Assignment No.
03
DAM ENGINEERING
Embankment Dam Foundations
A Brief Summary
Submitted To:
Dr. Khalid Farooq
Submitted By:
Nouman Khalid
2017(F)-MS-CEG-02
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology
Lahore
Assignment No.03: Design of Dam Foundations
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 2
2. Grouping of Embankment Dam Foundations ............................................................................ 2
2.1. Foundations of Rock ............................................................................................................. 2
2.1.1. Methods of Treating Rock Foundations ..................................................................... 2
2.1.2. General Requirements of Rock Foundations ............................................................. 3
2.2. Foundations of coarse-grained material (Sand & Gravel) ................................................ 4
2.2.1. Determination of Seepage ............................................................................................. 4
2.2.2. Piping Failure ................................................................................................................ 4
2.2.3. Methods of Treating Coarse Grained Material Foundations ................................... 5
2.3. Foundations of Fine-grained material (Silt & Clay) .......................................................... 7
2.3.1. Methods of Treating Fine Grained Material Foundations ........................................ 7
Assignment No.03: Design of Dam Foundations
Design of Embankment Dam Foundations
A Brief Summary
1. Introduction
The essential requirements of a foundation for an earthfill dam are that it provide stable
support for the embankment under all conditions of saturation and loading, and that it
provide sufficient resistance to seepage to prevent excessive loss of water. The term
“Foundation” used here includes both valley floor as well as abutment foundation.
Although the foundation is not actually designed, certain provisions for treatment are made
in designs to ensure that the essential requirements are met.
The importance of adequate foundation treatment is emphasized by the fact that
approximately 40 percent of all earthfill dam accidents and 12 percent of all failures are
attributed to foundation failures.
2. Grouping of Embankment Dam Foundations
Foundations are grouped into three (03) main classes according to their predominant
characteristics.
The character of a foundation, as revealed by exploration, can usually be safely generalized
for the design of small dams to fit into one of the classes, and once the class is determined
the nature of the problem requiring treatment will be evident.
Ordinarily, coarse-grained, pervious foundations present no difficulties in the matter of
settlement or stability for a small dam; conversely, fine grained, weak foundations subject
to settlement or displacement usually present no seepage problems.
2.1. Foundations of Rock
Rock foundations are generally considered to be the more competent type of foundation
and usually do not present any problem for small dams. Even foundations of weaker rock
are generally preferred over soil foundations.
2.1.1. Methods of Treating Rock Foundations
Rock foundations should be carefully investigated to determine their permeability. If
erosive leakage, excessive uplift pressure, or high water losses can occur through joints,
fissures, crevices, permeable strata, or along fault planes, consideration should be given
to grouting the foundation.
Assignment No.03: Design of Dam Foundations
Foundation grouting is a process of injecting under pressure a fluid sealing material into
the underlying formations through specially drilled holes to seal off or fill joints,
fractures, fissures, bedding planes, cavities, or other openings. Unless the geologic
conditions dictate otherwise, the foundation should be grouted to a depth below the
surface of the rock equal to the reservoir head above the surface of the rock.
The grouting of a dam foundation is usually performed along a single line of grout
holes spaced 10 to 20 feet on center. This creates some tightening deep in the
foundation and some reduction in permeability. However, multiple lines of grout holes
are necessary when severely fractured or highly permeable rock is encountered.
Blanket Grouting:
In cases where large zones of fractured rock lie at the foundation contact or where the
zone of broken rock within a fault has great width, it may be possible to grout the zone
by grouting to a shallow depth, usually 10 to 30 feet, by using a grid pattern. This type
of grouting is referred to as “blanket grouting.” It reduces leakage in the fractured zone
and provides a more firm foundation for the dam. In most cases, the foundation directly
beneath the impervious zone requires some blanket grouting.
Grout Mix Design:
Generally grout mixture is in proportion of 5: 1 cement & water grout. Grout mixes
usually vary between 10: l and 0.8: l. If the grout take is excessive, sand is added to
give the gout additional bulk. In some cases, bentonite is combined with the sand in
small quantities, about 2 percent by weight of the cement, to obtain a more pump able
grout mix and some expansion of the grout.
Grouting Methods:
Grouting is usually performed by one of the following methods:
(1) Staging-down, or (2) Staging up.
2.1.2. General Requirements of Rock Foundations
When grouting foundations in which the surface rock is broken or jointed, grout
often rises to the surface through these cracks and prevents complete grouting. The
cracks or seams through which grout rises to the surface should be caulked to
prevent excessive leakage.
Assignment No.03: Design of Dam Foundations
In some very pervious rock foundations or those containing soluble zones or layers,
such as limestone or gypsum, it may be appropriate to provide cutoffs through
pervious zones to control seepage.
All loose and overhanging rock must be removed from the abutments; rock slopes
should not be steeper than 0.5:1 (horizontal to vertical) and preferably flatter. Where
flattening the rock slopes or overhangs is not ‘practicable, the slopes may be shaped
by the use of dental concrete.
If the bedrock is a Shale that slakes in air, it may be necessary to excavate several
feet into bed rock to remove the surface disintegration just before placement of the
embankment; in more durable rock types, little excavation into the bedrock (other
than for a grout cap) is usually necessary.
2.2. Foundations of coarse-grained material (Sand & Gravel)
Generally, sand and gravel foundations have sufficient strength to adequately support loads
induced by the embankment and reservoir, but this must be verified by adequate
exploration, testing, and analyses.
Two (02) basic problems are found in pervious foundations; one pertains to the amount of
under seepage, and the other is concerned with the forces exerted by the seepage.
2.2.1. Determination of Seepage
To estimate the volume of under seepage that may be expected, it is necessary to
determine the coefficient of permeability of the pervious foundation. Three general field
test methods are used to determine the coefficient of permeability of foundations:
I. Pump- out tests
II. Tests conducted by observation of the velocity of flow as measured by the rate
of travel of a dye or electrolyte from the point of injection to an observation
well.
III. Pump- in tests
2.2.2. Piping Failure
The seepage force of water can cause piping underneath the dam structure which can
lead to failure of dam. The phenomenon known as “blowout” is a type of failure usually
associated with a confining layer at the downstream surface that results in uplift seepage
forces that rupture the confining layer. This initial eruption may lead to complete failure
if the resulting increase in velocity is large enough to erode the remaining foundation
by piping.
Assignment No.03: Design of Dam Foundations
2.2.3. Methods of Treating Coarse Grained Material Foundations
Various methods of seepage and percolation control can be used, depending on the
requirements for preventing uneconomical loss of water and the nature of the
foundation in regard to stability from seepage forces.
Cutoff trenches, sheet piling, mixed-in-place concrete pile curtains, slurry trenches,
grouting of alluvium, or combinations of these methods have been used to reduce the
flow and to control seepage forces. Blankets of impervious material, extending
upstream from the toe of the dam and possibly covering all or part of the abutments,
are frequently used for the same purpose.
[Link]. Cut-off Trenches
These may be classified into two general types: sloping-side cutoff trenches and
vertical-side cutoff trenches. Sloping-side cutoff trenches are excavated by shovels,
draglines, or scrapers and are backfilled with impervious materials that are
compacted in the same manner as the impervious zone of the embankment. Vertical
side cutoff trenches may be excavated in open cut by hand, by trenching machine,
or by stopping where it is necessary to remove and replace breccia or debris in fault
zones. Ordinarily, vertical-side trenches are not economical because of the cost of
the hand labor involved in placing and compacting the backfill material.
The cutoff trench should be located at or upstream from the centerline of the crest
of the dam, but not beyond a point where the cover of impervious embankment
above the trench cannot provide resistance to percolation at least equal to that
offered by the trench itself. The centerline of the cutoff trench should be parallel to
the centerline of the dam across the canyon bottom or valley floor, but it should
converge toward the centerline of the dam as it is carried up the abutments to
maintain the required embankment cover.
To provide a sufficient thickness of impermeable material and an adequate contact
with the rock or other impervious foundation stratum, the bottom width of the cutoff
trench should increase with an increase in reservoir head.
An adequatewidth for the cutoff trench of a small dam may be determined by the
formula: where:
w=h-d
w = bottom of width of cutoff trench,
h = reservoir head above ground surface, and
d = depth of cutoff trench excavation below ground surface.
Assignment No.03: Design of Dam Foundations
A minimum bottom width of 20 feet should be provided so that excavating and
compacting equipment can operate efficiently in trenches, which must be dewatered
by well points or sump pumps if they are below the water table.
[Link]. Sheet Piling Cutoffs
Steel sheet piling is relatively expensive, and experience has shown that leakage
through the interlocks between the individual sheets is considerable. Sheet piling is
still use with partial cut off trench to increase the depth of cutoff.
It can be expected that piling will be only 80 to 90 percent effective in preventing
seepage. With poor workmanship, or if the piles cannot be seated in an impervious
stratum, they will not be more than 50 percent effective and may be much less.
[Link]. Cement Bound and Jet-Grouted Curtain Cutoffs
The mixed-in place cement-bound curtain is another means of establishing a cutoff
in pervious foundations. The curtain is constructed by successively overlapping
individual piles. Each mixed-in-place pile consists of a column of soil intimately
mixed with mortar to form a pile like structure within the soil. Such a pile is
constructed by injecting mortar through a vertical rotating hollow shaft, the lower
end of which is equipped with a mixing head for combining the soil with the mortar
as the latter is injected. The mortar is introduced into soil that has been loosened by
the mixing head as the bit is simultaneously rotated and advanced into, or with
drawn from, the soil. The piles may be reinforced as required.
[Link]. Slurry Trench Cutoffs
An effective method of constructing positive cutoffs when wet conditions or deep
cutoffs in alluvial valleys make conventional construction methods uneconomical
is the slurry trench method.
Bentonite clay suspensions are used to support holes cut in soft soils. The slurry
trench method uses a water bentonite slurry to seal and support the trench wall
during the excavation process.
Upon introduction to the trench, the slurry weighs more than water. Because the
slurry tends to flow out of the trench, a relatively thin, impermeable filter cake
develops. Hydrostatic pressure on this impermeable filter cake reduces caving and
sloughing and provides overall stability.
In the case of a soil-bentonite backfilled cutoff wall, the excavated material is
stockpiled near the trench, and excess slurry is allowed to drain back into the trench.
Assignment No.03: Design of Dam Foundations
Backfill material that satisfies the gradation requirements of the design is placed
back into the trench, with the filter cake to form an essentially impermeable barrier.
Bentonite-water slurries for trench excavations are designed to perform several
functions: (1) prevent seepage into the foundation by the formation of a filter cake,
(2) suspend clay, silt, and fine-to medium-sized sand particles during excavation,
and(3) provide hydrostatic pressure to the face of the excavation.
2.3. Foundations of Fine-grained material (Silt & Clay)
Foundations of fine grained soils are usually impermeable enough to preclude the necessity
of providing design features for under seepage and piping. However, as discussed
previously, inclined and horizontal filter-drainage blankets provide good protection against
unknown geologic conditions, cracking, dispersive soils, and design and construction
defects.
The main problem with these foundations is stability. In addition to the obvious danger of
bearing failure of foundations of saturated silts and clays, the designs must take into account
the effect of foundation saturation of the dam and of appurtenant works by the reservoir.
2.3.1. Methods of Treating Fine Grained Material Foundations
Methods of foundation treatment are based on the soil type, the location of the water
table, and the density of the soil.
[Link]. Saturated Foundations
When the foundation of an earthfill dam consists of saturated fine grained soils or
saturated impervious sands, their ability to resist the shear stresses imposed by the
weight of the embankment may be determined by their soil group classification and
their relative consistency. Soils that have never been subjected to geologic loads
greater than the existing overburden are “normally” consolidated. These soils are
much weaker than strata that have been consolidated by hundreds or thousands of
feet of ice or soil, which have since been removed.
The methods of treatment applicable to these conditions are (1) to remove the soils
with low shear strength, (2) to provide drainage of the foundation to permit the
increase of strength during construction, and (3) to reduce the magnitude of the
average shear stress along the potential sliding surface by flattening the slopes of
the embankment.
The most practicable solution for foundations of saturated fine-grained soils is
flattening the embankment slopes. This requires the critical sliding surface to
Assignment No.03: Design of Dam Foundations
lengthen, thereby decreasing the average shear stress along its path and increasing
the factor of safety against sliding.
[Link]. Relatively Dry Foundations
Unsaturated impermeable soils are generally satisfactory for foundations of small
dams because the presence of air in the soil voids permits appreciable volume
change, increase of normal effective stress, and mobilization of frictional shear
resistance without drainage of the pore fluid. That is, for a given void ratio, an
impervious soil has greater bearing capacity in the unsaturated condition than in
the saturated condition.
The required treatment of dry, low-unit weight foundations is dictated by the
compression characteristics of the soil. These characteristics are best determined
by laboratory tests on undisturbed samples at their natural water content to
determine whether the post construction settlement caused by saturation will be
significant or minor.
If the low-unit weight soil exists in a top stratum, it may be economical to excavate
this material and replace it with compacted embankment. If the layer is too thick
for economical replacement or if its removal would destroy a natural blanket over
a pervious foundation, measures should be taken to ensure that foundation
consolidation is achieved during construction.