
The traditional short board still has its place and should be kept
around just in case. Of course, using it or any immobilization device
requires specialized emergency medical training such as EMT or high-
er. Follow manufacterers’ instructions.
The advantages of short boards are:

1. They provide a high level of spinal immobilization.

2. They help to prevent further injury.
3. They provide for easier handling of the victim.
4. They work well with long boards and litter baskets.
5. They can be applied in many cramped locations. Color-coded
straps make attaching them easier in confined environments.

The disadvantages of short boards are:

1. They don’t provide a transport mechanism. A basket litter, person-

al harness, or improvised lift arrangement must be provided.
2. The operating area or egress routes may be too narrow even for
these types of devices.
3. Firefighters must be thoroughly trained and competent in their
use and must be accustomed to using them in the worst envi-
ronments.

The Long Board: Long boarding is the generic term for installing a
device on which the victim lies in a supine position. The long board
provides support from head to toe because the victim is immobilized
on the board and held in position. It is generally used in conjunction
with a short board for maximum support. The long board is con-
structed of plywood or heavy-duty plastic and comes with different
immobilization features. Wooden types are still popular but are rapid-
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186 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

ly being replaced by plastic ones. Other considerations include the par-

ticular head restraint system and the strapping mechanism. Quick
clips that attach to pins in the handholds are advantageous.
The advantages of the long board are:

1. It provides for easier handling of the victim.

2. It helps to prevent further injury by stabilizing the entire body.
3. It is typically used with a short board.
4. The two-board method can facilitate moving a victim through
a small opening.

The main disadvantage of the long board is its size. A six-foot board
doesn’t conform to cramped locations. It is a man-sized device and does
not break down. By its very design, it must be rigid to provide support.

Transportation Devices
Stokes Basket: The first tactical stretcher to come to mind is the
ever-popular stokes basket, also known as the rescue or litter basket. It
has served both the military and the fire service well for many decades.
It’s constructed of a metal frame of tubular steel shaped to conform to
a person and covered with a wire mesh. This stretcher has evolved over

A wire stokes basket

with flotation for water
operations (left) and a
plastic stokes litter.
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Access and Packaging 187

the years to become lighter in weight and easier to transport. It is

designed to be an appropriate means of conveyance for rope rescue,
providing the necessary attachment mechanisms for transport. A vari-
ety of choices are available from several manufacturers, including:

1. Heavy- and lightweight wire baskets.

2. Heavy-duty plastic baskets with tubular frames.
3. Litters with or without leg dividers.
4. Two-section litters that snap apart for backpack transport.
5. Detachable all-terrain wheel assembly. This is used during long
transports and works on the principle of the wheelbarrow.
6. Plastic shields that connect to the frame rails, providing pro-
tection to the victim’s face and head.
7. Flotation collars for water rescue.
8. Specialty adaptations for towing by a snowmobile or all-terrain
vehicle.

SKED Stretcher: The SKED™ is a compact stretcher system con-

structed of sheet plastic specially designed for confined spaces. This
system rolls up into an even more compact arrangement for storing or
transporting the SKED and Oregon Spine Splint together. It comes

A SKED stretcher.
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188 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

with several options, including flotation and a rapid deployment sys-

tem for water rescues.
The general advantages of tactical stretchers are:

1. They provide for easier handling of the victim.

2. They provide the needed mechanisms for point-to-point mobil-
ity and connection to the transport system.
3. Heavy-duty plastic models can be used as sleds in the snow.

The disadvantages of tactical stretchers are:

1. They can be difficult to get into position.

2. Loading a victim on a vertical rescue can be difficult, depend-
ing on the particular brand.
3. They may not fit through tight corners or small openings.

Whenever using a tactical stretcher, you must follow the manufac-

turer’s recommended procedure for securing the victim. Each of the
stretchers covered has its own methods that must be followed.
Placing a harness onto a victim prior to securing him into a tactical
stretcher is a common practice. This can done as long as the victim’s
injuries won’t be aggravated. The harness, connected to a separate belay
system, is used as a backup in case of stretcher, rope, or knot failure.
Another possible safety precaution is to run some accessory cord or
small-diameter rescue rope around the stokes basket rail. Wrap it every
few inches until the entire perimeter is covered, then connect it with
a double fisherman’s knot. Whenever you clip a carabiner around the
rail, you must also clip the rope for security.
Attaching lines to a stretcher depends on whether the stretcher is
going to be used to haul or lower. In the vertical position, the head
area of a stokes is the primary attachment. In one method, the main
weight-bearing line is wrapped around the frame rail with a figure 8
follow-through and safety. The secondary backup is attached to a sling
with an in-line figure 8, then slackly run down to the tender.
In one method of horizontal attachment, the main weight-bearing
line is attached to the four-point connecting harness with an in-line
figure 8, and slack is run to the tender. The secondary backup line is
also attached to the bridle, and additional tethers are connected to the
victim and tender for safety.
The exact method of securing a victim into a stokes stretcher takes
on many forms in the field. Whichever is used must be expedient and
must also prevent the victim from making any unnecessary move-
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Access and Packaging 189

A basic method of
attachment for trans-
porting a patient in a
vertical postion.

For transporting a patient in a horizontal position. The main point of attach-

ment can consist of large carabiners, a heavy-duty figure 8 plate, an anchor
plate, or a steel ring.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:01 PM Page 190

190 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

ment. The crisscross or shoelace method is often used, as are many

adaptations.

TACTICAL STRETCHER MANAGEMENT

Once you are ready to transport a stretcher, you must implement
control measures. Install tag lines whenever transporting a tactical
stretcher so as to guide it away from edges or obstructions. Other situ-
ations require a tender to ride along, either to guide the stretcher away
from obstacles or to provide continuous direct patient care. In the ver-
tical position, the tender may straddle the stretcher, walking it around
obstacles or guiding it through narrow channels. In the horizontal
position, the tender typically hangs midway along the side. This
allows for direct face-to-face contact with the victim and easy access to
the grab points of the stretcher.
You can tether the firefighter to the stretcher in many ways.
Whatever method you use must incorporate a main weight-bearing
arrangement and a secondary backup (a belay). One method is to con-
nect the main line to the four-point bridle by an in-line figure 8 knot.
Some additional slack is left so that you can attach a safetied figure 8
on a bight to the tender’s harness.
Access to an incident area and packaging go hand in hand. Without
sufficient access to the victim, complete packaging may not be possi-
ble. If there isn’t sufficient operating room, then interim transport to
a safer region may be necessary to facilitate proper packaging. Rapidly
changing environmental factors may also play a role in this decision.
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Access and Packaging 191

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Generally, tactical objectives are simpler and missions
are less complex when rescuers operate from
_______________.
2. Which type of immobilization device provides rigid
support from the cervical to the coccygeal region of
the spine?
3. Name some of the advantages of a long board.
4. Detachable all-terrain wheel assemblies, flotation col-
lars for water rescues, and attachments for towing in
the snow are some of the more exotic variations and
options of what popular tactical stretcher?
5. When tethering a stretcher tender to a stretcher, you
must incorporate both the main weight-bearing sys-
tem and what other mechanism?
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Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:01 PM Page 193

Chapter Eleven

Descending

W
hen most people think about a rope rescue, they generally
envision a firefighter swinging from a rope. Although this
is an important skill, it is only one of many that you must
master. The general technique involved is known as descending. In
the rope rescue environment, you generally operate along the vertical
plane, where you ascend or descend the rope. Techniques have
evolved over the years from the hasty descents and the body rappels
to harnesses and various pieces of hardware. Modern methods depend
on the rescue rope weaving its way around a friction device to control
the descent and act as a brake. Descending is subdivided according to
where the brake is located, either at a fixed place in the system or trav-
eling along with the firefighter. A fixed brake allows you to lower the
member from a point above. It requires attaching a rope to the fire-
fighter’s harness, then attaching it to a friction device connected to a
bombproof anchor. The descending member goes over the edge and
is lowered by members from above, feeding the rope through the
fixed brake and providing all the control. The firefighter is in verbal
or visual contact with the edge man, who directs the lowering opera-
tion. Some experts view this method as a lowering operation rather
than a descending operation since the rescue firefighter provides
none of the control.
In a traveling brake system, the friction device rides with the
descending firefighter. This technique, known as rappelling, is more
recognized and used than lowering. In rappelling, friction created
between the rope and the braking device alters the rate of descent
and is under the direct control of the rescue firefighter. This is the
same technique as is common to sport climbers and the military,
among others.
Before a descending evolution can take place, you must have a good

193
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194 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

understanding of its purpose. You must consider and overrule all other
means of reaching a victim before performing a rope rescue, which is
an inherently dangerous operation.
There are four general reasons for performing a rope descent:

1. To escape a dangerous position, such as a roof.

2. To reach a victim.
3. To rescue a victim from a dangerous position.
4. To expedite movement from one point to another.

SRT VERSUS DRT

Single-rope technique is referred to as SRT, and double-rope technique
is referred to as DRT. Predictably, there are proponents of both types, and
a certain amount of debate exists between the camps. The controversy
stems from the premise that if something were to happen to the one
rope of an SRT, injury or death to the firefighter would almost be a cer-
tainty. Double-rope techniques, by virtue of their redundancy, might
thus avert a tragedy. Both techniques, I should mention, are generally
relegated to one- and two-person loads in a descending operation.
Single-rope techniques originated with the cavers because of the
long drops they encounter and their need for simple systems.
The acronym RESCUES serves as a basic checklist for performing a
rope descent, whether SRT or DRT:

R = Rope.
E = Evolution.
S = Systems.
C = Consequences.
U = Users.
E = Equipment.
S = Support.

Looking at these criteria more closely:

Rope: Whether static or dynamic; SRT or DRT.

Evolution: What is the task to be performed, and how will it be
rigged? Will there be a descent to a rescue? Will a stokes be lowered?
Will there be belays and running protection?
Systems: The construction of all the subsystems of the evolution,
including anchor systems, access systems, transportation, and belays.
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Descending 195

Consequences: This is where you perform the risk-to-benefit analysis

of an operation.
Users: The members performing the rescue operation.
Equipment: This refers not only to all the materiel, but also to the
logistics involved in performing a given operation.
Support: What parallel operations are needed to support the rescue? Are
extra members or hoselines required? Have all the utilities and other haz-
ards been secured? What about technical expertise? Does the situation call
for a secondary rescue operation independent of the primary one?

The acronym RESCUES was developed to remind you of the bench-

marks required in setting up a rope operation. It serves as a flexible
guideline only. When the time comes to operate in the field, many of
the training, operating, and equipment issues are already taken care of.
The vast majority of fire service descending operations are performed
on a two-person rope, usually static. The 1/2-inch static rope setup pre-
bagged with edge protection is preferred.
Under the new standards, harnesses have been broken down into
two categories: belts and life safety harnesses. The three types of belts
(escape, ladder, and ladder/escape) are meant primarily for self-rescue
and positioning of the wearer only. Thus, they aren’t suitable for fire
service rescue operations. As mentioned in Chapter Three, harnesses
are also broken down into three classes: Class I, Class II, and Class III.
The Class II harness is the minimum required for rope rescue opera-
tions under both current and previous editions of the standard. The dif-
ference now is that the lighter-weight half-body harnesses (one-person)
are now categorized as Class I and aren’t suitable for two-person loads.
The selection of descending devices and the techniques for using
them can inspire spirited debate. The vast majority of descending
operations are performed with the traveling brake. Such hardware has
improved greatly over the years. The first major device was the cara-
biner, used singly or in multiple configurations to provide the requi-
site friction. This worked adequately until the descending or rappel
ring was invented. This device went through many stages of develop-
ment. Commonly referred to as the figure 8 descender, it is now avail-
able in many styles. The figure 8 descender has been popular for main-
stream fire service rappelling operations for the past two decades. Also
popular is the brake bar rack, as discussed in Chapter Five. Many con-
tend that the figure 8 ring is strong and compact enough to carry
around at all times, whereas the brake bar rack is large and cumber-
some and can be difficult to attach to a rescue rope under less-than-
ideal conditions. Pulling one out of your pocket and attaching it cor-
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196 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

rectly in a rapidly deteriorating fire environment is problematic at best.

A brake bar rack incorrectly attached can disconnect from the rope.
The figure 8 descender requires that you pull a bight of rope through
the large hole and pop it over the small one. Once connected to the
harness, there is no opportunity for the rope to detach even under the
worst circumstances.

COMMON TECHNIQUES
Learning the basics begins on the ground. Master the technique, not
the height. All too often, the probie worries about the distance to the
ground more than the rope in his hands. Using the acronym RESCUES,
a training exercise might break down this way:

Rope: 1/2-inch static kernmantle.

Evolution: One-person rappel.
Systems: A bombproof anchor point (anchor system) and a rappel
system (access system).
Consequences: Operating low over level ground—i.e., low risk.
Users: A probie, who may be an experienced firefighter but one who
is new to rope rescue skills.
Equipment: Class II harness, appropriate descending device, and
protective apparel.
Support: Experienced instructor and attending personnel.

The following is an appropriate way to learn the basics of hooking

up to a traveling brake system:

1. Don a Class II harness, and clip on the appropriate hardware.

2. Select and create a bombproof anchor system.
3. Attach the rescue rope to the anchor system.
4. Simulate deploying the rope over an edge by throwing the bag a
short distance and having someone maintain a slight pull on it.

Realize that one hand controls your descent while the other guides
you. In the grand scheme of things, it doesn’t matter which hand does
what; however, most rescuers use their dominant hand for braking
because it usually has more dexterity and better grip.
With the rescue rope secured and over the simulated edge, it’s time
to connect the firefighter to the line. If you’re right-handed, make sure
you’re standing on the left side of the rope. This allows you to reeve it
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Descending 197

Threading the Figure 8 Descender

Rescue rope

Figure 8 descender Figure 8 descender

Bight
Figure 8 descender

Bight Carabiner
Rescue rope

properly through the device and to be in line with the brake hand, a
sequence that works well for firefighters in training. Once you master
this skill, you’ll be able to attach expediently from either side.

5. Hold the device with one hand and, with the other hand, push
the bight through the larger hole.
6. Pull some slack through and drop the bight over the smaller hole.
7. With the rope securely in place, connect the figure 8 to the har-
ness with a locking carabiner.

The direction the carabiner gate should be facing is debatable.

Because rope techniques and equipment have evolved from the moun-
taineering and wilderness rescue disciplines, many prefer to keep the
gate toward the rappeller. This way, it is less likely to get hung up on
an edge and inadvertently open. The problem I’ve seen with a figure 8
and the gate facing in is that the hardware can shift on contact with
an edge, creating severe side loading. Therefore, some personnel attach
the carabiner with the gate facing away. The style of the carabiner and
its inherent strength may be a factor in this decision. You can elimi-
nate many of these questions simply by getting over the edge. I can’t
emphasize enough that if you simply keep the rope taught, and if all
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198 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Gate Facing In

Figure 8 descender

Gate

Rescue rope
Carabiner

A carabiner set up with the gate facing

in is more likely to snag on an edge and rotate.

of the hardware is clear of the edge, many of these problems disappear.

Another variable you should understand when connecting a figure 8
is topside versus bottomside threading. In the previous example, bot-
tomside threading is used. The premise of those who use topside reev-
ing is that this technique keeps the rope away from the edge better by
virtue of being on the opposite side of the device. This may also prevent
a girth hitch situation in a figure 8 without ears. I prefer a figure 8 with
ears and bottomside threading. Again, your preference will come with
expertise. Once you get over the edge, many of these issues go away.
Only use a rescue-grade brake bar rack set up according to the manu-
facturer’s recommendations. Typically this entails a welded eye and six
bars. There are some coiled-eye racks that can only hold five bars.

Topside Reeving

Figure 8 descender Rescue rope

To load

Carabiner
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Descending 199

These shouldn’t be in a team’s inventory. Whatever type you get, you

should set them all up the same so as to avoid confusion. There are dif-
ferent diameters, materials, and types of slots available, as well as flat-
and twisted-rack versions. The original flat-rack version is still around;
however, it’s being replaced by the twisted rack primarily because of
the D-ring connecting points, which accommodate many of the cur-
rent harnesses. When used, the rack will turn 90 degrees away, making
control of the bars more difficult. To overcome this, some have added
a second carabiner to the first to change the plane of the rack. This
isn’t recommended anymore due to the availability of twisted racks.
Also, to add a carabiner is to add one more link that can fail.
The following arrangement is for the older-style brake bar racks.
These devices have a 30-year head start on the new NFPA-compliant
devices, and they are much more prevalent. The manufacturer will
continue to produce the older-style racks.
The first or top bar has a training groove that keeps the rope centered.
The second bar usually has a straight slot, and the last four have angled
slots. The straight slot on the second bar is to alert you that you didn’t
connect the device correctly. This points out one of the major drawbacks
to this device, particularly on the fireground as opposed to a technical
rescue: You can install all of the bars incorrectly, yet it still looks fine.
Once you load the device, the bars will pop free from the rack, discon-
necting the rack from the rope. Hopefully before you get to that point,
the straight slotted bar will drop out, alerting you to the problem.
Brake bar racks can be set up for either a left- or right-handed config-
uration. Predictably, most are set up for right-handed people. Starting
your descent with all of the bars in place is a common practice that pro-
vides maximum surface area for friction. Once over the edge, you can
spread out the bars or drop the last one. Use caution when dropping
out the bars, since you’ll lose a portion of the gripping ability.

1. Connect the brake bar rack to your harness with a locking cara-
biner.
2. Reeve the rescue rope over the top bar, not under it and the
rack.
3. Continue to reeve the rescue rope as shown.
4. Examine the threading process for accuracy and alignment.
5. Finally, snug up the bars and load them with your weight
before going over the edge.

The closer the bars are to each other and/or the more bars that you use,
the more friction you’ll have. As a rule of thumb, don’t use any fewer
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200 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Threading the Brake Bar Rack

Rescue rope
Top bar

Carabiner

Slotted bar Rescue rope

Carabiner

Rescue rope

Carabiner

than four bars. Control your descent by moving the bars closer together
or spreading them apart with your guide hand, plus steady hand pressure
on the brake side as you would use with a figure 8 descender.

BELAYING FOR SAFETY

Belaying is an important safety mechanism, so pay particular atten-
tion to it during training. Much of the debate surrounding SRTs versus
DRTs traces back to belays. Obviously, all descents are real-life situ-
ations; however, some are more controlled than others. Many suggest
that actual rescue operations be performed in the securest manner pos-
sible, which some maintain is the DRT. The SRT is popular on the fire-
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Descending 201

ground, whereas the DRT is popular for training and technical rescues.
This is a controversy in the fire service, and your department must
decide its own protocols.
In the double-rope technique, attach a separate rescue rope to a
bombproof anchor point to support the rappeller in the event of a
main line failure.
In the bottomside belay technique, a firefighter on the ground, at
the running end of the rope, simply pulls the bottom belay taught,
thereby halting the firefighter. The descending member is then free to
remove his hands from the rope to grab a victim and be lowered to the
ground by the bottomside belayer. This takes some confidence in the
bottomside firefighter, who must be competent!
A self-belay entails having a three-wrap prusik loop attached to the
rescue rope above the figure 8 device. The free end of the prusik loop
is attached to the harness with another locking carabiner. The prusik
is moved along by the guide hand as the firefighter descends. The
guide hand should maintain just enough pressure to move the prusik
and not interfere with the overall process of descending. Note that this
can’t be done with the brake bar rack because the guide hand is con-
trolling the spacing of the bars and is therefore unavailable to move
the prusik. One of the drawbacks to placing the prusik above the fig-
ure 8 descender is the constant tension and attention required to man-
age it. If you don’t coordinate it smoothly, the self-belay will take the
load and stop the descent. In the grand scheme of things, that’s its
function; however, it may be difficult to unload the prusik, particular-
ly in a dangerous position.
For some time now, personnel have been trying a newer approach to
the self-belay. They have moved the prusik below the figure 8 descen-
der. To facilitate this, they needed to increase the distance of the
descender farther away from the harness connection point. A short
piece of webbing or daisy chain will do the trick. The advantage to this
positioning is that the tension on the prusik is more manageable
because the load is more evenly divided between it and the descender.
In this case, the prusik is minded by the brake hand rather than the
guide hand.

RAPPELLING
For the rest of this chapter, I’ll use the term rappelling when describ-
ing descending operations.
Rappelling can be performed from most superior to most inferior
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202 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

points. The degree of difficulty in setting up for a rappel relates direct-

ly to where your anchor point is in relation to your point of departure.
The easiest setup is when the anchor point is above the point of depar-
ture, allowing for a graceful stepping-back motion to gain proper
placement against a vertical wall, for example.
A problem common to many novice and expert rappellers alike is
getting over the edge. A methodology has been established for this, of
which there are five variations: tie high, tie low, out-a-window
descent, aerial ladder, and tower ladder.
Getting over the edge entails a smooth transition from a stationary
location to a safe descending evolution. This means clearing the struc-
ture and moving into an appropriate stance with your descending
device working correctly and safely.
The problems experienced while performing rope rescue evolutions
can be broken down into three categories: education, equipment, and
environment. Educational problems are matters of what techniques to
use and when. Equipment problems relate to using the right tool for
the job, as well as understanding what can go wrong with the equip-
ment and how to get it working again. Environmental problems are
those that can damage or cause the systems to fail as well as injure or
kill those working on them. Getting over the edge involves some of
the educational problems you will encounter when setting up for a
descent. Although the equipment and environmental components are
just as critical, the primary emphasis is to clear those edges correctly
and to get away from the hazardous environment. The firefighter must
be properly instructed and competent in specific descending tech-
niques and equipment.
Getting over the edge can be used in both technical and nontechni-
cal (fireground) evolutions. This methodology was designed with fig-
ure 8 descenders in mind. The brake bar rack has its applications; how-
ever, whenever there is a rollover situation, the brake bar rack presents
a higher chance of disconnecting the rope than does the figure 8
descender.

Tie High
This arrangement entails using a high-side anchor attachment. The
anchor points must be higher than the descender’s point of departure.
A potential anchor on a rooftop would be a substantial radio or TV
antenna or heavy-duty piping that is above your shoulder level. A high
anchor point will help you make a smooth transition from your oper-
ating area to the structure’s facade or superstructure.
I’ll use this first methodology to illustrate the basic premise of rap-
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Descending 203

Anchor

Anchor

Anchor

The rope is anchored The rope is anchored The rope is anchored

above—a tie-high at midlevel—an out-a- below—a tie-low
arrangement. window arrangement. arrangement.

pelling. First, stand facing your anchor point with your feet spread
about shoulder width apart. Lean back and adjust the slack in the rope
to clear the edge. While standing on the balls of your feet with your
knees bent, continue to lean back. You’re trying to shift your weight
and become dependent on the rope. Smoothly and gently let out some
slack to transition from the starting point to the vertical plane.

The anchor point for a tie-high arrangement must be above your shoulder
level, and it must be substantial.
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204 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

(Left) No matter what method you use to get over the edge, it is vital that
you maintain control as you transition to the vertical plane. (Right) Slowly
walk down the wall, stepping around any obstructions.

Eventually you will lean back far enough to reach the point of no
return. This is where gravity takes over. Without help, you won’t be
coming back over that edge. If you lean too far and don’t bend your
knees, you’ll flip over backward and end up inverted. If you don’t lean
enough, you may slide down the wall, hitting your knees and face. No
matter what problem occurs, once you’re over that edge, you need to
focus on the task at hand and regain your stance. You may bang a few
body parts, not to mention your ego, but the job is to overcome that
and continue the evolution. Fine-tune your stance as you come across
any obstructions or protrusions. Slowly walk down the wall, stepping
over or around windows, fire escapes, and wires.

Tie Low
This arrangement denotes a low-side anchor attachment. The anchor
point must be lower than the descender’s point of departure. It may be
as low as the floor level. A common situation would be a parapet along
a rooftop. This can be approached in two ways: Either stand on the
parapet or roll over it. Standing on the wall and performing a rapidly
controlled drop isn’t for everyone. You’ll drop the distance from your
harness attachment to the edge you were standing on, then an equal dis-
tance until the ropes takes your full load. If not done with some finesse,
this five- or six-foot drop could prove dangerous. The tie-low technique
facilitates a smooth and gentle rollover maneuver that avoids severe
dynamic loading of the rope system and any padded edges.
This method is used when your anchor points are level to or lower
than the point of departure. Hook up your figure 8 descender correct-
ly. In the beginning of this chapter, we discussed right-handers stand-
ing on the left side of the rope. This is a good format to enforce this
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Descending 205

(Left) Before going over the wall,

pull enough slack in the line so
that the hardware will clear the
edge. (Right) Place your guide
hand on top of the rope so that it
doesn’t get caught underneath.
(Bottom) Rolling over the wall is
probably the easiest way to find
the correct stance when using a
figure 8 descender.

rule for novices. Typically, once the rescue rope is anchored and
dropped over the edge, you stand parallel to it and hook up. Your
guide hand will point toward the anchor and your brake hand toward
the edge.
Make sure the edge is intact, secure, and protected. Straddle it and
pull enough slack in the line for the hardware to clear it. Now, prepare
to roll over the wall. The guide hand must lie on top of the rope so that
it doesn’t get caught, inadvertently providing a pivot point. The brake
hand punches the wall and holds its grip. The guide hand is still on
top of the rope. If the rope were to stay on your hand, you could be
trapped by your own weight and be left hanging. Roll over the wall to
regain a correct stance. Once over, check to ensure that the rope is
threaded correctly, then proceed to the ground.
Prior to developing these methodologies, the predominant way to
clear the edge was simply to walk off it. Doing so with a tie-high
arrangement doesn’t pose much of a problem; however, the tie low pre-
sents several. Walking off a parapet can be difficult if the firefighter has
not practiced that skill. Rolling off with the tie-low technique tends to
be less stressful on the wall, rope system, and firefighter. When using a
brake bar rack, walking off may be more suitable. This may influence
your operating guidelines and what equipment you select.
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206 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Out-a-Window Descent
This arrangement follows either the tie-high or tie-low arrangement
in terms of the anchor point’s location, with the additional problem of
clearing a window frame. The out-a-window technique requires an
opening large enough for a firefighter to exit. This would include a
window that can be physically opened or taken out. Most residential
or apartment occupancies would allow this. Remove any drapes or cur-
tains, and clear the immediate area around the window. If the window
is extremely large, then opening the bottom sash and getting rid of the
screen may be all that is necessary.
Setting up for a descent out of a window depends on the type of
occupancy and the kinds of anchor points available. Going out of a
window is usually to escape an untenable situation or to reach some-
one in a window below. It is best to take out the entire window so that
the firefighter can straddle the sill and eliminate the hazard of glass.
Taking out the window entirely means just that—entirely. Many of the
replacement windows currently in use tilt in and pop out of their

(Left) Taking out the entire window will simplify egress, particularly when
you are laden with full equipment. (Top right) You must incorporate edge
protection when going out a window. (Bottom left) Pivoting on your outside
foot will help you assume the correct stance.
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Descending 207

frames and so can be put to one side. If not, a little persuasion against
a stubborn one will usually suffice. In any case, the work of an aggres-
sive truckie may be the ultimate answer. Your prebagged rescue rope
must have an edge protector attached and ready to go. You can use
readily available materials on the scene such as bedding, carpeting, or
draperies in an emergency. Select your anchor points and hook up
your rescue rope, then toss the rope bag out the window.
After you have hooked up to the line, straddle the windowsill and
give enough slack so that the figure 8 will clear the edge. It is important
to move as close as you can to the frame in front of you. Egressing with
an SCBA, you’ll need all the room you can get to pivot out that win-
dow. Pull the figure 8 clear of the frame. The inside guide hand holds
on to the interior wall, and the outside brake hand punches the wall
and maintains a firm grip. Now, pivot on your outside foot to bring
your entire body out. Check quickly to ensure that the rope is thread-
ed correctly. Get into a proper stance and proceed with the descent.

Aerial Ladder
The use of an aerial ladder is indicative of confined space, below-
grade, or collapse operations that necessitate a firefighter being insert-
ed. Reliable, conventional anchoring may not exist. Of course, you
must only use aerial apparatus rated for the loads being applied and
never exceed manufacturers’ limitations. The aerial must be main-
tained and tested per NFPA 1914, Standard for Testing Fire Department
Aerial Devices.
In some situations, SCBA may be required. If so, you must include it
as a factor in any relevant decision making. If you are forced to wear
SCBA, you must don it correctly, with all of the straps applied snugly.
If the waist straps aren’t on and pulled snug, injury could result.
Both the aerial ladder method and the tower ladder method (see
below) can be considered special operations skills. These rapid inser-
tion techniques allow a firefighter to reach areas that were formerly
inaccessible by conventional means. The exact method to be shown
here is a single-rope technique. If you use a belay system, careful
placement of the belay line is important. If using one creates rather
than eliminates a hazard, consider disregarding it altogether.
Keeping in mind the stresses imposed and the limitations of the
apparatus, select and establish your anchor system. This can consist of
rungs, rails, or turntable superstructure components. One-person load-
ing is prudent.
Next, position yourself near the ladder tip. Hook up your rescue rope
correctly and connect it to the harness. The rope will run between your
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208 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

(Left) When using an aerial ladder,

you may use the rungs and rails to
establish an anchor point. (Top) The
guide hand holds on to the last
rung, and the brake hand holds the
standing end of the rope. (Right)
When going over the edge, use your
brake hand to keep the rope taut.

legs. Pull enough slack so that the figure 8 clears the edge. The guide
hand holds on to the last rung, and the brake hand holds the standing
end of the rope. Note that the guide hand must be positioned on top of
the rope so that it doesn’t get caught when you roll over the rung. If you
grip the rope and rung together, you shouldn’t experience a problem.
After a safety check and clearance from a supervisor and belayer (if
present), the rollover can begin. Go over the last rung very slowly,
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Descending 209

Going over the edge of an aerial ladder.

maintaining your grip and control. Your brake hand at this point is
over the edge, maintaining tautness. Once in the correct vertical posi-
tion, ensure that the figure 8 is threaded correctly. Release your guide
hand from the rung and place it on the rope above the figure 8, then
proceed with the descent.

Tower Ladder
Using a tower ladder provides the best operating parameters when
aerial apparatus is required. Heavy load capacities at low angles and
full extension are some of a tower ladder’s attributes. The method
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210 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

described here is a second version of the rapid insertion techniques

available. Using a belay system that is managed from the basket with
a device that’s anchored below can be difficult to do. It is a premise of
this arrangement that the firefighter carries a rescue rope prepacked in
a rope bag. Once the firefighter is over the drop zone, he drops the bag
and then descends. To eliminate the topside belay and still have a dou-
ble-rope system, you can set up the rappel system described below.
Doubling up two 1/2-inch static rescue ropes, bagging them, and
then descending can be a little cumbersome. There is a lot of 11 mm
(7/16-inch) static rescue rope on the market that can serve you well in
this evolution. These ropes have a breaking strength of around 6,500
lbs., and they are considered one-person ropes under the standard. You
can pack these two ropes together in the same bag. When you’re done,
you’ll have a doubled rappel line.
First, tie a double figure 8 in the running end and dress it up. Then,
tie a second double figure 8 about four feet away. Clip locking cara-
biners into the rated lift points of the tower, and connect the first fig-
ure 8. Then, do the same with the second one.

A doubled rappel line anchored to a tower ladder.

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Descending 211

(Top) Once you are connected, tie or lock off the descender. (Middle left) Clip
the rope bag to your harness. (Bottom left) When positioning the firefighter
for the drop, consider the wind and any elevated hazards. (Right) After you
have deployed the rope bag, execute the rappel as you would in any other
free-hanging evolution.
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212 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Connect the rescue rope to the descender, and connect to the har-
ness with a locking carabiner. Tie off or lock off the descender. This is
to relieve the firefighter from maintaining a firm grip during the entire
process of moving from the ground to the drop zone.
Next, clip the prepacked rope bag to your harness. This eliminates
the danger of the rope’s contacting overhead obstructions. Slowly lift
the firefighter up and position him over the intended drop zone.
Remember to make allowances for wind conditions and elevated haz-
ards, and don’t drop the rope bag on or near the victims. After he
throws the bag, the firefighter unlocks the rope lockup and rappels to
the ground as in any other evolution.
Do not use aerial apparatus without proper forethought.
Incorporating it in an operation has its risks and benefits, and it
requires strict control and coordination, involving both command and
operations. The apparatus must be placed properly, and any hazards
on the scene must be dealt with prior to using these techniques.

WINDOW RESCUES
Having touched on window evolutions, let’s discuss rescuing victims
from them. The two general methods involve operating with and
without a harness. The without-harness category usually implies
trapped civilians. With-harness rescues usually imply firefighters who
need to get picked off by another member. Our discussion will be lim-
ited to victims who are conscious and able to get into position for the
grab. Unconscious individuals require some sort of interior assistance
and packaging.

Communication
First and foremost, establish verbal communication with the victim.
Tell the victim to stay where he is and what you’re going to do. While
the rescue system is being set up, assign a firefighter to maintain con-
tact with the victim, staffing permitting. This is important because
time is critical, and reestablishing contact is time-consuming.
Communication may be difficult due to a language barrier. If such is
the case, try to get a firefighter in place who can speak the same lan-
guage. Ultimately, this will make for a safer operation.

Double-Wrapping a Figure 8 Descender

When a firefighter rappels with a second person, the increased load
can make controlling the descent difficult. Consequently, more fric-
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:01 PM Page 213

Descending 213

Double-Wrapped Figure 8 Descender

To anchor

Figure 8 descender

tion is required. To provide more contact between the rope and the fig-
ure 8 device, you must double-wrap it. Start out as you would for a sin-
gle wrap, only this time pull through a little extra slack. Then, wrap it
a second time. Double-wrapping a 1/2-inch rope may create too much
friction for the single-person load of a firefighter during the initial
phase of the descent. It may require feeding the rope into the figure 8.
Once the second person is on board, the descent should go more
quickly. Practice is vital to developing the skills necessary to making
safe descents with a two-person load.

No-Harness Rescue
As mentioned above, rescuing a victim without a harness usually
implies a civilian rescue. Remember that if the rope is dropped from
above, it must be out of the victim’s pathway. This is important so that
the victim doesn’t hold up the operation or decide to jump for the
rope. Also, when rappelling down to the window, keep your brake
hand away from the victim. Stop above the window and tell the vic-
tim what you are going to do. The reason for keeping your brake hand
on the outside is fairly obvious: It prevents the victim from grabbing
it and stripping you of control. In an urban environment, you usually
have the benefit of a bottomside belayer who can control the opera-
tion if a problem arises. Otherwise, regaining control might be difficult
if not impossible.

Tying or Locking Off

In making such a rescue, you must be able to stop and secure your
descent so that you can remove your hands from the rope evolution.
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214 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Tying Off the 8 Plate

Stopped Single wrap Double wrap

The technique for this involves wedging the rope between itself and
the figure 8. This requires a little dexterity and practice. From a normal
braking position, move your guide hand down and around the cara-
biner and the figure 8. This prevents any twisting action and makes
the process more stable. Never forget that you’re suspended in the air!
Don’t let your brake hand go, since your life depends on its grip.
Maintain about a hand’s width above the figure 8 with no downward
slippage. In one quick motion, cross over from the brake side to the
guide side. In a right-handed example, it’s from right to left. You are
pulling the rope downward between the vertical portion and the fig-
ure 8. Keep steady pressure on it until you pop it into a secure position.
This requires practice and, at times, patience. When done correctly,
you will be prevented from moving downward. This technique works
extremely well against a wall or other surface. With additional prac-
tice, it can be done in free air. It’s easier when trying to pop the rope
in place to pull the figure 8 inward and then step up slightly. One wrap
will hold you in place; however, two are required as a safeguard. The
second wrap is done in the same way as the first. Safety the wraps with
an overhand knot. When untying or unlocking, simply reverse the
previous steps, starting with the safety knot. Then, grab hold of the
rope and unsnap the wraps one at a time. Remember that you must
maintain control of the standing part of the rope, the brake side.
With a brake bar rack, come to a complete stop, then pull the rope
up toward the anchor point and the top of the rack. While maintain-
ing a firm grip and control with the brake hand, wrap the rope
between the top bar and rope. Wrap it twice at minimum from bottom
to top. Safety the wraps with an overhand knot, then inspect them for
security. Reverse these steps to untie.
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Descending 215

Tying Off the Brake Bar Rack

Avoid pinching the loop

between the tensioned rope
and the top bar.

Rack
Rescue rope

To anchor point

Top bar

Rescue rope
Rack

Rescue rope
Rack

Overhand safety knot

Rescue rope
Rack
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216 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Making the Rescue

Now that you have arrested your descent and have communicated
your intentions to the victim, it’s time to effect the rescue. Position
yourself around the bottom of the windowsill. You need to get the vic-
tim to sit on your lap. Some are willing participants and some aren’t.
The victim must sit on your lap, facing you and wrapping his arms
around you. Make sure that the victim’s position doesn’t interfere with
the descender.
You may encounter a victim who wants to be rescued but who is
afraid to go out the window. If conditions permit, you can move into
the window and have the person climb on from inside. Then, swing
out and proceed to the ground. Be sure to size up any sharp edges.
Once you cross the plane of the window, the rope may contact an
edge. The chance of this is usually minimized if the rope from above
is run over a projecting edge. While this projected edge may lessen
contact with the window frame, it may also hinder you from reaching
the window.
Once the victim is on board, tell him to remain calm, then proceed
downward. Depending on the situation and the length of the rope,
you may not be able to reach the ground. In most cases, all you really

Effecting the rescue.

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Descending 217

need is to get several floors below the fire to reach safety. Interior com-
panies should be in place to get you through a window or other por-
tal.
This technique is for life-and-death situations only. The victim is
secured only by his ability to hold on to the rescuer. When performed
in training, the firefighter pretending to be the victim should be har-
nessed and secured to a belay system.

Harness Rescue
This is the preferred method of descending with someone, since
both persons are secured to the system. This situation can be handled
similarly to the no-harness rescue, except that it should go smoother
than with a civilian. There may be situations in which a firefighter is
injured or a civilian has been put into a harness for some reason and
needs to be picked off. In this scenario, the victim is connected to the
friction device of the rescuer. Instead of riding on the rescuer’s lap, the
victim is suspended below. The descending firefighter must bring a res-
cue sling and extra carabiners.
As before, stop just above the victim and communicate your inten-
tions. Then, stop and tie off as quickly as possible in a position where
you can reach the victim. Use a presewn rescue sling about four to five
feet long. One end is connected with a locking carabiner to the friction

(Left) Tie off in a position where you can

reach the victim. (Right) The rescue sling
should be about four to five feet long.
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218 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

(Left) After the sling has been connected, the victim should sit on the sill with
both legs hanging out the window. (Right) Descend slowly when making a
harness rescue.

device or to the locking carabiner between the device and the harness.
It is important not to connect the rescue sling directly into your har-
ness connection point. This may stress the harness in a manner for
which it was not designed. Also, injuries could occur to the rescuer.
Next, reach over and connect the other end of the rescue sling to the
victim’s harness connection point with a locking carabiner. Tell the
victim to get both legs out and sit on the sill. Assist the victim out of
the window by pulling on the rescue sling and positioning it between
your legs. Make sure it’s clear of the window and upright between your
legs. Untie or unlock your descender and slowly proceed with the
descent.

EQUIPMENT PREFERENCES
Throughout this chapter, I’ve tried to cover the operating parame-
ters of the figure 8 and the brake bar rack. My own preference is for
the figure 8 for short-distance evolutions. There are many times when
the brake bar rack is superior for developing friction; however, getting
it over the operating edge presents a dangerous problem to the opera-
tor. Long before the brake bar rack became popular with the fire service,
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Descending 219

the rescue-grade figure 8 served quite well.

As an example of real-life rope evolutions, the Fire Department of New
York uses a team approach to performing a rope rescue. In general, three
members are required. One controls the descent with a fixed-brake
arrangement, another is lowered to rescue the victim, and the third
maintains communications between the other two. Their equipment
consists of a life-saving rope, personal harnesses, and/or a life belt. The
roof man ensures that the rescue equipment gets to a point above the
victim. The rope used is 150 feet of 9/16-inch nylon laid with a mini-
mum breaking strength of 9,000 lbs. Hooks are spliced into both ends.
The rope is stored and transported in a backpack, which also contains an
antichafing device. The personal harness can be used by the lowering
man and the descending firefighter.
The system is created after assessing substantial objects to which the
lowering man can secure himself, as well as the friction device. One hook
of the life-saving rope is attached to the pompier hook of the harness
that’s donned by the lowering man. Additional slack is pulled to tie off to
a substantial object, facilitating a secure point for the friction device and
the firefighter operating it. The other end of the rope is attached to the
descending firefighter. At this point, you have one firefighter attached to
an anchor at one end and another attached to the member going over the
edge. The descending firefighter sizes up the roof or window edge area and
the victim’s location. The third firefighter communicates the commands
to the lowering man to ensure prompt and accurate positioning. The
descending firefighter makes the grab with both hands. The victim sits on
the lap of the firefighter, holding his upper torso. The topside firefighter
then communicates further instructions to the lowering member. The
descending pair may then be lowered to the ground or another safe area.

LEAPFROGGING
Leapfrogging is also known as retrievable rappelling. It is used when
you have only one rope and long distances to cover from either a high-
or a low-angle position. The basic premise of this technique is that, in
an emergency, you can rappel to an interim location, detach the rope,
fix the end to a new anchor point, drop the other end, and continue
the descent. It is considered a single-rope technique because, if the
anchor fails or the rope breaks, there is no backup.
To start, run the middle section of the rope around a bombproof
anchor point at the top of the rappel, then tie the two ends together.
Make sure the anchor doesn’t bind the rope in any way, since ulti-
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220 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

mately the rope will be pulled around it from below. Out in the wilder-
ness, a tree trunk will work. Toss the knotted end of the doubled rope
over the precipice, and rappel down to a securable location, preferably
above the knot. In most cases, you must secure yourself to a new
anchor before coming off the lifeline. Once disconnected, untie the
knot and pull the loose end of the rope through the anchor above,
then retoss that end from your current location and continue the
descent. You can repeat the process as many times as necessary to
reach the bottom. Inspect the rope between stages, since pulling it
around the anchor point from an inferior position may chafe it.
Generally speaking, any webbing and hardware you use along the way
to create new anchor points will be lost, since it’ll be impossible to get
back up to retrieve them.

KNOT BYPASS
Some operations require tying two lifelines together, resulting in a
knot that your descender cannot pass. The technique for getting
around this knot, or any natural knot that develops, involves one long
and two short prusik loops, plus extra carabiners. Some experts also
use ascenders and accessory cord.
We’ll use a scenario in which no prusik hitch safety is in place. First,
stop just above the knot and tie off the descender. Then, place two
prusiks to the rescue rope, one above the descender and one below the
knot. Attach these to a locking carabiner that’s connected to your har-
ness. Untie the double wrap on the descender and transfer the weight
to the top prusik. Disconnect the descender and reconnect it below the
knot. Rewrap the descender twice as required and check it for security.
To remove the tension from the top prusik, place a foot-loop prusik on
the rescue rope above the knot. While standing in the foot loop, veri-
fying that your descender is securely wrapped, disconnect the initial
top prusik from your harness. Step out of the foot loop, transfer your
weight to the rescue rope, and unwrap it. Remove either two or all
three prusiks. You need to remove at least two; however, you can leave
the lower one in place to use as a self-belay.

PERSONAL ESCAPE SYSTEMS

Personal escape systems were formally recognized under the 1995
edition of NFPA 1983. The question as to which size and capacity of
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Descending 221

A personal escape rope kit is

indispensable equipment for
the rescue firefighter.

rope to carry had been talked about for years in fire stations. Although
many firefighters had been carrying various types of rope and webbing
in their turnout coats anyway, the rope standard finally legitimized
doing so. Manufacturers have since produced different versions of
escape ropes. These aren’t just prusik cords rolled up and stored in
someone’s pocket. Many of these products are 5/16-inch (8 mm) rope
with breaking strengths of 3,000 lbs. They are one-person components
with a maximum working load of 300 lbs.
The personal escape rope is one component of an escape system.
Several manufacturers produce complete escape packages for firefight-
ers to carry during the course of their duties. These run from the very
basic to the more complex in terms of components and the techniques
that they require.
As always, personal escape systems require special training, and you
must follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.
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222 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. SRTs originated with _______________ because of the
long drops they encounter and their need for simple
systems.
2. Name the seven components of the acronym RES-
CUES.
3. When rappelling, most rescuers use their dominant
hand for _______________.
4. When rolling over a parapet during a tie-low evolu-
tion, where must your guide hand be in relation to
the rope?
5. When rappelling down to a window during a no-har-
ness rescue, keep your brake hand _______________
from the victim.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:01 PM Page 223

Chapter 12

Mechanical
Advantage
Systems

I
n rope rescue systems, mechanical advantage is needed anytime you
have to raise a victim or firefighter to a higher location. Doing so
requires a solid understanding of mechanical advantage theory, as
well as additional equipment and skills. In this chapter, we will cover
the necessary fundamentals of hauling, then illustrate some of the
common systems in use.
Any mechanical advantage gained in a system is always less than its
theoretical potential. Whenever mechanical advantage is calculated,
it’s done on the premise that all of the components in the system are
frictionless, resulting in TMA, or theoretical mechanical advantage.
Practical mechanical advantage represents the actual advantage gained
over a number of physical variables, including the friction of the pul-
ley and rope, for example.
Suppose that a team responds to an incident in which a maintenance
worker is down and injured at the bottom of a utility shaft. The only
opening is at the roof, and the worker is down approximately 100 feet.
After firefighters descend to the victim, stabilize him, and package him
for transport, they decide to haul him out. There is an adequate steel
superstructure above the opening, and they attach a single pulley to it.
They then attach a static rescue rope to the victim’s harness and reeve
it through the topside pulley. The victim weighs approximately 300
lbs., including an oxygen kit, plus splinting materials. The hauling
team, which consists of four firefighters, struggles to pull him up. Not
only do they find it difficult to bear the weight, they also have no
mechanism to hold him when they need to reset the system.
Mechanical advantage is quite necessary in this situation due to the dis-
tance of travel and the weight of the load. The single pulley only pro-
vides a means to change the direction of the hauling rope. When the
haul team pulls, their effort equals the weight of the victim, plus a lit-

223
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224 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

tle more to overcome whatever friction is in the system. In theoretical

terms, this system offers no advantage whatsoever. The ratio of the use-
ful output of the machine to the force applied is less than 1:1.
This scenario illustrates our basic need for mechanical advantage sys-
tems—i.e., machines to perform work. The work output of your system
should be much greater than the effort put in. For hauling, mechani-
cal advantage requires the use of pulleys, which can be placed in vari-
ous configurations to achieve different ratios. Pulleys that are perma-
nently anchored or that change direction do not provide mechanical
advantage. These are known as directional, fixed, anchored, or sta-
tionary pulleys. Mechanical advantage is provided only by traveling
pulleys—i.e., those that move within the system.
In each of the examples below, the mechanical advantage is 1:1. The
placement of the pulleys does nothing more than change the direction
of the rope. A 300-lb. load would need 300-plus lbs. of force. The last
arrangement may require more effort because of additional friction
created by the Z drag.

1:1 Mechanical Advantage Systems

Pull
Overhang Overhang

Fixed
pulley
Pull Fixed Pull
pulleys Fixed
pulleys

LOAD LOAD
Shaft

LOAD
LOAD

In the next arrangement (page 225, top), the pulley is attached to the
load instead of the overhead anchor point. The placement of the pul-
ley on the load allows for the weight to be distributed between the two
legs of the system.
A 2:1 mechanical advantage system is the most basic of the systems
wherein practical mechanical advantage is actually gained. The rope is
attached to an anchor and reeved through a pulley on the load, then
brought back up through a pulley at the superior position. The 300-lb.
load is being divided in half, with 150 lbs. on each leg of the system.
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Mechanical Advantage Systems 225

Load Divided Between the Legs of a System

Anchor

Leg 1 Leg 2

LOAD

2:1 Mechanical Advantage

Anchor

150 lbs. 150 lbs.

300 lbs.

One of the primary attributes of the pulley is its ability to equalize

the load between the legs of a system. The effort put in needs to be a
little more than the theoretical amount to overcome both friction and
inertia.
This setup is typical of a simple mechanical advantage system, which
by definition consists of one rope and one or more pulleys. Such a sys-
tem provides all of its own mechanical advantage. By adding pulleys
and/or reeving more sheaves, you can increase the benefit. In the exam-
ple given, the advantage can be increased from 2:1 to either 3:1 or 4:1
by adding another pulley and/or reeving another sheeve. An easy way
to calculate the mechanical advantage of a simple system is to count
the number of ropes that are supporting the load, in this case two.
A compound system is comprised of two or more simple systems
working together to multiply the overall capability. A 2:1 simple sys-
tem added within another 2:1 simple system yields a compound sys-
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226 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

tem of 4:1 advantage. Whenever you add or stack simple systems, mul-
tiply their inherent ratios to calculate the overall advantage.

THE BLOCK SYSTEM

For centuries, mechanical advantage systems have commonly been
of block and tackle, with pulleys of two, three, and four sheaves being
the norm. Even today, the block system is highly versatile, and it can
be used in both vertical and horizontal arrangements.

The Vertical Arrangement

These types of systems are popular in confined space operations
where someone is lowered into a vertical space. Once the firefighter is
secure below, either a mechanical ascender or the cam device of a com-
bination pulley is installed so that the system will be set for a haul evo-
lution. The length of rope relates directly to the mechanical advantage
of the system. For example, a 40-foot shaft requires 160 feet of rope
(plus tails) to produce a 4:1 advantage. Generally speaking, the 4:1
ratio is the most commonly used setup.

3:1 Block System 4:1 Block System

Anchor
Anchor

Pull Pull

Load
Load

The working end of the rope gets The working end of the rope gets
secured to the carabiner that's secured to a carabiner affixed to the
holding the pulley to the load. anchored portion of the system.
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Mechanical Advantage Systems 227

The advantages of the vertical arrangement are:

1. It requires limited equipment.

2. It requires limited operators.
3. It can develop high mechanical advantage ratios and capabilities.

The disadvantages of the vertical arrangement are:

1. It requires long lengths of rope.

2. High mechanical advantages can overstress the components in
the system, endangering the load.
3. In a rescue environment, it must be backed up with a belay line
and/or a redundant system to an independent anchor point.

The vertical arrangement has limited capabilities in situations where

you encounter great depths. It remains, however, a popular and useful
system and is just one of the many tools available to you.

The Horizontal Arrangement

The horizontal arrangement is used extensively in piggyback evolu-
tions (see below). When a victim or a firefighter is hanging from a res-
cue rope, a horizontal block system can be installed to effect the verti-
cal raise. A pulley system is fixed to a firm anchor, then run horizon-
tally to attach to the standing rope. The mechanical advantage of this
type of rigging is calculated in the customary way, by counting the
number of ropes passing through the movable pulley.

THE Z SYSTEM
The Z system is a highly versatile and relatively easy system to set up.
It requires one main haul rope and two pulleys, plus two rope grabs
attached to the haul rope. This arrangement typically uses two single-
sheave pulleys for a 3:1, or two double-sheave pulleys for a 5:1,
mechanical advantage. Depending on available personnel, opting for
a 5:1 ratio isn’t a bad idea. Use the double-sheave pulleys right away,
even if you’re starting out with the 3:1. In the event that you need the
additional mechanical advantage, you can wrap the other two sheaves
and increase the system to a 5:1 ratio. As the rope grab travels upward
toward the anchor pulley, the system needs to be tied off and the rope
grab reset, a disadvantage in terms of time. The benefit of this type of
rigging over a block system is the amount of rope required to gain the
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228 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

3:1 Z System

Three-wrap prusik

To load

Anchor

Pull

5:1 Z System
Three-wrap prusik
To load

Anchor
Pull
This arrangement differs in appearance from the typical
Z system; however, it is still classified as one.

mechanical advantage. In a 100-foot rescue scenario, a Z system might

require less than 200 feet of rope, depending on the desired length of
the legs in the system and how many resets are permissible.
The advantages of a Z system are:

1. It requires limited equipment.

2. It requires limited personnel.
3. It is a simple mechanical system that can be reset.
4. It can be expanded into a compound system.

The disadvantages of a Z system are:

1. Small operating areas may require many resets to achieve the

desired hauling results. This may be offset by placing a change-
of-direction pulley between the system and the haul team.
2. High mechanical advantage capabilities can overstress the sys-
tem components, endangering the load.
3. In a rescue situation, it must be backed up with a belay line
and/or a redundant system to an independent anchor point.
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Mechanical Advantage Systems 229

THE PIGGYBACK SYSTEM

The piggyback system is an arrangement wherein a mechanical
advantage system is connected to a main haul line. A typical example
would be to piggyback a rescue rope on which a firefighter descends to
reach a victim, offering mechanical advantage to haul them both out
again. You can connect a simple system or stack systems to create a
multisystem advantage. In a 2:1 piggyback, a pulley is attached to the
haul line as close as possible to the load or, more likely, near the edge
of the operating area. The 2:1 rope system is then fixed to an anchor
point. For every two feet you pull, you’ll move the main line one foot,
but the force exerted will be half the weight. Other advantageous
ratios can be rigged, as shown in the diagrams, the classic one proba-
bly being the 4:1 compound system piggyback. This arrangement is
put together by stacking one 2:1 simple system onto another 2:1 sim-
ple system. For better allocation of resources, the piggyback can be
rigged with one rope rather than two. This results in the same attrib-
utes of other 4:1 compound systems while using fewer pulley sheaves
and less rope.

THE ODD AND EVEN PRINCIPLE

In determining ratios of mechanical advantage, your system will be
either odd- or even-numbered. To figure out which you have, remem-
ber that if the working end of the rescue rope is secured to the anchor
or anchor pulley, then the system is even. If the working end of the
rescue rope is secured to the load or load pulley, then the system is
odd.

CHANGE-OF-DIRECTION PULLEYS
There have been many references to change-of-direction pulleys in
this chapter. The primary emphasis has been that they don’t create or
contribute mechanical advantage to a system. The common miscon-
ception that arises is that “if it’s not creating mechanical advantage,
then it’s not an important component.” Nothing could be further
from the truth. The change-of-direction pulley allows you to run your
line from an area of limited space to an area where a haul team can
operate more efficiently. Depending on the angle of the rope going
through the pulley, the load on the anchor point can be increased up
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230 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

1:1 Piggyback System

Pull Figure 8 on a bight

Piggyback system

To load
Main line
Triple prusik loops

2:1 Piggyback System

Pull

Piggyback system

Anchor

To load
Main line
Rope grabs

3:1 Piggyback System

Pull

Working end secured

Anchor
to becket or carabiner

Piggyback system

Pulley
To load
Main line Rope grabs

4:1 Piggyback System

Pull

Anchor
Pulley
Piggyback system

Working end secured To load

to becket or carabiner Main line Rope grabs
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Mechanical Advantage Systems 231

4:1 Compound Piggyback System

Rope grabs
Main line

Figure 8 knot To load

Piggyback system

Anchor Pull
Figure 8 on a bight

5:1 Piggyback System

Pull

Working end secured

to carabiner

Anchor Piggyback system

Pulley
To load
Main line Rope grabs

to two times the weight of whatever you’re hauling. This is because a

pulley has to withstand the weight of the load on one side and the
effort being expended on the other. Anchor points must be chosen
carefully and backed up accordingly.

OVERSTRESSING THE SYSTEM

Of the many problems that can occur in a mechanical advantage sys-
tem, one of the most apparent is a consequence of high mechanical
ratios. The higher the advantage, the easier it is to pull up the load.
Given the limitations of equipment, there has to be a balance between
the system’s capacities and the effort expended by the haul team. In
general practice, the fewer haul members available, the higher the
ratio required. Suppose you’d set up a 5:1 Z system because staffing
had been limited to two members. Halfway into the operation, three
additional members appear on the scene, ready to help. If you figure
that the average brute can exert between 100 and 200 lbs. of pulling
force, five members working as a team can reach or exceed 1,000 lbs.
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232 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Change-of-Direction Forces

0°
10°

Anchor
Pulley
90° 600 lb. Load
Angle Load imposed
0° 0 lbs.
120°
10° 204 lbs.
90° 600 lbs.
120° 846 lbs.
160° 180°
160° 1194 lbs.
180° 1200 lbs.

Load imposed = Stress put on pulley

and its anchor point.
Select components carefully!

600 lbs.

This is a dangerous situation in the making. A wide variety of smaller

problems can occur—a stokes getting caught on an edge or a rope tan-
gling around an object, for example. Once these firefighters meet some
resistance, the natural tendency will be to dig in and pull harder. This
can cause failure of the system and loss of the victim or rescuing fire-
fighter. Use great care and communicate freely, particularly when haul-
ing through narrow openings. Overstressing can also mean situations
where human limbs get wedged between substantial objects, possibly
getting mangled and torn by the application of too much mechanical
advantage.
You’ll see compound systems of 10:1 advantage or even more,
depending on how the components have been stacked. To ensure safe-
ty, some teams won’t go beyond a 5:1 ratio unless doing so is absolute-
ly justified. A 5:1 system with two haul members pulling continuous-
ly is usually sufficient for all two-person rescue loads.
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Mechanical Advantage Systems 233

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. What is the most popular and advantageous mecha-
nism for confined space rescue?
2. Name the arrangement in which a mechanical advan-
tage system is connected to an existing main haul line.
3. If the working end of the rescue rope is secured to the
anchor or anchor pulley, then the system is
_______________.
4. Any change-of-direction pulley must be able to with-
stand two opposing forces. What are they?
5. To ensure safety, some teams won’t rig systems beyond
a mechanical advantage ratio of _______________
unless doing so is absolutely justified.
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Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:01 PM Page 235

Chapter Thirteen

Transportation
Systems

L
ooking at the life safety system structure reveals three major sub-
systems: the anchor system, the access system, and the trans-
portation system. This chapter will cover the principles of trans-
portation and its two subcategories, lowering systems and hauling sys-
tems using mechanical advantage.

LOWERING SYSTEMS
Because they take advantage of gravity, lowering systems pose limited
demands in terms of equipment, requiring only an anchor system, a
descent device and rescue rope, a redundant backup system, and some
type of victim transportation device, such as a stokes. In the chapter on
descending, we discussed rappelling to a victim and “making a grab.”
Even though this was discussed under the auspices of the access system
(descending), most victim handling is done within the transportation
subsystem. This aspect of rescue provides a mechanism to move a victim
from one location to another, as well as a patient handling device.
Lowering and descent evolutions are essentially quite similar,
depending on their application. Both rely on a brake to control the
amount of friction required to manage the load. In the fire service,
evolutions that rely on traveling brakes are usually termed descending
operations, whereas those that rely on fixed brakes are usually termed
lowering operations. This latter group will be the focus of this chapter.
A lowering system is most often used for the evacuation of an injured
person during nonfireground technical rescues. This type of evolution
requires a main lowering line and an independent, redundant backup
system. The personal descent is primarily designed to allow a firefight-
er to reach an inferior position no matter what the ultimate course of

235
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236 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

the operation. The most significant aspect that distinguishes these two
techniques is that the personal descent can be set up as an SRT evolu-
tion, while lowering automatically entails a DRT evolution.
The accompanying diagram shows a basic arrangement using a fig-
ure 8 ring. Since this is a double-rope technique, a separate and inde-
pendently anchored backup system must be set up adjacent to the
main one—it has been eliminated from the diagram for clarity. This
example depicts one of the many ways you can construct this evolu-
tion in the field. The necessary components are the anchor points, the
anchor system, the friction device, static rescue rope, edge protection,
and, as an operational component, rope management. Whenever you
construct a lowering or hauling system, two ropes are usually required
at minimum. Such systems are either redundant or parallel in nature.
Redundant means having one primary line that takes the brunt of the

A Basic Lowering System

Anchor
Anchor

To lowering team member

Carabiner

Figure 8 ring

To load
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Transportation Systems 237

load and a backup that serves only in the event that the primary fails.
A parallel system divides the load between two identical evolutions
that work in unison. In theory, a 300-lb. load would impose about 150
lbs. on each system. In actual practice, coordinating two teams to
lower or haul at the same rate in a parallel system sometimes doesn’t
work out. One side of the double system always seems to be doing
more of the work; hence, you wind up with a redundant system any-
way. This, in part, is a training issue. In Chapter Three, we discussed
rescue loads in terms of their imposition on a system. Limiting a load
to two persons or 600 lbs. is prudent. Using 1/2-inch static rescue rope
as the primary and backing it up with a secondary system gives you a
tremendous margin of safety in the event a problem occurs.
The brake bar rack arrangement is similar to the figure 8 ring. It is
inserted as a fixed brake device. It must be threaded correctly and all the
bars set for maximum friction during the initial stages of the evolution.
A majority of teams carry and deploy their ropes from nylon rope
bags. Depending on the evolution at hand, as well as the size and com-
plexity of the operating area, you may want to pull the rope from the
bag and prestage it. This can be helpful for long drops and whenever
additional personnel are available. Postinspection and proper repack-
ing become doubly critical whenever ancillary personnel are involved.
In the discipline of rope rescue, operations are classified as either high
angle and low angle. High-angle evolutions denote situations in which
the firefighter or victim is supported solely by the rope system. Low-angle
evolutions refer to situations in which the individual still has contact
with the ground and only partially depends on the line for support. The
vast majority of rope rescue operations take place within the high-angle
environment; however, low-angle evacuations from ditches, drainage
systems, icy slopes, and the like are common. In a typical low-angle sce-
nario, a victim is secured to a stokes basket, which four to six firefighters
must haul with their own muscle power. The slope is steep enough that
hanging on to the stokes while maintaining balance becomes impossible;
consequently, a low-angle evolution is arranged. Slope evacuations can
take place both up and down elevated topography.

The Downward Slope

Moving from a higher to a lower position tends to be easier and
should be the rescue team’s first choice. Considerations include terrain
features and the availability of anchor points. Also, the brakeman at
the anchored friction device must be able to see the entire progression.
If not, radio communications must be employed, increasing the poten-
tial risks. Vegetation and rocks that could endanger the rescue line are
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238 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Downward-Slope Evacuation With Rack

Tree trunk

Staged rope

Brakeman

Lowering rope

Downslope

always considerations. You must locate anchor points along the way at
a rapid pace, particularly in a downward evacuation.
The first slope evacuation technique I learned was taught to me by
U.S. Air Force pararescue personnel. It was designed for a rapid tactical
evacuation. In this method, a team carries a victim in a stokes while
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Transportation Systems 239

Tree Brake Wrap

Brakeman

Staged
rope

Rescue rope

To load

assisted by a lowering system. The system consists of a static rescue

rope attached to the head of the stokes and to a solid anchor point.
The friction device is a munther hitch around a carabiner attached to
a tree by some webbing. While the team descends the slope, an addi-
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240 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

tional member leapfrogs ahead to select anchor points along the

intended path. This individual becomes the new brakeman, while the
old brakeman becomes the new leapfrogger. The more personnel avail-
able, the less strain on these two members. While this technique may
be too “quick and dirty” for nonmilitary rescues, it serves as a founda-
tion on which improvements and adjustments may be made.
The tactical considerations of such a technique are fairly straightfor-
ward. As always, you must secure the victim in the transportation device
according to the manufacturer’s recommendations or current practice.
You must attach the rescue rope to the head of the transport device. A
six-member haul team is typical and may require replacements depend-
ing on the distance to be covered. Select a brakeman for the friction
device, a leapfrogger, and a haul team boss. One of the members carry-
ing the victim usually fills the boss position. The anchor system is
devised based on the selection of suitable anchor points, and the rescue
rope is controlled by a friction device such as a figure 8 or brake bar rack.
In the event that you were short of equipment and needed to evacuate
a downward slope, you could wrap the rope around a secure tree to cre-
ate the friction device. Only do so under extenuating circumstances,
since the abrasion can easily damage if not destroy the rope. Many
times, you will have to take the rope out of service after using it this way.
The medical condition of the victim may dictate the pace and
acceptable degree of stability of the evolution, especially when the vic-
tim requires constant medical attention. All teams must have a mini-
mum of two basic EMTs; however, paramedics would be better.

HAULING SYSTEMS
In most rescues, you’re either at the lowest point or the distance to
the bottom is much greater than to the top. Anytime you can’t per-
form a lowering operation, a hauling system is in order.
This section relates directly to our earlier discussion of mechanical
advantage. The construction of any hauling system entails a working
knowledge of the principles involved. Chapter Twelve’s primary pur-
pose was to illustrate the arrangement of pulleys to achieve mechani-
cal advantage. This section will look at specific equipment and tech-
niques germane to hauling systems.

Rope Grabs
Rope grabs are commonly used in hauling systems either as a means
of attaching pulleys or as ratchets for hauling. Both soft ascenders such
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Transportation Systems 241

as prusiks and hard ascenders such as mechanical ascenders are used.

The advantages and disadvantages of both take on additional signifi-
cance in hauling systems. Human preferences run in cycles, and the
issues surrounding hard and soft ascenders are no exception. Although
the hard ascender’s popularity has grown immensely in recent years,
the prusik loop has come back into favor among many teams. Some
have totally replaced the hard ascender with prusiks, while others
work with them in a hybrid arrangement. Prusiks are often used as
cams in the haul or ratchet function. A haul cam grips the rope and is
connected to a traveling pulley. The ratchet cam is usually positioned
back by the anchor, holding the system from sliding when the haul
cam needs to be reset.

The Load-Releasing Hitch

The load-releasing hitch has gained popularity because it offers flexi-
bility in loosening up a tensioned system. Placing it in a hauling system
allows for quick conversion to a lowering evolution. This hitch can be
made from a variety of accessory cords, webbing, and rescue rope.

Block Systems
The block system can be used in both a vertical and a horizontal
arrangement. In a vertical 3:1 system, a hard mechanical ascender

3:1 Block System 3:1 Block System With Prusiks

Prusiks secured
Double pulley to carabiner
Carabiner Double pulley

Mechanical
Pull
ascender Pull
Two three-
Carabiner wrap prusiks

Single pulley Single pulley

Working end Working end
secured to carabiner Carabiner secured to carabiner Carabiner
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242 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

4:1 Block System With Combination Pulley

Carabiner

Combination pulley
Cam device
Carabiner

Pull

Double pulley

Carabiner

attached to the rope acts as a brake so that you don’t lose whatever lift
you may have achieved. This device needs to be minded at times, since
it may bind up against the pulley. Any personnel near the opening
need to be properly tethered to the anchor in the event of a fall. A 3:1
block with a combination pulley and cam device eliminates the need
both for the ascender and for someone minding it. A 3:1 block with
prusiks is used by some teams. Generally it must be minded, since the
grip is bidirectional, and the firefighter must be tethered to an anchor
when operating near an opening.
A 4:1 arrangement is very similar to a 3:1, except that two double-
sheave pulleys are required, and the securing knot is attached to the
top pulley. Remember that when the securing knot is attached to the
load, it’s an odd system; if it’s attached to the anchor, it’s an even sys-
tem. This setup can be arranged like the 3:1 in terms of using the
ascender or prusiks; however, the combination pulley is gaining popu-
larity. In the event that you don’t incorporate any braking or cam
device near the pulley, you can still arrange a distal brake on an anchor
point in the operating area.

Z Systems
In a 3:1 Z system, hard ascenders are used in the ratchet and at haul
positions on the hauling rope. Remember that the haul cam takes a
bite and grips the rope while it’s pulled back toward the anchor. Once
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Transportation Systems 243

3:1 Z System With Gibbs Ascenders

Anchor

Doubled webbing
or rope slings

Load-releasing hitch
Double pulley

Carabiner
Pull

Gibbs ascender

Haul rope

Single pulley
Carabiner
Gibbs ascender

To load

the two cams reach each other, the ratchet cam holds the load while
the haul cam is released and set forward to take another bite. Some
teams advocate using an additional cam to act as a safety. Many omit
the safety cam, primarily because they back up the haul system with
an independently anchored safety system. In such a case, the ratchet
cam works as a safety cam when the hauling cam is operating.
In a 3:1 Z system with prusiks, tandem prusik loops are used in the
ratchet and haul positions. Rescue prusik cord and 8 mm accessory
cord are popular on 1/2-inch static rescue rope. It’s best to use a short
and a long loop together so both prusiks can grip at the same time.
This arrangement may take a little longer to operate and reset than
others.
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244 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Hybrid 3:1 Z System

Anchor

Doubled webbing
or rope slings
Carabiner
Carabiner
Load-releasing hitch
Single pulley

Carabiner
Pull

Gibbs ascender

Haul rope

Single pulley

Carabiner
Two three-wrap
prusik hitches
(8 mm A/C)

To load

In a 3:1 hybrid arrangement, prusik loops are used at the haul cam
position, and a hard ascender is used at the ratchet. Those who use this
approach are uncomfortable with the resultant manipulation of the
haul rope when it is gripped by a hard ascender.
The 5:1 Z system is similar to the 3:1, except that two double-sheave
pulleys are required to produce the increased mechanical advantage.
This system can be arranged like the 3:1 in terms of using the ascen-
ders, prusiks, or both.

Piggyback Systems
The premise of a piggyback is that a static rescue rope is attached to the
load you wish to haul. The system is then attached to that rope by a rope
grab. This results in operating characteristics different from either the
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Transportation Systems 245

2:1 Piggyback With Gibbs

Pull
Anchor
Haul rope

Single pulley
Doubled webbing
or rope slings Carabiner Carabiner

To load
Gibbs ascender
Anchor Main line
Friction device

Secure end to anchor

as needed for safety

3:1 Piggyback With Prusiks

Anchor Pull

Doubled
Haul rope
webbing
or rope Single pulley
slings Carabiner
Carabiner
Anchor
To load

Main line
Two three-wrap Two three-wrap prusiks
prusiks (8 mm A/C) (8 mm A/C)

Secure end to anchor

as needed for safety

4:1 Piggyback With Prusiks

Anchor Pull

Doubled
Haul rope
webbing
or rope Double pulley
slings Carabiner
Carabiner
Anchor
To load

Main line
Two three-wrap Two three-wrap prusiks
prusiks (8 mm A/C) (8 mm A/C)

Secure end to anchor

as needed for safety
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246 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

4:1 Compound Piggyback System

Two three-wrap prusiks
Anchor (8 mm A/C)
Carabiner

To load
Main line
Doubled webbing
or rope slings Carabiner

Single pulley
Carabiner
Carabiner
Anchor
Single pulley
Haul rope

Pull

5:1 Piggyback With Prusiks

Anchor
Pull

Haul rope
Double pulley
Doubled webbing Carabiner
or rope slings Carabiner

To load

Anchor Main line

Two three-wrap prusiks
(8 mm A/C)

block or Z systems. Those arrangements need to be backed up with a sec-

ond rope so as to comply with the DRT principle. In a piggyback setup,
the hauling system is attached to the main line, forming a cohesive unit.
The main line still serves an important function when the system
must be reset. As the load is being hauled, rope is being pulled back
through a friction or brake device in the event a problem occurs. Some
teams consider this to be a DRT arrangement. Still, the load is only
being supported by one rope past the rope grab attachment, and there
is no backup if a problem occurs beyond this point. To comply with
the DRT principle, you must attach a second rescue rope to the load
and connect it to an independent anchor system as a backup.

The Upward Slope

Evacuating a slope in an upward direction requires either personnel
to effect a direct haul or a mechanical advantage system. Tactically,
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Transportation Systems 247

1:1 System With People Power

Stacked haul rope

Hauling personnel

Anchor

Double slings

Carabiner
Prusik rope grabs—safety

Individual managing
rope grabs

Upslope

Firefighters/victim

such an operation is similar to lowering; however, the friction devices

are either prusiks or hard ascenders, and leapfroggers aren’t necessary.
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248 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

1:1 Change-of-Direction System With People Power

Double slings

Hauling personnel Anchor

Carabiner

Anchor

Stacked haul rope

Double slings

Carabiner

Individual managing
rope grabs

Upslope

Firefighters/victim
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Transportation Systems 249

2:1 System With People Power

Stacked haul rope

Hauling personnel

Anchor

Double slings
Anchor
Carabiner

Double slings
Haul rope
Carabiner

Individual managing
rope grabs

Upslope

Firefighters/victim
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250 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Topographic Hauling Evolution

Tree trunk

Pull

3:1 Z System

Victim in stokes

Upslope

Firefighters
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Transportation Systems 251

THE CONVERSION EVOLUTION

There are times when you need to go from a lowering/descending
evolution to a hauling evolution, or vice versa. Suppose that a fire-
fighter descends to an inferior position to effect a rescue. Once there,
the firefighter and the victim need to be hauled upward to safety. They
may be tethered to an anchor point, rest safely on the bottom, or be
dependent on the lowering/descent system. In any case, the topside
team members can convert the lowering system to a hauling system
with a few simple maneuvers. Rearranging it is somewhat easier, of
course, if the load can temporarily be taken off the rescue rope.
To convert a lowering/descent evolution to a haul system, tie off the
friction device with a securing knot, and tie a doubled-up single fisher-
man knot as shown. Then, attach a rope grab to the main line with a
load-releasing hitch attached to an anchor point, if one isn’t in place
already. Next, tie a safety figure 8 in the section of rope between the fric-
tion device and anchor point, and attach it to the anchor point. Remove
the friction device from the lowering/descent system. Reeve the required
pulleys for the desired mechanical advantage, and secure them until the
conversion is complete. Release the load with the load-releasing hitch.
This will impose the load onto the newly created mechanical advantage
system. Finally, reset the rope grab to use as a system cam device.

Converting From a Lowering/Descent System

to a Hauling System (Before)

Anchor Anchor Anchor

Double-wrap Safety figure 8

lockoff

The friction Load-releasing

device shown hitch
is a figure 8 ring.
A brake bar rack
Doubled single could also be
fisherman's used.
knot for safety
Rope grab
Rescue rope Rescue rope Rescue
rope
A B C
To load To load
To load
Same as Figure A, Same as Figure B,
but with rope grab but with safety
and releasing hitch. figure 8 added.
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252 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Converting From a Lowering/Descent System to a

Hauling System (After)

Anchor Anchor

The friction
device is While the hitch
removed. The carries the load,
Single pulley
load-releasing a pulley is
hitch now installed.
carries the load.

Rescue rope Rescue rope

D E

To load To load

Anchor Anchor

Pull

The example shown

is a 3:1 arrangement.
Almost any ratio can
be set up, depending
on the guidelines
and the situation.

This hauling system

Rescue rope is now operational. Rescue rope

F G

To load To load
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Transportation Systems 253

Converting From a Hauling System to a

Lowering System (Before)

Anchor Anchor Anchor

Anchored figure 8 The load-releasing

safety knot hitch carries
the load.
Pull
Remove

The pulleys and

haul-rope grab
are removed.
System tensioned,
rope grab secured.
Remove

Rescue
Rescue rope Rescue rope rope
A B C
To load To load To load

Converting From a Hauling System to a

Lowering System (After)

Anchor Anchor Anchor

Friction device
installed. Safety
knot untied.
Release the
load-releasing
Friction hitch, then remove
Install device the rope grab.
the friction installed
device

Rescue rope Rescue rope Rescue rope

D E F
To load To load To load
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254 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

So as not to confuse the sequence, this description doesn’t take into

account the conversion of the backup system. Remember that this
must be done also.
When converting from a hauling to a lowering system, maintain
tension on the system. Attach a rope grab to the main line with a load-
releasing hitch that’s attached to an anchor point, if one isn’t in place
already. Next, impose a load on the rope grab. Tie a safety figure 8 in
the section of rope between the mechanical advantage system and the
anchor point, then attach it to an anchor point. Remove the mechan-
ical advantage pulleys and install the friction device of choice. Then,
untie the safety figure 8. Release the load hitch and remove the rescue
rope. Note that the rope grab and the load-releasing hitch can be rein-
stalled for safety if it’s supervised. Finally, lower as needed. This exam-
ple stipulates the same requirements as in the previous scenario in
terms of backups.
Lowering and hauling systems can be used in a multitude of situ-
ations and locations. Think past the obvious cliffs, roofs, and blind
shafts, and you’ll discover all sorts of interior and exterior positions
where rope systems would make for smoother operations.
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Transportation Systems 255

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. In the fire service, evolutions that rely on traveling
brakes are usually termed _______________ operations,
whereas those that rely on fixed brakes are usually
termed _______________ operations.
2. What sort of system divides the load between two
identical evolutions that (theoretically) work in uni-
son?
3. What is the name for a mechanism in which the res-
cuer or victim is supported solely by the rope system?
4. A hybrid arrangement of rope grabs incorporates both
_______________ components.
5. In a 3:1 block system, is the securing knot attached to
the top or the bottom pulley?
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Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:01 PM Page 257

Chapter Fourteen

Personal
Ascending

P
ersonal ascending is a technique that allows a firefighter to
move higher on a vertical rope. It is generally used for short
distances in the fire service and may take some time to master.
It requires little equipment; however, it is physically demanding and
requires dedicated coordination. The limit for many may be as little
as 150 feet.
Ascending in the rescue field is generally used for reaching other
ropes higher in the system or for self-rescue. This is truly an individ-
ual activity rather than a team event. In spelunking or mountaineer-
ing, it may be the safest or only route available to the climber. Cavers
have been known to ascend well over 1,000 feet just to reach day-
light again, and this technique is considered vital to their overall
methods and skills.
While there are many individual techniques, certain principles are
most often incorporated. Ascending is primarily a single-rope tech-
nique, and a Class II harness is the minimum required. Use a three-
cam system. The cams can be either hard or soft. An important human
factor is to push with your leg muscles for upward mobility rather than
using just your arms.
A cam is basically a rope grab that gives you many choices. In moun-
taineering and caving, the handled ascender is popular because it is
easy to use. In the fire service, these devices are relatively unknown.
The Gibbs type of ascender is a popular all-around rope grab. Tying a
secure loop in 8 mm accessory cord and then tying that into a prusik
knot on the rescue rope is considered a suitable soft ascender. After
working with prusiks, you will realize why it’s a limited-distance tech-
nique. Moving the loaded prusiks takes great effort; however, it’s safe,
it requires few materials, and it will work in a pinch.
To start, don at least a Class II harness. A Class III with the chest

257
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258 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Basic Ascending Setup

Anchor

Carabiner

Prusik loops

Harness

Rescue rope
Right
prusik
loop Middle prusik loop to left foot

component would be better. Attach a prusik knot to the rescue rope,

then run the distal end to your harness using a carabiner. Push the
prusik above your shoulders. Tie two more prusiks to the rescue rope.
You can attach either rope, webbing, or extended accessory cord to act
as foot loops. Estimate the length needed for the legs. The basic chal-
lenge is to coordinate the movement of the three prusiks. The top one
is for overall safety, the second is for the left leg, and the third is for
the right leg.
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Personal Ascending 259

Ascending Sequence

Anchor

1.

2.

3.

Climbing requires you to move the leg cams upward alternately so

that you can get a step effect. As you stand on one leg, bend the other,
keeping it in contact with the foot loop as you move the prusik upward.
Once you reach a certain point, load that leg and stand fully on the foot
loop, then advance the prusik for the other leg. Avoid pulling yourself
upward by your arms. Coordination is essential. The individual climber
must decide the actual sequence of where to place and when to move
the safety cam. Practice on short ascents to hone your technique.
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260 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Is personal ascending primarily an SRT or a DRT?

2. What is the minimum class of harness required for
personal ascending?
3. You should use a system of how many cams when
making an ascent?
4. Which of the prusiks connects to the harness?
5. When ascending, upward mobility is gained mainly
by _______________.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:01 PM Page 261

Chapter Fifteen

Traversing

G
enerally speaking, traversing entails moving horizontally from
one elevated point to another—for example, from one build-
ing to the next. The evolutions for doing this are called by
many names, the most common being tyroleans, telphers, and high
lines. Once such a system is in place, it’s safer and quicker to move
personnel via the system than by other means. In the wilderness, tra-
versing rivers and gorges is commonplace. In the urban environ-
ment, such a system is typically constructed when aerial companies
are unable to reach high enough on tall buildings.
Traversing evolutions can be arranged more or less levelly—i.e.,
between two points that are roughly equal in height or between
points of different elevation. Traversing by definition implies move-
ment across the horizontal plane; however, with some additional
equipment and techniques, you can work between different eleva-
tions as well. All of these evolutions are time-consuming and tech-
nical. Their inherent danger lies in the rope or series of ropes than
must be tensioned between two points. The tensioning process can
overstress components to such a degree that failure results.
Supervised training at ground level is critical before operating at any
height.
One of the primary points of contention is how much tension
should be on the rope. Remembering the effects of stress from dif-
ferent angles on anchor points, we strive to keep the angle between
the two points below 90 degrees, if possible. Otherwise, the stress to
the system components is increased dramatically. The smaller the
angle, the lower the stress, but with the result that the efficiency of
the system is reduced. It requires more work to traverse a rope that
has a lot of slack in it. See the chart on page 150.

261
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262 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

OPERATING CONCERNS
Of primary concern is the distance to be covered. The rescue rope
many fire departments carry tends to be limited to lengths of about
165 to 200 feet. Depending on how far from the edge your anchors are,
plus other system requirements, longer sections are in order. This isn’t
an evolution in which tying ropes together is an option. Having avail-
able lengths of 300 to 600 feet is a benefit. Static rescue rope is pre-
ferred because of its low-stretch qualities. The minimum diameter is
1/2 inch, but 5/8 inch is often used for that extra margin of safety. The
first static kernmantle rope I used after the original rope standard came
out was the 5/8-inch for tyrolean traverses. I still like the 5/8-inch,
even though half-inch is quite popular, particularly for long spans.
Depending on equipment, personnel, and the characteristics of the
operating area, you can work from one end of the rope or from both
ends. Having firefighters at both stations means more flexibility in per-
forming the various tasks required by the system. One-ended operating
means sometimes having support crews and management at a distance,
as well as change-of-direction pulleys at the far end of the line. Suitable
anchor points and access for personnel to attach to the system are no
less vital to the remote stations of one-ended traversing operations.
Sometimes it is necessary to reach a victim beneath the traversing
system. In such a case, a movable control point along the horizontal
main line can support a vertical rope arrangement for vertical rescue.

CONSTRUCTION VARIABLES
Setting up a traversing system can be time-consuming, since it
entails tackling the very problem that inspired the operation—i.e.,
erecting a pathway across a void. You must work out a mechanism to
get a tag line across, which you will then use to pull a tensioned main
line into place. When confronted by a river and valley, swimming or
floating that first line across may be the best option. In the urban envi-
ronment, dropping two ropes from high positions, mating them, and
pulling them to one end is common.
How many tensioned ropes do you need to construct the system?
The main traversing line can be a single or double line. A double line
can be tensioned in direct contact or as separate units. The double-
line-in-contact method usually entails a single piece of rope stretched
across a gap to a change-of-direction pulley, then stretched back to its
original starting point. Because this arrangement usually requires a
 An Example of a Single-Rope Traversing System

2" webb slings or

Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:01 PM Page 263

rescue rope
attachments
Tensionless Angle determined
hitch Line holder—carabiner by chart data
and prusik loop or manufacturer's
recommendations
Main line

Control Steel O ring

li ne

3:1 haul system as needed

Rope bag

This side can be completed with an

anchor system or a change-of-direction
arrangement for one-sided operation.

Rescue basket
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:01 PM Page 264

264 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

wide-sheaved pulley, some teams use a single line or keep the double
lines separated so they can use rescue-grade pulleys.

ROPE TENSIONING
The amount of tension required for traversing is subject to debate.
Traversing came from the discipline of mountaineering, and it was
then adapted and upgraded for use by the fire service. The moun-
taineers primarily used 7/16-inch rope because of its abundance and
light weight. When half-inch rope became available, it slowly became
more commonplace for these activities in the United States.
The question of how much slack to have in a tensioned rope needs
to be addressed. First, you need to evaluate why you’re taking the time
to construct a traversing evolution. If a lowering evolution will serve
the purpose, then that is most likely the best option. Setting up a tra-
verse in ideal conditions with skilled personnel can take several hours,
and it can be very equipment-intensive. While setting up traverses in
the past, I have followed many of the principles taught by moun-
taineers—a methodology of minimum tensioning. What’s good about
this approach is that it provides an extra margin of safety. The down-
side is that it requires extra work at the distant side to recover the load
being transported.
In writing this book, I talked with many instructors, manufacturers,
and distributors, and the issue of tensioning became as clear as mud. I
received many ambiguous answers based on urban myths, and my
concern grew immensely. I was told everything from “No more than
what one person can pull” to “1,000 pounds as measured on a
dynometer.” There are mathematical equations that can be used; how-
ever, they generally stand alone and don’t factor in other variables
such as ice, rain, wind loads, and even the weight of the rope itself.
Many in the field use half-inch static kernmantle for this purpose. If
you follow the 15:1 safety factor, then you shouldn’t load the common
half-inch static kernmantle rope to more than 600 lbs. Suppose you
were to tension a single section of half-inch rope to 500 lbs., then load
a victim in a stokes with an accompanying firefighter. You’re probably
stressing the rope with 1,100 lbs. The safety factor goes from 15:1 to
8:1, even before factoring in any other local safety considerations.
Such variables include how far it is across to each point; whether you
have sufficient types and quantities of hardware and software; whether
you have sufficient personnel; the approximate load data; and the
weather conditions.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:01 PM Page 265

Traversing 265

As you can imagine, the major rope manufacturers and distributors I

spoke with said you shouldn’t load their rope past the 15:1 safety fac-
tor. Tensioning the main line serves three main purposes. First, it min-
imizes the effort required to get from one point to another. Second, it
maximizes rope lengths. Third, it serves to maintain clearance around
any obstructions. Tensioning must be completed prior to placing any
human loads on the system. Obviously, once the system is loaded with
the human load, it will dip from the horizontal plane. This is where the
system must clear any obstructions to be effective. And again the ques-
tion arises: How tight do you pull the main line to accomplish this?
Kyle Isenhart of Rescue Systems Inc. of Lake Powell, Utah, developed
a computer program that analysed many of the factors previously dis-
cussed. He came up with a table for rigging the 5/8-inch static rope (see
page 266). His table is set up specifically for the Blue Water Superline
rope. It follows the methodology of minimum tensioning that I was
taught at the beginning and that has worked well thus far.
The chart is self-explanatory; however, I should point out a couple of
things. The load to be suspended is listed in 200-, 300-, 400-, and 600-
lb. increments. For one-person loads, you should look toward the 300-
lb. range and to 600 lbs. for a two-person load in keeping with the rope
standard. When you look at the 600-lb. tensioning requirements, the
rigging tension goes up for the longer span instead of decreasing as in
the other cases. This is due to the increased weight of the rope involved.
Anchoring and tensioning the ropes requires strict attention to detail.
Although there are many ways to attach ropes to an anchor, the best
method is to use the tensionless hitch, if possible. The process of ten-
sioning after you have calculated what’s required for the span and load
can be done in several ways. A piggybacked 3:1 mechanical advantage
system with two firefighters pulling or a 4:1 mechanical advantage sys-
tem with one firefighter pulling should be sufficient for the higher-end
tensioning. Three firefighters pulling the main line rope should be able
to exert more than 300 lbs., which would work well on the lower-end
tensioning. Any tensioning performed prior to the final tie-off to the
far-side anchor can be held in place with rope grabs and load-releasing
hitches. Do not consider any rope grabs used for this purpose to be the
primary tensioning bearers after the final tie-off is complete.

SAFETYING THE SYSTEM

Regardless of whether you use a single- or a double-rope main line,
you need to be able to traverse the system. This is done by using tag
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:01 PM Page 266

266 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

TELPHER LINE-RIGGING CONDITIONS

Telpher Line-Rigging Conditions for 5/8-inch BW-Superline
Data generated by Rescue Systems Inc., Lake Powell, Utah
The data for this table is based on the two rigging points of the telpher line being
horizontal and the load in the exact center, which is the worst possible case. As the
load moves from the center, or as the rigging points move from the horizontal plane,
the tension in the loaded telpher line will be less than is shown in the table.
How to Use This Table
1. Determine the span to be crossed.
2. Determine the load to be placed on the telpher line.
3. The third table column will tell you the proper rigging tension to achieve the pre-
scribed conditions. The remaining columns give the dip at the center of the
telpher line both before and after the load is placed on it.
Maximum tension on the rope when telpher line is loaded: 850 lbs.*
Load to Be Span to Be Rigging Tension Dip at Center Dip at Center
Suspended Crossed (in pounds) of Telpher Line of Loaded
on Rope (in feet) Before It Is Loaded Telpher Line
(in pounds) (in feet) (in feet)
200 100 660 0.2 6.1
200 200 655 0.7 12.4
200 300 645 1.6 19.4
200 400 640 2.3 26.0
200 500 630 4.6 33.2
200 600 620 6.7 40.7
300** 100 425 0.3 9.1
300** 200 410 1.1 18.5
300** 300 400 2.6 28.2
300** 400 390 4.8 38.3
300** 500 380 7.7 48.6
300** 600 370 11.3 59.2
400 100 100 1.2 12.3
400 200 105 4.5 24.9
400 300 115 9.2 37.8
400 400 125 15.1 51.1
400 500 140 21.7 64.6
400 600 150 29.2 78.5
600 100 11.4 11.8 19.1
600 200 22.3 24.2 38.5
600 300 32.8 37.2 58.4
600 400 43.0 50.7 78.7

* 850 lbs. is the minimum safe working load for 5/8” Superline Plus based on the NFPA
1983 life safety rope standard (safe working load shall be calculated using a 15:1 ratio).
** 300 lbs. is the NFPA standard weight for a one-person load.
NOTICE
This data is for 5/8-inch-diameter Blue Water Superline rope only. It is not applicable
to any ropes of other diameter or manufacture and is shown only for representation-
al purposes. Because of the extremely complex physics of telpher-type operations, do
not attempt to adapt this data.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 267

Traversing 267

Loose Tensionless Hitch and Mechanical Advantage

4:1 system

Pull

Bombproof Bombproof
pole pole

lines from either or both ends. If you run everything from one end,
you’ll need a change-of-direction pulley at the far end so that the tag
line can be managed in both directions. Operating a tag line from both
ends requires firefighters coordinating their efforts to maintain proper
rope tension at all times. Tag lines also serve as a system backup and
therefore must be properly anchored and secured.

WORKING IN THE VERTICAL PLANE

Moving horizontally is the main purpose of any traversing system;
however, the vertical plane can be accessed with the addition of a
movable control point. Essentially, the descending firefighter is
attached to a mechanical advantage system that’s controlled from one
end of the line and which is part of the horizontal control mechanism.
The firefighter is positioned over the intended target and held in place
horizontally by tying off the tag lines. Members then lower him via
the vertical mechanism. Exercise extreme caution in such maneuvers
so as not to overtax the main system.
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268 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Movable Control Point in the Vertical Plane (Closeup)

Pulley Main line

To anchor
To anchor
Steel O ring Figure 8 safety knot Control line
To anchor
To anchor
To anchor and
This side can be
mechanical
completed with an Pulley Mechanical
Vertical control line advantage
anchor system or ascender system
a change-of-direction
arrangement for
Carabiner This arrangement provides
one-sided operation.
a 2:1 mechanical advantage.

Note: Tensioned prusik loops

Rope or can be used on the control line.
Pulley webbing Not shown for simplicity.

Carabiner The mechanical ascender allows

the firefighter who is being moved
Load
vertically to maintain a specific
position. Usually to be moved
horizontally.

HIGH-TO-LOW CONFIGURATIONS
Traversing evolutions from higher to lower locations have limited
use in the mainstream fire service, except for the possibility of evacu-
ating high-rise structures. If you use this method, it must be because
you have eliminated simpler lowering techniques. Given our modern,
litigation-conscious culture, be sure your decision is justified!
This arrangement follows many of the operating principles of the
horizontal evolution. The individual being lowered will slide down the
rope using the same pulley and tag line. The tag line is a lower belay
that is run through a friction device, which in turn is affixed to an
anchor. You can also use such a system to transport personnel from
lower to higher positions. Rather than lowering a firefighter by means
of a friction device, you raise him using a mechanical advantage sys-
tem located at the high end of the line. The bottomside tag line serves
as a safety backup and must be properly anchored.
How much rope do you need? To figure out the minimum lengths
required for a given evolution, use the Truckie Triangle. This formula is
used by truck companies to evaluate whether their aerials are going to
reach a building; others will recognize it as the Pythagorean theorem:

A2 + B2 = C2
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 269

Traversing 269

A
120' 192'
C

B
150'

—in which A equals the vertical distance from the top of the build-
ing to the ground, B equals the distance from the anchor point to the
foot of the building, and C equals the required rope length. Suppose:

A = 120 feet, 120 X 120 = 14,400;

B = 150 feet, 150 X 150 = 22,500;
14,400 + 22,500 = 36,900;
C = the square root of 36,900, or 192 feet.

The answer, 192 feet, is theoretical; in actual practice, somewhat

more is needed for tying off and to cover the distance between the
edges and the anchor points.
Note that if the sum of A2 + B2 equals 10,000 or less, a 100-foot aeri-
al ladder will have a chance of reaching the desired location on the
building.
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270 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Traversing evolutions are also known by what three
other common terms?
2. Does slack in the main line of a traversing evolution
increase or decrease the stress on the system?
3. For one-ended traversing operations, a single rope
requires a _______________ on the far-side anchor point.
4. Tensioning the main line serves what three purposes?
5. Must tensioning be completed prior to putting any
human loads on the system?
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 271

Glossary

Abrasion: The friction damage caused by two objects coming in con-

tact, as in a rope being pulled over an unprotected edge.
Anchoring: The overall system and principle of securing yourself and
equipment to a stationary object.
Anchor point: A substantial object that you select to be a load-bear-
ing component of an anchor system.
Anchor system: A complete load-bearing assembly, comprised of one
or more anchor points, rope, webbing, and hardware.
Artificial anchor point: A man-made anchor point located so as to
be convenient to the system.
Ascender: One of several devices that allow an individual to climb a
vertical rope or that serve as a rope grab.
Assignment: A mission or set of tasks for an operation.
Back up: The act of safetying a system.
Backup system: An independent, redundant system constructed and
in place to meet the demands of the operation in the event of failure
of the primary system.
Becket: A carabiner attachment point on the bottom of a double pulley.
Belay: A rope that secures a climber to an anchor point as a safety;
also, the act of securing a climber in this way.
Belayer: The team member responsible for managing the belay line
and friction device to protect the suspended rescuer.
Belay plate: A friction device used as a brake to dampen the force of
a falling member.
Bight: A rope that is bent back on itself and parallel.
Bottom belay: A safety line used in single-rope techniques with
which a team member at a lower position can arrest the fall of a
climber.
Brake bar rack: A U-shaped metal device employing bars through

271
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 272

272 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

which the rescue rope is reeved and which is used to provide friction
during rope evolutions.
Brake hand: The hand used during rope descents to maintain con-
trol by gripping the rope.
Cam: A rope grab.
Carabiner: Metal connecting links used extensively in rope systems.
Chest harness: A load-supporting life safety device worn around the
upper torso; usually worn where inverting can occur or for retrieval
from confined spaces.
Company: The basic unit of fire service members under the control
of an officer.
Compound mechanical advantage: The multiplying of mechanical
advantage by stacking simple systems together.
Confined space: Any space that a person can get into but which is
not designed for continuous human habitation. See OSHA 29 CFR
1910.146.
Cordage: Rope, webbing, and accessory cord.
Descender: A device that provides friction to control the rate of
descent on a rope.
Directional: The quality of a pulley to produce a more favorable
operating position by altering a system.
Double-rope technique (DRT): A primary rope system backed up by
an independent and redundant secondary system.
Dress up: To neaten and check the accuracy of a tied knot.
Edge: Any surfaces that form corners for rope and from which rope
and equipment must be protected.
Edge protection: A wide variety of soft and hard devices to protect
moving ropes from abrasive surfaces.
Elongation: The stretching of a rope, usually expressed as a percentage.
Emergency egress operation: Any expedient exit from a dangerous
situation, often using nontraditional methods.
Engine: The basic apparatus for fire suppression, comprised of a
pump, a water tank, and a hose supply.
Environment: In the context of rope rescue, the general operating
area and its features.
Evolution: A specific task or group of techniques within an opera-
tion.
Fall factor: The resultant value assigned after computing the length
of a fall vs. the amount of rope that has been paid out in a system.
Figure 8: A common descending device shaped like an eight.
Fixed brake: A friction device placed in a nonmoving section of a
rope system.
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Glossary 273

Full-body harness: A personal protective device worn around the

upper and lower torso.
Guide hand: The hand that grasps the vertical rescue rope for sta-
bility while descending.
Hardware: An inclusive term for the metal connecting, grabbing,
and friction devices and other components of a rope system.
Haul cam: The rope grab that provides gripping action during a
hauling evolution.
High angle: Denotes operations in which members are dependent on
life safety rope and not a fixed surface for support.
Incident command system (ICS): Operational heirarchy and guide-
lines for officers to control the various aspects of an incident.
Independent: In rope rescue, a redundant system that is separate
from the main load-bearing system but which is equally as strong.
Kernmantle: A rope design featuring an inner, stronger core covered
by an outer sheath.
Ladder or truck: An apparatus equipped with an aerial device.
Laid rope: Rope constructed by twisting fibers into three large
strands that are then combined into one rope.
Life-safety system: Any mechanism comprised of several subsystems
that directly supports a life during a rope rescue.
Load: The common term for the total weight of personnel and
equipment being supported by a rope system.
Low angle: Denotes operations in which firefighters are dependent
on the ground for their primary support and rope systems for their sec-
ondary means of support.
Lowering: The technique of moving a load from a high to a low posi-
tion; if the load is an individual, that person has no direct control over
the descent.
Main line: The primary load-bearing rope system in a double-rope system.
Needle loom: The latest construction technique used to manufacture
rescue-grade webbing.
NFPA: The National Fire Protection Association. This organization,
based in Quincy, Massachusetts, develops operational and safety stan-
dards for industry and the fire service.
Operation: The overall coordinated effort by sanctioned forces to
mitigate an emergency.
OSHA: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration, a feder-
al agency charged with overseeing employee safety in the workplace.
Rappelling: The common term for personal descending techniques.
Ratchet cam: The rope grab that holds the load while the mechani-
cal advantage system is being reset.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 274

274 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Rescue company: A group of firefighters that are also trained in spe-

cialized rescue techniques, such as rope operations.
Rescue load: A load that doesn’t impose more than 600 lbs. on a
rope system.
Rope grab: A mechanical device or prusik knot tied to the rescue
rope that functions as a gripping mechanism.
Rope rescue: Any operation where a life-dependent rope evolution is
required.
Running end: The end of the rope that is to be used for work such as
hoisting or pulling.
SAR: Search and rescue; also supplied air respirator.
SCBA: Self-contained breathing apparatus.
Shuttle loom: The preferred construction method for tubular web-
bing used by those in rope rescue. Also known as spiral weave, it is
being replaced by needle loom.
Simple mechanical advantage: Gained by noncomplex systems,
usually one rope and several pulleys that work together as a unit.
Single-rope technique (SRT): The use of a primary rope system with-
out a redundant secondary system—i.e., one rope.
Software: The soft components of a rope system, such as rope, web-
bing, and accessory cord.
Standing part: The section of rope between the working and run-
ning end.
Traveling brake: A friction device in a moving position, which usu-
ally means attached to the descending firefighter.
Working end: The part of the rope that forms the knot.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 275

Answers to
Study
Questions

Chapter One
1. Topography, construction/occupancy, demographics, and in-
house capabilities.
2. Fire resistive, noncombustible, ordinary, heavy timber, wood
frame.
3. The purpose or use of a given building.
4. 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit Required Confined Space Regulation.
5. Demographics.

Chapter Two
1. Operations.
2. Strategy.
3. Locate, Access, Stabilize, Transport.
4. SARA, the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of
1986.
5. Command, Operations, Planning, Logistics, and Finance.

Chapter Three
1. Psychomotor.
2. Class III.
3. Hardware and fabric.
4. Abrasive and sharp edges.
5. Confined spaces.

Chapter Four
1. NFPA 1983, Fire Service Life Safety Rope and System
Components.
2. Block creel construction.
3. Nylon and polyester.

275
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 276

276 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

4. (a) It stretches under load, (b) it untwists when loaded and

causes a spinning or kinking reaction, (c) the rope’s integrity
can be compromised when its load-carrying fibers are exposed
to the environment, abrasive surfaces, and heat-generating
mechanical devices, (d) nylon hard-laid ropes are difficult to
manage for transport and deployment because their stiffness
limits your options, and (e) more friction is created by laid
ropes due to their bumpy exterior.
5. Static kernmantle.

Chapter Five
1. (a) General use, (b) 9,000 lbs.
2. Major or longitudinal axis.
3. Earred figure 8.
4. Brake bar rack.
5. (a) To gain mechanical advantage, (b) to change the direction
of the rope, and (c) to reduce or eliminate the rope’s contact
with an abrasive surface.

Chapter Six
1. Bend.
2. Bowlines, figure 8s, and hitches.
3. Basic figure 8 (figure 8 stopper knot).
4. As a rope grab.
5. 4:1.

Chapter Seven
1. Tensionless, equalizing, nonequalizing, and multiple.
2. Man-made improvised.
3. 70 to 75 degrees.
4. 3-2-1.
5. Frames, axles, bumpers, and rated tow hooks.

Chapter Eight
1. 600 lbs. (272 kg.)
2. Tensionless anchor system.
3. 90 degrees.
4. Anchor plate.
5. Multiple anchor point system.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 277

Answers to Study Questions 277

Chapter Nine
1. Length of rope that is out in the system.
2. 12 kN.
3. Dynamic kernmantle.
4. The rope.
5. Running protection.

Chapter Ten
1. The higher ground or above.
2. Short board.
3. (a) It provides for easier handling of the victim, (b) it helps to
prevent further injury by stabilizing the entire body, (c) it is
typically used with a short board, and (d) the two-board
method can facilitate moving a victim through a small open-
ing.
4. Stokes basket.
5. Secondary backup (belay).

Chapter Eleven
1. Cavers.
2. Rope, Evolution, Systems, Consequences, User, Equipment,
Support.
3. Braking.
4. On top.
5. Away.

Chapter Twelve
1. Vertical block system.
2. Piggyback.
3. Even.
4. The weight of the load and the effort being expended.
5. 5:1.

Chapter Thirteen
1. (a) Descending, (b) lowering.
2. Parallel.
3. High-angle evolution.
4. Hard and soft.
5. Bottom.
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278 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Chapter Fourteen
1. SRT.
2. Class II.
3. Three.
4. Top.
5. Pushing with your legs.

Chapter Fifteen
1. Tyroleans, telphers, and high lines.
2. Decrease.
3. Change-of-direction pulley.
4. (a) It minimizes the effort required to move from one point to
another, (b) it maximizes the length of the rope, and (c) it
maintains clearance around obstructions.
5. Yes.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 279

Endnotes

Chapter 1, page 14
1
Pedrotti, Dean R., High-Angle Rescue, Phoenix FD’s Technical
Rescue Team, New York: Firehouse Magazine, November 1990.

Chapter 2, page 27
2
Setnicka, Tim J., ed. Wilderness Search and Rescue, Boston:
Applachian Mountain Club, 1980, p. iii.

279
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 280
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 281

Bibliography

Beers, D.E. and Ramirez, J.E., 1990, “Vectran Fiber for Ropes and
Cables,” Charlotte, NC: Hoechst Celanese Corporation.

Brown, Patrick, 1991, “FDNY: Two Rescues in the Sky,” Fire

Engineering, July 1991, Saddle Brook, NJ, PennWell Publishing.

CMC Rescue, Inc., 1997, Product Catalog 118, Santa Barbara, CA:
California Mountain Company, Inc.

Department of the Army, 1976, “Military Mountaineering,”

Washington, D.C.: Headquarters Department of the Army.

DBI/SALA, 1993, Product Catalog, Red Wing, MN: DB Industries, Inc.

DuPont, 1993, “DuPont Fibers, Bound for Performance,”

Wilmington, DE: DuPont, Inc.

DuPont, 1992, “Kevlar Aramid,” Information Bulletin, Wilmington,

DE: DuPont, Inc.

DuPont, 1993, “Properties of DuPont Industrial Filament Yarns,”

Wilmington, DE: DuPont, Inc.

DuPont, 1991, “Rope and Cordage Safety,” Wilmington, DE:

DuPont, Inc.

FEMA, 1989, “Incident Command System,” Emmitsburg, MD:

Federal Emergency Management Agency: National Emergency
Training Center: National Fire Academy.

281
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 282

282 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

FEMA, 1993, “Rescue Systems 1,” Emmitsburg, MD: Federal

Emergency Management Agency: National Emergency Training
Center: National Fire Academy.

Frank, James A. and Smith, Jerold B., 1992, “Rope Rescue Manual,”
2nd edition, Santa Barbara, CA: CMC Rescue, Inc.

Hawill’s Limited, 1996/1997, Product Catalog, Westborough, MA:

Hawill’s Limited.

IFSTA, 1992, “Essentials of Firefighting,” 3rd edition, Stillwater, OK:

Fire Protection Publications: Oklahoma State University.

IFSTA, 1981, “Fire Service Rope Practices,” 5th edition, Stillwater,

OK: Fire Protection Publications: Oklahoma State University.

MFT&E, 1995, “Firefighter 1 1995 Update,” South Portland, ME:

Maine Fire Training and Education.

NCFSA, n.d., “Confined Space Rescue,” Bethpage, NY: Nassau

County Vocational Education and Extension Board.

NFPA, 1995, “1983 Fire Service Life Safety Rope and System
Components,” Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.

NHFST, 1981, “Training Bulletins Level II Fire Fighter,” Concord, NH:

New Hampshire Fire Standards and Training.

OSHA, 1995, “Fall Protection in Construction,” Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Labor: Occupational Safety and Health
Administration.

OSHA, 1993, “29 CFR 1919.146 Permit-Required Confined Spaces for

General Industry Final Rule,” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Labor: Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

Padgett, Allen and Smith, Bruce, 1987, “On Rope,” Huntsville, AL:
National Speleological Society.

Petzl International, 1996/97, Product Catalog, Crolles, France: Zone

Distribution, Inc.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 283

Bibliography 283

PMI-Petzl, 1997, Work and Rescue Product Catalog, Lafayette, GA:

PMI-Petzl Distribution, Inc.

Rescue Systems, Inc., 1997, Product Catalog, Lake Powell, UT: Rescue
Systems, Inc.

Rescue Technology, 1997, Product Catalog, Carrollton, GA: Rescue

Technology.

Setnicka, Tim. J., 1980, “Wilderness Search and Rescue,” Boston, MA:
Appalachian Mountain Club.

Smith Safety Products, Inc., 1997, Product Catalog, Petaluma, CA:

Smith Safety Products, Inc.

Sterling Rope Company, Inc., 1996, Product Catalog, Beverly, MA:

Sterling Rope Company, Inc.

The Mountaineers, 1985, “Medicine for Mountaineers,” Seattle, WA:

The Mountaineers.

Vines, Tom and Hudson, Steve, 1989, “High-Angle Rescue

Techniques,” Fairfax, VA: National Association for Search and Rescue.

Wheelock, Walt, 1967, “Ropes, Knots, and Slings for Climbers,”

Glendale, CA: La Siesta Press.
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 284
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 285

Index

A of structures, 6-10
A frame, 133-4 of topography, 3-6
Access system, 28, 60, 181-4
Accessory cords, 81 B
Administrative guideline, 83 Belaying, 159-79
and communicating, 167
Aerial ladder, 207-9 and protective equipment, 167-8
Aerospace Rescue and Recovery and rescues, 200-1
Service (ARRS), 182 size-up for, 163-5
American National Standards static components, 161, 162
Institute Inc. (ANSI), 84 technique, 166-7
American Society of Testing and Belay plate, 165, 166
Materials (ASTM), 84 Bend, 111
Anchors, 129-43, 145, 202-7, 219-20 Block creel construction, 67, 89
general types, 130 Block system, 101-2, 226-7, 241-2,
improvised, 130-1, 141-3
size-up of, 163-5 Board of education, 10
vehicles as, 140-1 Bowline, see Knots, bowline
See also A frame, Cantilever ladder, Brake bar rack, 99-101, 166, 195-6,
Gin pole, Ladder jib, Leaning ladder, 198-200, 214-5, 218-9
Pickets, Tripods
Branch, 38
Anchor systems, 28, 145-57, 165
Buddy system, 28
equalizing, 151-6
multiple, 157 Building department, 10
nonequalizing, 156 Bureau of Labor Standards, 13
tensionless, 103, 122-3, 146-51, 265
types, 129, 146
and traversing, 265 C
See also Tether option Cantilever ladder, 140
Ascending, 107, 257-9 Carabiner, 59-60, 95-8, 102, 197-8
Ascending devices, 59, 105-8, 176, Career department, 19, 20, 22
257-8 Caving, 12, 31, 73-4, 76, 194, 257
Assessment, 3-15 CFR 1910.134 (respiratory equip-
defined, 3 ment), 61
and demographics, 10-3
of in-house capabilities, 13-5 CFR 1910.146 (confined spaces),
of scene safety, 163-5 10, 61, 84, 183

285
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286 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Chamber of commerce, 10 F
Change-of-direction forces, 231-2 Fabric, 59-60
Civil defense unit, 14 Fall factor, 159-64, 176-8
Combination department, 18-9 Federal Emergency Management
Comite European de Normalisation, 178 Agency (FEMA), 26
Command section, 38, 39 Figure 8 descender, 98-9, 195-8, 212-4,
218-9
Confined space operations, 10, 58-9,
61, 163-5, 183-4, 226 Figure 8 knot, see Knots, figure 8
Construction, 3, 6-8, 14, 183 Finance section, 38, 39
Conversion evolution, 251-4 Fireground, 35, 40-2, 60-1, 141-2, 183
County sheriffs departments, 14 Fire Department of New York, 74,
76, 219
Critical angle, 149-51, 261
Foot protection, 53
Full-body flotation, 51-3
D
Dacron™, see Rope, polyester
Demographics, 3, 10-3
G
Gibbs ascender, 106-7, 176, 257
Descending, 193-221
and aerials, 207-12 Gibbs Products Inc., 176
and belaying, 200-1 Gin pole, 135
and communication, 212 Gloves, 53-4, 167-8
criteria of, 194-5, 196
fixed-brake system, 193 Goldline™, 73
traveling brake system, 193, 196- Gore-Tex ® rain suit, 51
200, 218-9 Greenline, 73
See also Harness Rescue, Knot
bypass, Leapfrogging, No-harness Grilon, 69
rescue, Personal escape systems, Group, 39
Rappelling, Topside reeving, Tying Gumby suit, see Full-body flotation
off, Window evolutions
Descending devices, 59, 98-101, 195-6,
240-1, 242-3
H
Hardware, 59-60, 95-108
Division, 39
Hardwired intercom systems, 58-9
Double-rope technique, 194-6, 200-1,
236 Harnesses, 55-7, 81, 161, 176, 188,
195, 257-8
Downward-slope evacuation, 237-40
Harness rescue, 212, 217-8
DuPont, 68, 69, 71
Hauling system, 108, 240-50
Dynamic kernmantle, 77, 78-80, 81,
85, 88, 161-3, 166, 172 Hawser, see Rope, laid
Head protection, 51
E Hemp, 56, 65-6, 67, 68, 72
Ear protection, 62 Highlines, see Traversing
Economic development, 10 Hitch, see Knots, hitches
Edge protection, 91-2 Hoechst Celanese, 70
Elderly communities, 11
Equipment failure, 59-60 I
Explosive atmospheres, 55, 58 Immobilization devices, 184-6
Incident commander, 37, 39-45
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Index 287

Incident command system, 17, 36-45 vertical, 226-7

Industrial department, 25 See also Block system, Piggyback
system, Z system
Industrial environments, 9-10, 12-3, 62
Military department, 24
In-house capabilities, 3, 13-5
Mini Mag®, 54
International Standards
Organization (ISO), 84 Mountaineering, 31, 257, 264
Intersite communication, 59
N
J National Fire Academy (NFA), 36-7
Jurisdiction, 3, 38 National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA), 33, 83, 84
National Guard, 182
K
National Spelelogical Society, 73
KED™, 185
NFPA 1001 (qualifications), 31
Kevlar™, 71-2
NFPA 1500 (safety and health), 36
Knot bypass, 220
NFPA 1914 (aerials), 207
Knots, 111-126
backing up, 121 NFPA 1971 (protective ensemble), 51
bowline, 112, 113-4 NFPA 1972 (helmets), 51
figure 8, 112, 115-9 NFPA 1973 (gloves), 54
hitches, 112, 120-4
NFPA 1974 (footwear), 53
NFPA 1981 (SCBA), 61
L
NFPA 1983 (rope systems), 14, 55-6,
Ladder jib, 139-40 66, 82, 83, 85, 96, 145-6, 159, 220
Laid construction, see Rope, laid No-harness rescue, 212, 213
LAST, 28-9, 42 Noise, 62
Leaning ladder, 137-9 Nylon, see Rope
Leapfrogging, 219-20
Learning process, 48-50 O
Life safety strategy survey, 11-3 Occupancy, 8-10, 14
Lighting, 54-5 Occupational Safety and Health
Load-releasing hitch, 166, 241 Administration (OSHA), 11, 12,
Logistics section, 38, 39 13, 84, 161
Long board, 185-6 Oilite™ bushing, 103-4
Lowering system, 235-40 Operations section, 17, 38, 39
Oregon Spine Splint™, 185, 187
M Organization, 17-45
defined, 17
Manila, 65-6, 67, 72 and incident command, 36-45
Mechanical advantage system, 223-32 recruiting for, 34
change-of-direction pulley, 229- and rope teams, 26-9
31, 262 training, 29-36
compound, 225-6 typical structures, 17-26
horizontal, 227
odd-even principle, 229
overstressing, 231-2 P
principles of, 224-6 Packaging, 184-90
theoretical potential, 223-4 PBI™, 71
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288 Rope Rescue for Firefighting

Perlon, 69 purchasing, 80-1

Personal escape systems, 220-1 quality control, 82-4
record keeping, 90-1
Personal protective equipment, 50-5, synthetic, 67-72
167-8 testing, 85
Petzl Mfg., 176 and traversing, 262-6
Phoenix Fire Department, 14 See also Critical angle, Dynamic
kernmantle, Hemp, Manila, Static
Pickets, 135-7
kernmantle
Picking, 75
Rope bag, 86-8, 210-2
Pick-offs, see Window rescues
Rope grabs, 240-1
Piggyback system, 229-31, 244-6
Rope team, 26-9
Plaited construction, see Rope, plaited
Running protection, 33, 168-79
Planning department, 10 climbing techniques, 173-8
Planning section, 38, 39 distance between points, 172
Plymouth, 73 horizontal, 178-9
and rock climbing, 142-3
Polyester, see Rope, polyester
Prusiks, 81, 104-5, 107, 120-1, 148-9,
173-6, 201, 240-3, 257-9 S
Pulley, 101-5, 223-6, 229-31 Safety, 47-63
and belaying, 200-1
R and communication, 87-8, 212
environmental component of, 60-2
Radio communications, 57-9
equipment, 50-9
Rappelling, 193, 201-12 equipment failure, 59-60
Recruiting, 34 human component of, 47, 48-50
Regionalized team, 6, 14, 23 and ICS, 37
responsibility for, 28
Regulation, 83 vs. risk, 27
RESCUES, 194-5, 196 and size-up, 163-5
Rescue Systems Inc., 265, 266 and transportation, 188-90
Risk analysis, 13, 27 Samson rope, 75
Rock climbing, 142-3, 172 SARA (Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act), 36
Rope, 65-92
and abrasion, 60, 91-2 SCBA, 60-1, 207
aramid, 71-2 Shock-absorbing lanyard, 177-8, 179
bending of, 101-3 Short board, 184-5
braid on braid, 75
care, 88-9 Single resource, 39
construction of, 67-8, 72-80 Single-rope technique, 73, 76, 194-6,
double braid, 75-6 200-1, 236, 257
dry-testing, 80 SKED™ stretcher, 187-8
history of, 65-6
Southern Mills, 71
inspecting, 89-90
kernmantle, 70, 74, 76-80, 85, 86, 89 Special structures, 8, 183
laid, 72-4 Spelunking, see Caving
management of, 85-8 Sport climbing, see Caving,
natural fibers, 65-6, 67, 72 Mountaineering, Rock climbing
nylon, 68, 69, 72, 74, 77
plaited, 74-5 Stabilization, 28, 29
polyester, 69-71 Staging, 39
polyolefins, 71 Standard, 82-4
Brennan v11 12/31/98 3:02 PM Page 289

Index 289

Static kernmantle, 70, 76-80, 81, 88, Tying off, 213-5

148, 162-3, 166, 172, 179, 210, Tyroleans, see Traversing
262, 264-5
Stokes basket, 186-7, 188-90
U
Strategy, 17
Union of International Alpine
Strike team, 39 Associations (UIAA), 83, 85, 159-
Swiss seat, 56 60, 161, 162
Upward-slope evacuation, 246-50
T Urban Search and Rescue Team
Tactics, 17 (FEMA), 26
Tag line, 190, 262, 265-7 U.S. Air Force, 182, 238
Task force, 39-40 U.S. Coast Guard, 53, 182
Tax assessor, 10 U.S. Navy, 182
Technical rescue, 14, 28, 33, 146, 168 Utility companies, 11
Telphers, see Traversing
Tensionless anchor, see Anchor V
systems Vectran HS ®, 70-1
Tether option, 155-6 Via ferrata, 177-8
Three-sigma process, 85 Volunteer department, 21
Tie-high arrangement, 202-4
Tie-low arrangement, 204-6 W
Topography, 3-6, 14, 57, 181-2, 237-8 Webbing, 81-2
Topside reeving, 198 and abrasion, 60
Torso protection, 51 and harnesses, 56
Tower ladder, 35-6, 207, 209-12 knots, 124-5
Training, 29-36, 48-50, 65 as running protection, 170-1
Training facility, 34-6 WETEAMS, 53
Transient populations, 11 Wilderness rescue, 6, 12, 14, 28, 31,
Transportation, 5, 27-9 51, 182, 220, 261, 262
Transportation system, 235-54 Window evolutions, 206-7, 212-8
failure of, 60
hauling system, 240-50 Z
lowering system, 235-40
and technical rescue, 28 Z system, 227-8, 242-4
See also Block system, Conversion Zyper™, 176-8, 179
Evolution, Load-releasing hitch,
Piggyback system, Rope grabs, Z system
Traversing systems, 261-9
constructing, 262-4
diagonal planes, 268-9
load table, 266
principles of, 261
safetying, 265-7
tensioning, 264-5
vertical planes, 262, 267-8
Tree brake wrap, 239, 240
Tripods, 131-2