MEDIA

mathematics
HEALTH ENGINEERING
DESIGN

management
EDUCATION

MUSIC
GEOGRAPHY E

ART
C PHYSICS
O
law

L
O
agriculture

BIOTECHNOLOGY G
Y

LANGUAGE
CHEMISTRY history
MECHANICS

psychology

Development Communication
Subject: DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION Credits: 4

SYLLABUS
Paradigms of Development
Introduction to Development; India’s Approach to Development; Need for Planning in
Development; Underdevelopment Revisited; Political & Economical Systems and Development.

Development Communication
Philosophical Basis of Development Communication; History of Development Communication;
Communication and Development; Information and Rural Development; Gender Dimension in
Development and Communication; International Agencies: UNDP; UNESCO and NWICO;
Agriculture Communication in India; National Agencies: Extension System.

Media and Social Development

Panchayati Raj System; Role of NGOs in Development; Financial Institutions and Development;
Role of Women in Development; Role of Media in Development Communication; Factors of
Media Effecting Social Development; the Power of Communication and Information to Social
Change; Using Folk Media in Development Programmes; Role of the Press in Development;
Power of Radio in Development; Power of Television in Development; Information
Communication Technology for Development.

Critical Concerns and Social Marketing in Development

Communication
Understanding Globalization; General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); Global Debt
and Third World Development; Communication and Social Revolution; Need for an Information
and Communication Policy; Introduction to Development Support Communication; Participatory
Project Management; Introduction to Social Marketing; the Seven Step Social Marketing Model;
Social Marketing & Health Practices.

Suggested Readings:

1. Involving the Community: a Guide to Participatory Development Communication, Guy

Bessett, IDRC.

2. International and Development Communication: A 21st Century Perspective; Bella Mody,

Sage Publications.
 DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

DEVELOPMENT
COURSE OVERVIEW

The social development perspective of communication gave rise

COMMUNICATION
to a new field of communication studies-Development
Communication. The Development of the individual, group,
society, and the nation thus began to receive worldwide
attention.

Under the new paradigm, communication was no more top-

down, dictated or manipulated. The poor received their voice
back, those who were in darkness were lit by the light that
information brought with it. The lamps that were hitherto
forgotten began to be lit. It was voice of the voiceless, power of
the powerless, and philosophy of the oppressed.
This course enables the students to understand development
and underdevelopment in a new perspective from the commu-
nication dimension. The power of communication and
information to develop people is the key.

ii
 DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

CONTENT

COMMUNICATION
Lesson No. Topic Page No.

Lesson Plan v

Course Requirement viii

Lesson 1 Introduction to Development 1

Lesson 2 Understanding Underdevelopment 8

Lesson 3 India’s Approach to Development 10

Lesson 4 Need to Plan for Development 16

Lesson 5 Underdevelopment Revisited 23

Lesson 6 Political and Economical Systems for Development 27

Lesson 7 Philosophical Basis of Development Communication 45

Lesson 8 History of Development Communication 57

Lesson 9 Information and Rural Development 66

Lesson 10 Gender Dimension of Development 73

Lesson 11 UNDP: United Nation’s Global Development Network 85

Lesson 12 Agricultural Communication in India 98

Lesson 13 Panchayati Raj: Instrument of Political Empowerment of People 107

Lesson 14 Role of NGOs in Development 112

Lesson 15 Role of Media in Development Communication 120

Lesson 16 Factors of Media Effecting Social Development 127

Lesson 17 The Power of Communication and information to Social Change 133

Lesson 18 Role of the Press & Radio in Development 143

Lesson 19 Power of Television in Development 149

Lesson 20 Information & Communication Technology for Development 158

v
DEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

Lesson No. Topic Page No.

COMMUNICATION

Lesson 21 Understanding Globalization 165

Lesson 22 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 170

Lesson 23 Global Debt and Third World Development 179

Lesson 24 Need for Information and Communication Policy 193

Lesson 25 Development Support Communication (DSC) 197

Lesson 26 Participatory Project Management 204

Lesson 27 Introduction to Social marketing 213

Lesson 28 The Seven Step Social Marketing Model 222

Lesson 29 Social Marketing for Family Planning 234

Bibliography 243

vi
 UNIT I
LESSON 1: PARADIGMS OF DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected Development Defined

DEVELOPMENT
Thinkers based on the paradigms with which they approach this
To define development
concept have understood the term ‘development’ differently.
To differentiate development and growth Some define it as growth, progress, modernization etc. But,
To understand the dimensions of development Development is a multifaceted phenomenon and may be
understood as political, social, economic, spiritual, emotional,
‘Development’ is perhaps one of the most fiercely debated
physical and intellectual.
concepts in the contemporary social sciences. The concept is

COMMUNICATION
often equated with ‘modernization’, ‘industrialization’, ‘social Generally development is defined as a passage from a lower to a
change’, ‘progress’ and ‘growth’, and like these other terms is higher state. Development is essentially maximizing the goods
invariably seen as something desirable and positive for society in and services available in a country. Its paucity denotes underde-
general, and for the community in particular. Development is velopment. The international encyclopedia (1988) defines
seen as absolute, inevitable, and universal; it is promoted as a development as “purposive changes undertaken in a society to
laudable goal no matter what the society, the culture, the people achieve what may be regarded generally as a different (improved)
and their resources and traditions. state of social and economic affairs.”
Development has been one of the ideals and aspirations of all Communication plays a central role in development. The
human societies. It has an inherent functional value in raising notion of development is basic to development communica-
the socio-economic standard and the life style of the citizens as tion. Therefore, let us begin by examining the term
it aims to provide basic needs to all, particularly the deprived ‘development’. It is indeed a multi-faceted and value-laden
sections of society. The supreme aim of development should concept, which seems to resist precise formulation.
be to improve the quality of life for its citizens and to guarantee Dissanayake (1981) defines development as the process of social
social justice. change which has as its goal the improvement in the quality of
What is national development? Does it mean the presence of life of all or the majority of the people without doing violence
high-rising buildings in some of the cities? Or does develop- to the natural and cultural environment in which they exist and
ment mean the scores of Mercedes-Benz cars on the roads? which seeks to involve the generality of the people as closely as
Does the mere existence of Western infrastructure constitute possible in this enterprise, making them the masters of their
development? own destiny.
According to Dr. Adebayo Oyebade, (2001), development Development communication scholars of the 60s, like Rogers
means simply the ability of a nation to create a viable political and Shoemaker defined development as: “… a type of social
and economic system capable of bringing growth and advance- change in which new ideas are introduced into a social system in
ment to a nation. This means sustainable democracy, effective order to produce higher per capita income and levels of living
bureaucracy, accountability in public service, social justice and through more modern production methods and improved
human rights, and a sound economy capable of providing social organization. Development is modernization at the social
better life for the great majority of the masses. In short, systems level (1971).
national development means the ability of a state to provide for Deborah Eade defines it as “Development is about women and
its people the basic necessities of good living like good health men becoming empowered to bring about positive changes in
care, good roads, good education, and so on. their lives; about personal growth together with public action;
For the people, the poor economy is manifested in widespread about both the process and the outcome of challenging
poverty, deteriorating living standard, poor health condition poverty, oppression, and discrimination; and about the
leading to high mortality rate and rapidly declining life expect- realization of human potential through social and economic
ancy. justice. Above all, it is about the process of transforming lives,
and transforming societies.”
The poor economy has also translated into crumbled infrastruc-
ture. Power supplies by the epileptic National Electric Power The characteristics of an underdeveloped country are massive
Authority continue to be erratic. The same is true of water poverty, social inequality, unemployment, low productivity and
supply. Fuel shortage is a never-ending thing in Nigeria, a major increasing foreign debt. All development strategies must aim at
oil-producing nation. Many roads are bad causing ghastly auto reducing these impediments to development.
accidents. The list of crumbling infrastructure is long. Lambert Okrah, the founder of the Ghanaian Institute for
Corruption, leadership failure, military rule, ethnic and religious Cultural Affairs (ICA), challenges the view that development is
politics, are all symptoms of a fundamental problem—a lack of something that can be exported from developed to developing
a sense of belonging to a nation among the various ethnic countries. According to him, there is no such thing as a
groups all these underdevelopment.

1
 developed country development is a continual process of
DEVELOPMENT
Social Development
reacting to the challenges one faces in life. Social development may be conceived in terms of progressive
social integration. Where society is fragmented into different
Development and Modernization
warring groups where there is social discrimination against
Development is not just modernization as each one can lead to
minority groups, where one section of society dominates
the other. A well developed country need not be modern.
another, or where one social group has privileges while another
Because, equality of living standards might not be a sign of a
has social disabilities, development cannot take place in a
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developed country. In America there exists vast unemployment

smooth and harmonious manner. Social homogenization is
and underemployment.
integral to development. Without it there cannot be unity and
Development and Growth social solidarity and without them no society can develop. That
is why it has to be affirmed that development is not only
economic but also social and political development. Without
one of the three, the other two cannot survive. It is an illusion
that an authoritarian political or social system can accelerate
economic development. Indeed, it is a contradiction in terms to
talk of economic development through authoritarian political
and social systems.
It is this realization, which has also altered the concept of
economic development itself. Even economists have increas-
The concept of development is rightly distinguished from that ingly realized that economic development is not purely an
of mere growth. The term ‘growth’ connotes only an increment economic phenomenon. There are non-economic factors as well
to the gross national product. On the other hand, development which need to be taken note of in understanding the process of
connotes a qualitative and structural change. The structure of an economic development.
underdeveloped country is characterised by a ‘dual economy’ Structural Development
and a ‘dual society’. While there are manifestations of develop-
ment in a few metropolitan centres in the shape of modem
industrial and commercial establishments, the bulk of the
country. the vast hinterland of rural areas, is underdeveloped in
every sense of the term. Life there could he described, if not as
nasty, brutish and short-certainly as short, poor and isolated.
Thus metropolitan centres are only enclaves in vast areas of
darkness and backwardness- As against this a developed country
is characterized by the homogeneous development of social and
economic life in all parts of the country. The standard of living
and social amenities in the developed countries are the same in
the urban areas as in the countryside. In the underdeveloped
countries economic and social dualism is also accompanied by
institutional dualism. Institutions like banks, technological and
training institutions necessary for development and modernity,
Development brings about structural transformation. Colin
are confined only to metropolitan centres and do not exist in
Clark has divided the structure of the economy into primary,
rural areas.
secondary and tertiary sectors. The primary sector is concerned
Dimensions of Development with economic activities directly connected with natural resources
Development cannot be considered synonymous with eco- such as agriculture, animal husbandry and mining. The second-
nomic development as it has other dimensions as well. ary sector is concerned with the transformation of the products
Political development of the primary sector into manufactured commodities. The
Political development could be assessed in terms of the tertiary sector is concerned with all those activities which are
stabilization and consolidation of participatory political required to make the products of the primary and secondary
institutions. Where such development takes place, the political sectors available to the final consumer. It is connected with the
authority is responsive to the people; and conversely people activities of trade, transport marketing and distribution.
have faith in the political authority and indeed have opportuni- In a typical underdeveloped country 90 percent of the popula-
ties to participate in the political process. The example of Iran tion is engaged in the primary sector, especially in agriculture
has shown that spectacular economic progress can come to an carried on a low level of technology and productivity. On the
abrupt halt due to political explosions thus reducing the other hand, a developed country has a large secondary and
glittering trappings of apparent success. tertiary sector. The economy benefits a great deal from value
added to the produce of the primary sector. In a developed
country like the United States of America, only 3 to 4 percent of
the population is engaged in agriculture. Yet, due to the

2
improvement in technology and productivity, American become the ‘workshop of the world’ as Knowles termed it in

DEVELOPMENT
agriculture is able to provide food grains in large quantities to 1953.
other countries of the world. Similarly, in Sweden, barely 5 per The industrial revolution came to Britain between 1760 and
cent of the population is engaged in the primary sector. On the 1820 and transformed it from a feudal agricultural economy
other hand nearly 75 per cent of the Indian population is still into a capitalistic industrial economy. Historians have ascribed
engaged in agriculture despite more than 35 years of planning. many causes to the revolution. They included agricultural-
Development, therefore, requires diversification of the economy commercial and transport revolutions, which preceded and

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in the shape of larger secondary and tertiary sectors. accompanied the industrial revolution. Also a series of new
However a reduction in the proportion of people engaged in technological inventions like printing press and steam engine
the primary sector does not by itself bring about development. replaced human skill with mechanical skill. The establishment
Nor can this he brought about in an artificial manner. What of the factory system was an innovation in economic organiza-
structural transformation does imply is that an agricultural tion, which was part of the industrial revolution.
revolution must be followed by the industrial revolution. These events in Britain were soon followed by a similar
However, there could he no industrial revolution without the industrial revolution in other European countries like France,
agricultural revolution, which is its conditional precedent. An Germany and the new world of the United States of America.
increase in the productivity of agriculture provides raw material By the turn of the century, it took place in the remaining
as well as surplus manpower for economic activity m the European countries. Japan, after the Meji restoration in 1868,
secondary and tertiary sectors. Thus the path of development is also embarked upon the path of modern industrial develop-
an agricultural revolution followed by an industrial revolution, ment. Soon countries like Sweden, Germany, the United States
and the expanding production and productivity of the indus- of America, and Japan overtook Britain.
trial and agricultural sectors may then require a large tertiary
The early years of industrial capitalism in most of these
sector.
countries were characterized by a laissez faire economy. Develop-
Human Development ment was not the conscious goal and objective of the state but
The nation alone shouldn’t develop. The people should the result of the efforts of private entrepreneurs in pursuit of
develop. This human factor in development is very important. self-interest The laissez faire philosophy was embodied in the
maxim that ‘that government is the best which governs the
least,’ where the slate should confine itself to the sovereign
functions of law and order, currency and coinage and national
defence. The theoretical inspiration for the philosophy of
laissez faire was provided by Adam Smith (1937) who wrote the
first scientific treatise on economic science, namely, Inquiry into
the Wealth of Nations. He spoke of the ‘invisible hand of
Providence’ in the market which transformed the fruits of
private entrepreneurs in pursuit of self-interest into the
production and supply of goods and services needed by the
society. He pointed out that the butcher, the brewer and the
baker produced and supplied meat, wine and bread, not to
serve society but were in fact seeking a means of livelihood for
themselves’.
Economical Development However, as industrial capitalism gave rise to a number of
The living quality or standard of life of the people have to problems, the laissez faire philosophy was modified in favour
increase. Having a high per capita income or a growth in the of a series of justifiable cases of state intervention. The
Gross Domestic Product need not mean necessarily a growth in inequalities made a case for progressive taxation and other
the living standard of people. measures for the redistribution of income and wealth and
Spiritual Development eventually for ushering in the Welfare State or the Social Service
The growth and development should be integral. Spiritual State.
development among people is a must for a peaceful nation. If Malthus drew attention to the basic problem of development,
peace does not prevail in a country, however wealth that nation namely, the balance between the growth of population and the
has no value. growth of production. He pointed out that while production
grew in arithmetic proportions, the population grew in
Western Approach to (Economic)
geometric proportions, thus creating an increasing imbalance
Development
between population and production. Schumpeter (1955)
The process of development in the countries under colonial
suggested innovation in production in large scale to cope up
rule started in the second half of the twentieth century. In the
with the growing population.
Western countries however, it started with the advent of the
industrial revolution and Britain was the first country to Karl Marx, starting from the basic concept of Ricardian
economics, provided a theory of the historical evolution of the
process of development, explained through the logic of

3
 dialectical materialism of thesis, antithesis and synthesis. He America and Germany where they visited enterprises and
DEVELOPMENT

pointed out that beginning with primitive communism, the industrial establishments, took photographs and notes and
economy passed through the stages of feudalism, capitalism reproduced the plants and machines in their own country, in the
and socialism. Though he predicted the decline of the capitalis- beginning, the products of Japanese industry were looked
tic system, he appreciated the achievements of capitalism. upon as of low quality. However, the Japanese proved to be
However, capitalism based on the exploitation of the working outstanding not only in absorbing Western technology but
classes was bound to collapse and give rise to socialism which improving upon it and adapting it to their own conditions. The
COMMUNICATION

would provide a just economic system based on the principles results have been spectacular. The Japanese have been able to
of “from each according to his means and to each according to beat the Western countries at their own game and excel in them
his needs.” with respect to technology and industry by developing a
Rostow, in 1960 published in London Economist his ‘New Non- productive system which can produce superior goods at a lower
Communist Manifesto.’ He provided a theory of historical cost. Cars and electronic goods made in Japan have been able to
development in terms of five stages — traditional economy, the capture markets in America and Europe.
transition, the take off, the self-sustained growth, culminating Measuring Yards of Development
in high mass consumption economy. Up to the 70’s the determiner of a countrie’s development was
Harrod-Domar (1960) came out with a simple formulae to Gross National Product (GNP). GNP is the value of all goods
measure the development. Harrod-Domar equation states that and services produced in a country in a given period of time.
G = I/C where G is the rate of growth, I is the amount of The problem with this was, a growth in GNP does not mean a
investment and C is the capital-output ratio. He stipulated that growth in the standard of living. Another determiner was the
c being stable at any point of time for an economy, growth per capita income. Percapita income is the amount obtainable by
depended upon investment and investment depended upon dividing the national income by the number of population. Per
savings (Domar 1960). Following this analysis, W. Arthur Lewis capita Income also did not assure a rise in the living standards
(1955) in his book Theory of Economic Growth pointed out of the poor.
that the rate of savings in underdeveloped countries was as low In these economic strategies, capital, technology, manpower
as 5 per cent and it has to be raised at least to the level of 12 to were considered as the input and the output determined the
15 per cent. This alone would ensure a growth rate of about 4 development. Economic growth was calculated the correspond-
to 5 per cent on the assumption of the capital-output ratio ing increase in the output to a increase in the input
being three. Thus in this analysis capital formation provided the
But, all these were proved false. Years after implementing all
keynote of economic development.
these the economists saw that the rich became more richer and
However, the power of investment to trigger off development fewer and the poor became poorer and numerous than ever.
depends on productivity, effective use of capital, and human They understood that GNP and per capita income were to be
resources, and appropriateness of technology. seen and be used only as tools to measure development and
Role of Technology in Development not as the goal of development.
GDP and Per Capita Income
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the market value of goods
and services produced by labor and property in a country.
GDP is the primary indicator used to gauge the health of a
country’s economy. It represents to total value of all goods and
services produced over a specific time period—you can think of
it as the size of the economy. Usually GDP is compared to that
of the previous year. For example, if the year-to-year GDP was
up 3%, it means that the economy has grown by 3% over the
last year.
Measuring GDP is complicated (which is why we leave it to the
economists), but, at its most basic, the calculation can be done
in one of two ways: either you add up what everybody earned
in a year, or you add up what everybody spent. Logically, both
measures should arrive roughly at the same total.
Technology makes capital productive. The developing countries A significant change in GDP, whether up or down, usually has a
had at their disposal a considerable amount of accumulated significant effect on the stock market. It’s not hard to under-
technology of the industrial age of the already developed stand why: a bad economy usually means lower profits for
countries. All that they have to do is to absorb that technology companies, which in turn means lower stock prices. Investors
into their productive system. Japan, for example, developed really worry about negative GDP growth, which is one of the
through the quick acquisition of Western technology. In the factors economists use to determine if an economy is in a
early years of development in Japan, their technicians and recession.
managers were sent in large numbers to the United Stales of

4
Per capita income is the total national income divided by the stock of machines, tools and equipment which can be geared

DEVELOPMENT
number of people in the nation. into production. Not only that, capital formation requires the
Traditionally development was measured by such early quantifi- creation of skill formation so that the physical apparatus or
able indices as the area and per capita income. It was found that equipment created can be utilised to raise the level of productiv-
a large number of countries that could lay claim to a rapid rate ity. The Indian Planning Commission puts this idea correctly
of GNP growth had also at the same time created very high when it states: “The level of production and the material well-
rates of unemployment and underemployment, Moreover, in being a community can attain depends, in the main, on the

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many instances, the rapid growth in GNP had gone hand in stock of capital at its disposal, i.e., on the amount of land per
hand with the widening of the gap between the rich and the capita and of productive equipment in the shape of machinery,
poor in society. In other words, paying attention to the GNP buildings, tools and implements, factories, locomotives,
and per capita income, without adequately taking into consider- engines, irrigation facilities, power installations and communica-
ation the income distribution and other forms of social justice, tions. The larger the stock of capital, the greater tends to be the
will only serve to create a totally distorted picture. For this productivity of labour and therefore, the volume of commodi-
reason, the traditional criteria of economic growth are being ties and services that can be turned out with same effort.”
supplanted by the newer criteria of social growth. Again, “while other factors are important and essential a rapid
increase in productivity is conditional upon additions to and
The Determinants of Economic improvements in- the technological framework implicit in a
Development high rate of capital formation.”
Basically, economic development implies the process of securing
Experience of development in other countries suggests that a
levels of productivity in all sectors of economy and this in turn,
high rate of capital formation was achieved to trigger rapid
is a function of the level of technology. For obtaining a higher
economic growth. It is quite reasonable to suppose that in the
level of technology, the economy is required to forge the
initial years it was not possible to step up the rate of capital
physical apparatus in the form of machines, equipments, tools
formation to the full extent by domestic savings. Consequently,
and instruments of production on the one hand and on the
some inflow of foreign capital became necessary for achieving
other, to train the labour force of the country to make use of
about 6 to 7 per cent rise of national income, It is heartening to
the physical apparatus thus created. In a nutshell, economic
note that India has achieved a gross saving rate of 24.5 per cent
development is a process of stepping up the rate of capital
during 1993-94 to 1995-96 and the growth rate achieved was 6.5
formation. But it must be emphasized that capital, though
per cent during the Eighth Plan period. But during the Ninth
necessary, is not a sufficient condition of economic develop-
Plan (1997-2000) growth rate has come down to 5.35 per cent.
ment which depends on such non-economic factors as social
attitudes, political conditions, human endowments and efficient
governance. Economic development thus depends upon two
sets of factors — economic and non-economic.
Non-economic Factors
The non-economic factors provide the requisite social climate in
which the seed of economic development can germinate to full
bloom. Therefore, it would be unwise to underrate the
importance of the sociological and psychological factors.
Professor Cairncross emphasizing the non-economic factors,
writes; “Development is not governed in any country by
economic forces alone and the more backward the country, the
more this is true. The key to development lies in men’s minds,
in the institutions in which their thinking finds expression and
in the play of opportunity on ideas and institutions.” An
As a consequence of second industrial revolution sweeping the
underdeveloped economy is not only required to raise the level
world on account of computerization and revolution in
of investment in order to initiate growth, but is also required to
electronics, India finds itself technologically very backward.
gradually transform the social, religious and political institutions
Consequently, it has decided to permit direct foreign investment
which act as obstacles to economic progress. Consequently,
with a view to imbibing advanced technology so that ultimately
economic development cannot take place unless men are
India can compete in the international market on its own. A
educated. Sociological and psychological factors being given, the
higher dose of foreign capital has become necessary in the
rate of economic development would depend upon (a) the
changed world scenario.
proportion of the current income of the community devoted
to capital formation; (b) the capital-output ratio; and (c) the rate Capital-Output Ratio
of growth of population. Another determinant of economic development is the capital-
output ratio. The term ‘capital-output ratio’ refers to the
Capital Formation
number of units of capital that are required in order to produce
Capital formation is of crucial importance in the process of
one unit of output. In other words, capital-output ratio reflects
economic development. It is quite necessary to step up the rate
the productivity of capital in the various sectors of the economy
of capital formation so that the community accumulates a large

5
 at a point of time. The capital-output ratio for the economy as a in national income is utilized to maintain the additional
DEVELOPMENT

whole is only a shorthand description of the productivity of population. In other words, in terms of per capita income, on
capital. account of a rise in population, the country experiences a very
The capital-output ratio is different for different industries and thin spread of the benefits of growth. This highlights the peed
different economies and it varies over a period of time. “There for a large and active programme of family limitation so that
is no unique capital-output ratio applicable to all countries at all the benefits of the massive developmental effort are not
times. Much depends not only on the stage of economic dissipated.
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development reached but also on the precise forms of further But it may be emphasized that it would not be proper to isolate
expansion.”9 For instance, in the early phase of economic the population factor because history has shown that birth rate
development, when a country is making heavy investment on falls significantly when the standard of living rises significantly
economic infrastructures, i.e., on building irrigation works, for the majority of the people. In plain language the neo-
hydro-electric projects, roads, railways, etc., the corresponding Malthusian approach underplays the role of development in
additions to output will be small. But with the passage of time controlling population. Economic development and popula-
as the power potential and transport equipment are utilized to tion growth are inter-connected. Whereas population hinders
the full, there shall be a favourable shift in the capital-output economic development, the latter, as it gathers momentum,
ratio. Similarly, basic industries like iron and steel, machine leads to the creation of more appropriate conditions to control
tools, engineering and metallurgy are more capital-intensive population.
than consumer goods industries. Consequently in the initial
Building Human Capital
years of development when the economic foundations are
An important determinant of economic growth is the building
being laid, capital-output ratio tends to be unfavourable. But as
up of human capital by focusing on education and health and
development gathers momentum, and the emphasis is shifted
thereby increasing the productivity of the economy. The
to the production of consumer goods, relatively smaller
experience of highly performing East Asian economies shows
increases in investment bring about large increments of output.
that they could force a lead over other developing economies by
In other words, the stage of economic development and the
making investment in human capital formation. In the sixties,
mix of various types of investment determine the capital-
these economies spent large sums on education on the lower
output ratio.
grades; first by providing universal primary education, later by
Besides, in certain sectors of the economy output can be increasing the availability of secondary education. Experience of
increased with comparatively small additions to capital, while in East Asian countries also reveals that they were successful in
other sectors, comparatively large additions to capital are called reducing birth rate and thus brought about a sharp decline in
for. For instance, in Japan (between 1885 and 1915) labour the population growth rate. Consequently, declining fertility
productivity in agriculture was doubled by a comparatively small combined with rapid growth rate resulted in more resources
quantum of investment in the form of better seeds, improve- becoming available per child for education. Coupled with this,
ment in water supply, control of crop diseases and the use of these countries spent more resources on generating technical
fertilizers. In addition to this, capital-output ratio depends skills at the post-secondary stage. The result of these policies
upon the efficiency with which the new types of capital equip- has been a broad, technically trained human capital base well
ment are handled and the quality of managerial and suited for improving productivity and thus sustaining rapid
organizational skill available at a particular stage of economic economic development. Whereas the state Spending was
development. Co-ordination of the programmes of invest- devoted to provide primary and secondary education which
ment so as to develop complementary economic activities benefited large segments of the population, higher education
simultaneously has a favourable effect on capital-output ratio for the select few was largely self-financed: This strategy
while the appearance of lags in development of interdependent increased the base of human capital which fostered economic
sectors only produces an adverse effect on the capital-output development.
ratio. In other words, the capacity of the economy to more
The Research Study of the World Bank about eight high
effectively use the investment at a particular time also affects the
performing Asian Economies (HPAEs): Japan, the “Four
capital-output ratio.
Tigers” - Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Singapore and
The rate of growth of national income in an economy depends Taiwan (China) and the three newly industrializing economies
upon the rate of investment and the capital-output ratio. (NIEs) of South-east Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand
Investment-income Ratio has recorded that these economies grew faster than all other
Rate of growth of National Income =
Capital-Output Ratio regions of the world. “In large measure the HPAEs achieved
In other words, to achieve high rates of growth of national high growth by getting the basics right. Private domestic
output, economy has to operate on two variables, viz. (a) to investment and rapidly growing human capital were the
step up the rate of investment, and (b) to generate forces which principal engines of growth. And some of these economies
reduce the capital-output ratio. also got a head start because they had a better-educated labour
force and a more effective system of public administration. In
Growth of Population this sense, there is little that is “miraculous” about the HPAEs’
Rapid growth of population is considered to be an important superior record of growth; it is largely due to superior accumu-
determinant of growth. Since economic growth is measured in lation of physical and human capital.”
terms of an increase in per capita income, a part of the increase

6
“But these fundamentals do not tell the entire story. In most

DEVELOPMENT
of these economies; in one form 01 another, the government
intervened — systematically and through multiple channels —
to foster development and in some cases the development of
specific industries.”
To sum up, it is quite possible that mere emphasis on G.N.P.
approach to development may result in increases of national

COMMUNICATION
income by the manipulation of capital-output ratios but in the
process, the economy may be faced with the problem of
massive unemployment. It is, therefore, of vital importance
that the pattern of investment should be so designed that
certain areas such as defence equipment, engineering and
metallurgical industries, heavy industries, shipping, etc., may be
permitted to use sophisticated capital-intensive technology but
bulk of the consumer goods industries and various
programmes of agricultural development should emphasize
labour-absorbing technologies with low doses of capital. Such a
course is vitally necessary in the early phase of development in
which population pressures are heavy on account of a fast
decline in death rate. The harmonization of the objective of
expanding production with that of securing full employment is
a logical necessity in India.

Note

7
DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 2:
UNDERSTANDING UNDERDEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected Developing countries are divided into: (a) Low income coun-
tries with 2000 GNP per capita of $755 and below; and Middle
To understand underdevelopment
income countries with GNP per capita ranging between $ 755
To know the characteristics of underdevelopment and $ 9,265. As against them, the High-income Countries
An underdeveloped economy is characterized, by the existence, which are mostly members of the Organization for Economic
in greater or less degree, of unutilized or underutilized man- Cooperation and Development (OECD) and some others have
power on the one hand and of unexploited natural resources GNP per capita of $ 9,265 or more.
on the other. This state of affairs may be due to stagnancy of From the data given in the above table, it may be noted that in
techniques or TO certain inhibiting socioeconomic factors, 2000 low income countries comprise nearly 40.6 per cent of the
which prevent the more dynamic forces in economy from world population (2,459 million), but account for only 3.3
asserting themselves. -The First Five-Year Plan percent of total world GNP. The middle income countries,
which are less developed than the highly developed countries,
U.N. Classification
but comparatively speaking, more developed than the low
The term ‘underdeveloped countries’ is relative. In general,
income countries comprise 44.5 per cent of world population
those countries which have real per capita incomes less than a
but account for 17.0 per cent of world GNP. Taking these two
quarter of the per capita income of the United States, are
groups, which are popularly described as developing economies
underdeveloped countries. More recently, instead of referring to
or underdeveloped economies’, it may be stated that they
these economies as underdeveloped, the UN publications prefer
comprise about 85 per cent of the world population but
to describe them as ‘developing economies’. The term ‘develop-
account for about 20 per cent of the world GNP. Most coun-
ing economies’ signifies that though still underdeveloped, the
tries of Asia, Africa, Latin America and some countries of
process of development has been initiated in these countries.
Europe are included in them.
Thus, we have ‘developing economies’ and ‘developed econo-
mies’. (UN, 1951) The World Bank in its World Development India with its population of 1,016 million in 2000 and with its
Report (2002) classified the various countries on the basis of percapita income of $460 is among the poorest of the econo-
Gross National Product (GNP) per capita. mies of the world. It had a share of 16.8 per cent in world
population, but accounts for only 1.5 per cent of world GNP.
Distribution of World Population and World GNP among
various groups of Countries in 2000 (Exchange Rate Basis) Three observations may be made here regarding the U.N.
classification of developed and developing countries on the
basis of per capita income. First, there is gross inequality of
incomes between the rich and the poor countries. Second, the
gap in per capita income (and naturally in the level of living)
between the rich and poor countries is even widening over the
years — the annual rate of growth of per capita income of the
rich countries was higher during 1985-95 as compared with the
poor countries. More recently, the growth rate among low-
income countries has also shown an increase and if this is
sustained, the gap may show a decline over a period. Third, all
the high income countries are not necessarily developed
countries. For instance, the oil-exporting countries have high
per capita income but this is mainly due to their exports of oil;
really speaking, they are not developed economies. Recently,
with a decline in world oil prices, the GNP per capita has started
showing a decline in this group.
M. Eugene Staley offers the following definition of an underde-
veloped country; “A country characterized (1) by mass poverty
which is chronic and not the result of some temporary misfor-
tune, and (2) obsolete methods of production and social
organization, which means that the poverty is not entirely due
to poor natural resources and hence could presumably be
SOURCE: Compiled from World Bank, World Development Report,
lessened by methods already proved in other countries.” The
(2002).
above definitions about underdeveloped economies bring out
the following points:

8
a. Underdeveloped economies are distinguished from the

DEVELOPMENT
developed economies on the basis of their low per capita
income. Though per capita income is not the only indicator,
it is the most significant single measure of comparison for
different economies.
b. The central problem of underdeveloped economies is the
prevalence of ‘mass poverty” which is the cause as well as

COMMUNICATION
consequence of their low level-of development.
c. ‘Mass poverty’ is the result of low resource base of the poor
who own a very small portion of the total assets in the form
of land, capital, house property, etc. The low resource base
of the poor also inhibits them from giving education and
training to their children. As a result, the children of the
poor are, by and large, either engaged in unskilled
occupations or some semi-skilled occupations. This enables
them to earn very low and meager wages and 1-hys
perpetuate poverty. In other words, inequality in the
distribution of assets is the principal cause of unequal
distribution of income on the one hand and unequal
distribution of opportunities on the other.
d. Mass poverty in underdeveloped countries is not due to
poor natural resources, but is the consequence of obsolete
methods of production and exploitative social structure.

Note

9
DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 3:
INDIA’S APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected was opposed by his Finance Minister, John Mathai who raised
many objections. As a result of this difference of opinion, John
To assess the development in India
Mathai resigned. It was not that Nehru alone was amongst the
To know where India stands now public men who accepted the idea of a planned approach to
India is the seventh largest and second most populous country economic development. As far back as 1934, Sir M.
in the world. A new spirit of economic freedom is now stirring Viswesurariah, the engineer statesman advocated planning for
in the country, bringing sweeping changes in its wake. A series India’s economic development. Even private businessmen had
of ambitious economic reforms aimed at deregulating the produced a Bombay plan before Independence. The adoption
country and stimulating foreign investment has moved India of planning as the instrument of development was thus a
firmly into the front ranks of the rapidly growing Asia Pacific logical culmination of ideas that had gathered momentum in
region and unleashed the latent strengths of a complex and the years before Independence.
rapidly changing nation. India has now completed more than three decades of planning.
India’s process of economic reform is firmly rooted in a political Except for the three annual plans during the years 1966 to 1969,
consensus that spans her diverse political parties. India’s which came to be described as plan holiday, India-has been
democracy is a known and stable factor, which has taken deep preparing five-year plans with a long term perspective. Within
roots over nearly half a century. Importantly, India has no the framework of the five-year plans, annual plans are also
fundamental conflict between its political and economic prepared and are integrated with the budgetary process. Every
systems. Its political institutions have fostered an open society five-year plan has a mid-term appraisal.
with strong collective and individual rights and an environment Indian plans are comprehensive in the sense that they cover
supportive of free economic enterprise. both public and private investment and also all sectors of the
India’s time tested institutions offer foreign investors a economy; second, the Indian approach to planning has been
transparent environment that guarantees the security of their described as that of democratic planning as distinguished from
long term investments. These include a free and vibrant press, a totalitarian planning as in the Soviet Union. It gives an impor-
judiciary which can and does overrule the government, a tant place to popular participation. While it envisages that the
sophisticated legal and accounting system and a user friendly public sector would be in charge of the commanding heights of
intellectual infrastructure. India’s dynamic and highly competi- the economy, it gives considerable scope to private enterprises as
tive private sector has long been the backbone of its economic well as the cooperative sector which is expected to provide a
activity. It accounts for over 75% of its Gross Domestic Product sense of value and direction to the economy. Third, India’s
and offers considerable scope for joint ventures and collabora- approach to planning is for balanced development, in the sense
tions. that all sectors including agriculture, industry, infrastructure, as
well as the service sector have been accorded their own place.
Today, India is one of the most exciting emerging markets in
The Second Five-Year Plan put greater stress on heavy industry.
the world. Skilled managerial and technical manpower that
However, the importance of agriculture and rural development
match the best available in the world and a middle class whose
was always recognized and the plan strategy was based on
size exceeds the population of the USA or the European
interdependent and mutually enforcing growth of different
Union, provide India with a distinct cutting edge in global
sectors of the economy.
competition.
Fourth, India’s approach to planning is aimed at the establish-
India embarked on the process of planned economic develop-
ment of the socialist pattern of society. In other words,
ment in 1951. The National Planning Commission headed by
equitable distribution of income and provision of full employ-
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was set up to comprehensively
ment opportunities have been the objectives along with that of
assess the natural and manpower resources of the country and
increasing the rate of growth of the gross national product.
to prepare plans for the mobilisation of these resources for
Lately the objective has been defined in terms of the anti-
economic development aimed at raising the standard of living
poverty approach. Planning for development has not always
of masses of people. Jawaharlal Nehru was committed to
succeeded in reconciling the different goals. The Indian ap-
planning ever since 1927 when he visited the Soviet Union and
proach to planning for development aims at evolving the ‘third
saw how planning brought about economic transformation in
way’ — steering clear of unbridled capitalism on one side and
that country. Even before Independence, he was appointed by
unmitigated totalitarianism on the other side.
the Indian National Congress as the Chairman, National
Planning Commission which produced valuable development Finally, India’s approach to development has tried to combine
plans for different sectors of the economy. However, after the economic, technological, human and institutional aspects of
Independence, when Nehru broached the idea of planning, he development. Within the field of technology the concept of
‘intermediate technology’ has also found its place. India’s plans

10
for development assume that science and technology provide emerging and creating complexities in the Indian social struc-

DEVELOPMENT
the basis for development. The Central Ministry for Science and ture.
Technology has been established which has enunciated a science The model for and the pace of development needs to be in
policy. One of the aspects of the Indian approach to develop- conformity with the value system and the cultural patterns of a
ment is that of a self-reliant economy and society. In order to society. Moreover, although we adopted a mixed model of
have self-reliance in the field of science and technology, India development— Western and socialist — it appears, at the
has introduced a chain of scientific laboratories. However, so operational level that we have shown a greater inclination for the

COMMUNICATION
rapid has been the technological advancement in some of the Western model. The major underlying assumptions in the
developed countries, that India has also found it necessary to Western model of development and the inherent contradictions
import high technology in various fields of development. At — perceptions versus reality — have affected the pace of
the same time attention has been paid to the improvement and development in our country.
upgradation of the more traditional technology adopted by
village and cottage Selected Indicators of The Indian Economy
industries and handicrafts.
1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01
India’s approach to
planning is therefore GDP at factor cost (Rs. crores) at 1993-94
1,40,477 2,06,121 2,96, 303 4,01,162 6,93,051 11,98,685*
eclectic in every sense of prices
the term. It tries to
Per capita NNP (Rs) at 1993-94 prices 3,687 4.430 5,002 5.353 7.323 10,306*
reconcile planning with
democracy, increased Index of Industrial production
production with equitable 7.9 15.6 28.1 43.1 9.16 162.6
(Base 1993-94)
distribution, establish-
Index of Agricultural Production
ment of large industry 46.2 68.8 85.9 102.1 148.4 176.3
(Base: 3 Year ending 19S1-82)
with promotion of
cottage industries, Gross domestic capital formation (as per cent
8.7 14.4 15,4 20.3 26.3 24.0*
introduction of high of GDP)
technology with
Gross domestic saving (% GDP) 8.9 11.6 14.6 18.9 23.1 23.4*
upgradation of traditional
technology and upholding Foodgrains (Million tonnes) 50.8 79 108.4 129.6 176.4 199.5
human values with the
pursuit of material Electricity generated
5.1 7.4 55.8 110.8 264.3 499.5
advancement. (Utilities only) (Billion KWH)

Development in Centre's Budgetary Deficit (Rs. Cr) -33 -117 285 2,576 11,347 1,197
India
Exports (Rs. crores) 606 642 1,535 6,711 32,553 203.571
After Independence, India
displayed a commitment Imports (Rs. crores) 608 1,122 1,634 12.549 43,198 230,873
to improve the plight of
its citizens. Planned Population (Millions) 361.1 439.2 548-2 682.2 846.3 1,019
development became the
Birth rate (per 1000) 39.9 41.7 36.9 33.9 29.5 25.8
accepted strategy for
attaining the objective of Death rate (per 1000) 27.4 22.8 14.9 12-5 9.8 8.5
improving the economic,
social and political life of Life expectancy at birth (in yrs) 32.1 41.3 45.6 54.4 58.7
our people. As a conse- Male 32.4 41.9 46,4 54.1 59.0 63.9
quence, a large quantum Female 31.7 40.6 44.7 54.7 58.7 66.9
of societal resources was
earmarked for develop- Literacy rate (per cent) 18.3 28.3 34.5 43.6 52.2 65.4+
mental activities covering Male 27.2 40.4 46.0 56.4 64.1
various sectors of our 75.8+ 54.2+
Female 8.9 15.3 22.0 29.0 39.3
society in the successive
Registered Medical Practitioners
five-year plans. The 61-8 83.7 151.1 268.7 575.6*
(RMP) (000)
outcome of the develop-
mental efforts is RMP (per 10,000 population) 1.7 1.9 2.8 3.9 4.7 5.6
discernible in India.
Beds all types per 10,000 3.2 5.2 6.4 8.3 9.5 9.3
Concurrently, certain facets
inherent in development,
as discernible in other parts of the globe, have also started *Provisional; +As per 2001 census
Source: Government of India, Economic Survey (2002-2003).

11
 The broad features of the Indian model of development can be education as a prerequisite as this argument opened the way for
DEVELOPMENT

summarized as: the import of educated and professionally trained surplus

1. Material aspects were over-emphasized. manpower to the developing countries. Although the rate of
illiteracy, for various reasons, was high in our country in the pre-
2. Preference was given to technology and a heavy industrial
Independence era, we had, nevertheless, evolved various
growth model.
mechanisms of meeting our demands and invented indigenous
3. Disregard for indigenous techniques and social conditions, modes for our requirements. Moreover, during that period and
COMMUNICATION

i.e., literacy, language and ability to adapt to the sophisticated even in the contemporary era, many illiterate persons have
Western model. shown considerable professional acumen in the areas of
4. The model was not comprehensive enough. agriculture, industry, trade and other skilled work.
In accordance with the ideology of the model, it was presumed No process will be able to achieve the desired success unless the
that development could best he achieved by the installation of motivators and beneficiaries share a common language and find
heavy industries, which, by implication, had an impact on the similar meaning in the implementation of a programme.
small scale industries of India (the small scale industries ha(l Unilateral assumptions, without their acceptance by the
evolved and were modified in accordance with the local exper- beneficiaries or the instruments, may be counter-productive.
tise, needs, resources, etc.). Since the perceptions of the group promoting development
In fact, the developmental model appeared to be an imposition and those who would have been the beneficiaries differed and
on the local small scale industries of this country. Traditional were at different wave-lengths, the meaning and language of
tools and techniques — prevalent in India and considered development also proved to be at variance. Even the willingness
relevant for centuries — were denigrated and efforts were made and preparedness — in the face of the skepticism, doubts,
to replace them. The futility of the old system, the loss of criticism or suggestions expressed at different levels — of the
human labour, the wastage and dispersal of human resources, policy makers could only introduce modifications in one aspect
were stressed upon and efforts were made to convince the policy or area of development strategy, in terms of modes/ mecha-
makers that quick results could be achieved only by adopting the nisms, instruments/tools, etc. On the contrary, there might in
developmental model along with sophisticated tools and fact have been a need to look at the developmental model itself
techniques. afresh. Even after experiencing the consequences of our choice,
we were not prepared to change it. Hence, our continued
allegiance to the Western model introduced repercussions for
the country.

For the masses in India, the informal modes of interpersonal

communication and relations continue to play a decisive role.
On the contrary, the promoters of the Western model of
development considered them counter to the ideology of
development. The motivators therefore projected the informal These measures — partial or half-hearted — could not fully
modes as primitive techniques and highlighted the importance enmesh and bring about an equitable balance in various
of formal modes. Accordingly, they suggested that the formal dimensions of development which should have formed a part
modes be given primacy over the informal modes, even though of a comprehensive model and should have preceded or
the informal modes are still found to be relevant in various proceeded concurrently. Each aspect of development—political,
spheres of human life and relations. Therefore, the masses of social, economic, spiritual, intellectual, and emotional — should
this country could not adequately assimilate or digest these new have been given equal importance at the stages of conception,
and formal modes, illiteracy was another area that attracted formulation and implementation of development plans.
attention in the process of development. It was considered a Therefore, as the model, modes, instruments, methodology
handicap or an obstacle in the projected model of development. and the languages were different, for which the recipients were
Having assessed this reality, the promoters emphasised either not prepared, or were not cumulatively educated regarding
their possible benefits, or no serious effort was made to

12
sensitise the public, this model had its implications for the In 1995, the Copenhagen Declaration reaffirmed the link

DEVELOPMENT
country. In addition, the chasm or inconsistencies amongst and between human rights and development by establishing a new
between the physico-politico-economic development had an consensus that places people at the centre of concerns for
impact on the emotional, intellectual and spiritual life of our sustainable development, and by pledging to eradicate poverty,
country. This viewpoint assumes added significance in the face to promote full and productive employment, and to foster
of the spirit and philosophical traditions of India. In Hindu social integration to achieve stable, safe and just societies for all.
philosophy in particular (and also in other religious beliefs and

COMMUNICATION
Rights-based Approach to Development
thoughts), there is an emphasis on ‘discard’ as a means and
A rights-based approach to development is a conceptual
mechanism to attain solace, mental peace and the development
framework for the process of human development that is
of the human mind. Since these aspects continue to be relevant
normatively based on international human rights standards and
for a sizeable section of our society, they ought to influence the
operationally directed to promoting and protecting human
pace of development.
rights.
Having realised the prevailing notions of the people, the
Essentially, a rights-based approach integrates the norms,
promoters of development wished to deal with this first as
standards and principles of the international human rights
they were considered to be obstacles in the process of develop-
system into the plans, policies and processes of development.
ment. The outright denigration and disregard for the crystallised
and synthesised notions, without an adequate evaluation of The norms and standards are those contained in the wealth of
their importance in the life styles of Indian people, could not be international treaties and declarations. The principles include
without its consequences for the masses. The approach then equality and equity, accountability, empowerment and participa-
could have been slightly different. Self-consciousness inevitably tion.
results in the interpretation of traditional institutions and ideas A rights-based approach to development includes the following
giving rise to a complex amalgam in which the traditional and elements: express linkage to rights, accountability, empower-
modern join to form a new synthesis. ment, participation, non-discrimination and attention to
vulnerable groups, Express linkage to rights.
United Nations and The Right to
Development The definition of the objectives of development in terms of
The second half of the twentieth century has seen the increasing particular rights - as legally enforceable entitlements - is an
preoccupation of social scientists and policy makers with essential ingredient of human rights approaches, as is the
‘development’. The United Nations announced the sixties as creation of express normative links to international, regional
the first and the seventies as the second decade of development and national human rights instruments.
(United Nations 1962). Rights-based approaches are comprehensive in their consider-
The right to development is a fundamental human right rooted ation of the full range of indivisible, interdependent and
in the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations, the interrelated rights: civil, cultural, economic, political and social.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International This calls for a development framework with sectors that mirror
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International internationally guaranteed rights, thus covering, for example,
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. In 1993, health, education, housing, justice administration, personal
the World Conference on Human Rights affirmed the right to security and political participation.
development by consensus. By definition, these approaches are incompatible with develop-
Right to Development is an inalienable right by virtue of which ment policies, projects or activities that have the effect of
every human person and all peoples are entitled to participate in, violating rights, and they permit no “trade-offs” between
contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development and rights.
development. Accountability
Article 1 of the Charter of the United Nations identifies Rights-based approaches focus on raising levels of accountabil-
international cooperation in promoting and encouraging respect ity in the development process by identifying claim-holders (and
for human rights and for fundamental freedoms as one of the their entitlements) and corresponding duty-holders (and their
purposes of the Organization. obligations). In this regard, they look both at the positive
obligations of duty-holders (to protect, promote and provide)
and at their negative obligations (to abstain from violations).
They take into account the duties of the full range of relevant
actors, including individuals, States, local organizations and
authorities, private companies, aid donors and international
institutions.
Such approaches also provide for the development of adequate
laws, policies, institutions, administrative procedures and
practices, and mechanisms of redress and accountability that can
deliver on entitlements, respond to denial and violations, and
ensure accountability. They call for the translation of universal

13
 standards into locally determined benchmarks for measuring religion, ethnicity, language, sex and other categories of human
DEVELOPMENT

progress and enhancing accountability. rights concern.

For all human rights, States must have both the political will An important aspect of rights-based approaches is the incorpo-
and the means to ensure their realization, and they must put in ration of express safeguards in development instruments to
place the necessary legislative, administrative, and institutional protect against threats to the rights and well-being of prisoners,
mechanisms required to achieve that aim. minorities, migrants and other often domestically marginalized
groups. Furthermore, all development decisions, policies and
COMMUNICATION

Under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and

Cultural Rights, States are required to take immediate steps for initiatives, while seeking to empower local participants, are also
the progressive realization of the rights concerned, so that a expressly required to guard against simply reinforcing existing
failure to take the necessary steps, or any retrogression, will flag a power imbalances between, for example, women and men,
breach of the State’s duties. landowners and peasants, and workers and employers.
Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, For further documentation see the OHCHR Asia-Pacific
States are bound to respect the rights concerned, to ensure Regional Office’s Resource Database on Human Rights-based
respect for them and to take the necessary steps to put them Approaches to Development for Practitioners in Asia Pacific:
into effect. Some rights claimed in some jurisdictions may not Development of Indigenous Peoples
be justiciable before a court, but all rights must be enforceable.
While primary responsibility under the human rights system
lies with individual States, the international community is also
duty bound to provide effective international cooperation, inter
alia in response to shortages of resources and capacities in
developing countries.
Empowerment
Rights-based approaches also give preference to strategies for
empowerment over charitable responses. They focus on
beneficiaries as the owners of rights and the directors of
development, and emphasize the human person as the centre
of the development process (directly, through their advocates
and through organizations of civil society).
The goal is to give people the power, capacities, capabilities and
access needed to change their own lives, improve their own National development processes have often failed to include the
communities and influence their own destinies. free and meaningful participation of indigenous peoples. As a
result, national development objectives and policies, as con-
Participation
ceived by national-level officials and processes, have not always
Rights-based approaches require a high degree of participation, been consistent with the views, wishes and interests of
including from communities, civil society, minorities, indig- indigenous peoples affected by them.
enous peoples, women and others. According to the UN
Declaration on the Right to Development, such participation Some have had a serious negative impact on indigenous
must be “active, free and meaningful” so that mere formal or communities, including displacement, loss of livelihood,
“ceremonial” contacts with beneficiaries are not sufficient. destruction of local environments, damage to sacred sites and,
from the perspective of indigenous peoples, an intrusive,
Rights-based approaches give due attention to issues of unsustainable and unplanned influx of outsiders into tradi-
accessibility, including access to development processes, tional territories. Indigenous peoples are thus often wary of
institutions, information and redress or complaints mecha- programmes offered in the name of development.
nisms. This also means situating development project
mechanisms in proximity to partners and beneficiaries. Such While not opposed to development policies that bring
approaches necessarily opt for process-based development improvements nationally and locally, indigenous peoples have
methodologies and techniques, rather than externally conceived consistently insisted that they be empowered to affect decisions
“quick fixes” and imported technical models. that have an impact on their communities and rights.
Recognition of and respect for land and resources are funda-
Non-discrimination and Attention to Vulnerable Groups
mental to many indigenous belief systems. Experience has
The human rights imperative of such approaches means that
shown that conflicts arise when development projects take place
particular attention is given to discrimination, equality, equity
without an understanding of, or respect for, indigenous
and vulnerable groups. These groups include women, minori-
peoples’ strong spiritual attachment to and traditional associa-
ties, indigenous peoples and prisoners, but there is no universal
tion with their lands and territories.
checklist of who is most vulnerable in every given context.
Rather, rights-based approaches require that such questions be Emerging international and State standards and practices are
answered locally: who is vulnerable here and now? Develop- increasingly recognizing that indigenous peoples should have
ment data need to be disaggregated, as far as possible, by race, rights over their lands and development projects that affect
them. Article 30 of the draft United Nations Declaration on the

14
rights of indigenous peoples states that indigenous peoples

DEVELOPMENT
have the right “to determine and develop priorities and
strategies for the development or use of their lands, territories
or other resources”.
Chapter 26 of Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development calls upon intergovernmental
organizations to establish a process that empowers indigenous

COMMUNICATION
people and their communities through, inter alia, recognition
of their lands, support for alternative environmentally sound
means of production and arrangements to strengthen indig-
enous participation in the national formulation of policies, laws
and programmes relating to resource management and
development that may affect them.
Rights-based development processes will give due attention to
the need to avoid paternalistic or externally conceived responses.
They will recognize the need to ensure the full, free, active and
meaningful participation of indigenous peoples in the plan-
ning, implementation and evaluation of development policies,
projects and decisions, and will recognize the potential value of
indigenous contributions to such processes. They will also
respect indigenous peoples’ rights over their land and resources,
and will obtain the prior informed consent of indigenous
peoples for projects on their lands. Finally, due regard will be
given to the need to ensure that indigenous peoples enjoy
equitable benefits from economic activities affecting them.
The United Nations began its first formal work on indigenous
people in 1982 with the establishment of the Working Group
on Indigenous Populations. Since then, a wide range of
activities have been undertaken as part of the Organization’s
human rights programme and by the United Nations system as
a whole.
By resolution 2001/57, the Commission on Human Rights
decided to appoint, for a three-year period, a Special Reporte on
the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of
indigenous people, with, inter alia, the functions of gathering
and exchanging information and communications from all
relevant sources and formulating recommendations and
proposals to prevent and remedy violations of such human
rights and fundamental freedoms.

Note

15
DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 4:
NEED TO PLAN FOR DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected tions for related non-agricultural sectors, such as production of
fertilizers or the development of irrigation and power projects.
To understand the need for planning
Agriculture is a vast system with several sub-systems which
To know the impact of planning include agricultural research and extension, supply of inputs like
fertilizers, seed, insecticides and pesticides as well as water,
Role of the State
organization of agricultural production itself and the marketing
Development is then a complex process and it requires a critical
and processing of agricultural produce-Agricultural develop-
combination of various factors to be brought about. Rather
ment requires the creation of a network of institutions at
than leaving the onset of such a process to the operation of the
various levels including cooperative institutions for the delivery
forces of demand and supply in the market, many developing
of agricultural inputs and credit. Cooperative structures have to
countries have felt that development could be stimulated and
be built from the bottom upwards in the shape of primary
promoted through conscious efforts under the auspices of the
agricultural cooperatives at the village level, district cooperative
state. The example of socialist countries has shown how the
central banks and the state cooperative banks. These in turn
state initiative can help in the transformation of the economy
have to be supported by apex institutions tike the Reserve Bank
and in the promotion of industrialisation. Moreover, the state
or the National Bank for Agricultural Development. A network
could introduce development through well chalked out plans.
of storage facilities for both inputs and outputs are also equally
Though the concept of planning has been widely accepted today important. The agricultural development plan has to take into
and indeed has been adopted in countries with different types account not only investment but institutional and technological
of economic systems, several leading economists like Ludwig developments and proper economic policies. These economic
von Mises and Frederick von Hayek had questioned the very policies are required to provide minimum remunerative prices
basic premise about planning. They felt that innumerable for agriculture.
decisions regarding production and the working of the
economic system which are taken by innumerable producers and Sectoral Development in Industry
consumers in the economic system could never be taken by a In the field of industry as well, the development plan must
few individuals who assume responsibility for planning. There include facilities like industrial estate and credit through financial
is the problem of an information gap. Moreover, suppression institutions like the finance corporations and industry develop-
of decisions of individual producers and consumers by a few ment banks. The extension and organisational guidance have to
planners is the surest way to serfdom. However, such views be provided through institutions like district industrial centres.
which totally reject planning as a method of management of an Special programmes might be required for industrial develop-
economic system are nowadays less frequently expressed. On ment in backward areas and the promotion of small and
the other hand, it is pointed out that in this scientific age society cottage industries. Special training institutions might also be
must consciously arrange its economic future in such a way that required for training industrial workers and skilled and semi-
the social goals are attained. The discussion, therefore, is centred skilled professional people.
not around whether the plan should be there or not but rather Gross Domestic Product and its Sectoral Share (1950-1996)
as to how planning for development should be attempted. at current prices of India.
Methodology of Development Planning
A development plan begins by stipulating the rate of growth
Gross Domestic Product Sectoral Share in GDP
of the economy, with regard to the fiscal and physical resources
At factor At market Agriculture
available. Once the growth rate is stipulated, the planners decide cost (Rs prices (Rs and allied
Industry Services
(%) (%)
upon the level of investment required for achieving the growth millions) millions) (%)
rate and the allocation of investments between the various 1950-51 89,790 93,660 55.8 15.2 29.0
sectors of the economy. This is followed by detailed sectoral 1960-61 152,540 162,010 45.8 20.7 33.5
plans—principal sectors being agriculture and allied activities, 1970-71 397,080 431,630 45.2 21.9 32.9
industry and allied activities, the infrastructure and the tertiary
1980-81 1224,270 1360,130 38.1 25.9 36.0
sector.
1990-91 4778,140 5355,340 31.0 29.3 39.7
Sectoral Development in Agriculture
1991-92 5527,680 6167,990 31.3 27.8 40.9
The importance of the agricultural sector for development is
1992-93 6301,820 7053,280 30.6 28.4 41.0
well recognised. Agriculture provides the raw material for
industry. Above all, it provides foodstuff required for maintain- 1993-94 7231,030 8010,320 30.7 27.7 41.6

ing the working population and indeed for the very survival of 1994-95 8541,030 9456,150 31.1 28.0 40.9
the nation. An agricultural development plan includes alloca- 1995-96 [9822,180 10874,570 29.5 29.0 41.5]

16
The infrastructural development plan should include irrigation areas at the beginning of the century but this has grown to

DEVELOPMENT
and power projects, transport and communication and nearly 25 percent.
educational and health facilities- The allocation to these various However, this transformation has to be the result of economic
sectors becomes an important issue of plan priorities, and it has development and cannot by itself create development. Develop-
to be resolved by taking into account the contribution of ment does not simply mean reducing rural population and
various sectors and projects to the desired rate of growth of the adding to urban congestion. In the developed countries, what
economy. led to urbanization was the urban pull — the pull created by

COMMUNICATION
National plans would have to be followed by and related to increasing employment opportunities in the wake of industrial-
state plans and the district development plans. Decentralisation ization. On the other hand, in many developing countries
of the planning process is considered essential to get the benefit urbanisation is the consequence of the push factor created due
of local resources and local knowledge. to the pressure of population on land. There is growing
The success of planning depends on its effective implementa- unemployment, underemployment and disguised unemploy-
tion. A great deal of attention has, therefore, to be given to the ment in the rural areas. It is these unemployed landless people
efficient management of not only the development who in desperation throng to the cities to eke out a livelihood.
programmes as a whole, but of the public sector enterprises as Unfortunately, these employment opportunities are not
well. Large amounts of resources are invested in the public available even in the cities and this gives rise to a large number
sector but if they do not yield necessary dividends, they could of unemployed people living on the pavements or in the
well he a drag on the development plan. The efficient manage- shanties, doing almost anything in the so-called unorganized
ment of public enterprises requires a proper balance between sector, and this may well include petty crime. Urbanisation of
managerial autonomy and public accountability. this sort is the very negation of development. Thus, even
though development brings in its wake structural transforma-
Management in development has many dimensions. Apart
tion, we have to make a distinction between real development
from being oriented to public services, it is also necessary to
and the mere migration of population out of agricultural and
evoke popular participation and cooperation without which
rural areas.
several development programmes would not succeed.
The Development should be distributed equally, or develop-
Balanced and Unbalanced Development ment will lead to concentration, waste and abuse of
Such a critical minimum effort might well require ‘a big thrust’ development resources, which in turn affects the dispersal of
in some directions so that direct and secondary consequences of concomitant benefits to the target groups. Evidence shows that
that big thrust would spread throughout the economy. Such a in the last few decades, the urbanites, the articulate, the resource-
big thrust might either be in the shape of intensive agriculture, ful and the educated, have been able to derive greater benefits
export drive or industrialisation, and this alone can introduce and mobilize a larger share of developmental inputs.
dynamic change, Anything else would just get lost in the vicious
It has been observed that over the years, developmental
circle of poverty or caught in the low level equilibrium trap. A
activities have brought happiness to one group and misery to
big thrust would have forward and backward effects and would
another. It has motivated and involved one sector, but alienated
also stimulate complementary investment. A Joint investment
another. It has infused commitment in a segment and gener-
with a number of backward and forward linkages and benefits
ated indifference in another. Development may influence
of external economies can trigger off development, while
various aspects of human life and may be both the cause and
anaemic efforts towards development might well prove futile
effect of processes such as urbanisation, migration, etc. Social
(Rosenstein-Rodan 1964).
crises and political upheavals have emerged in countries in all
A similar idea has been expressed by Hirschman (1960) in terms stages of development.
of balanced and unbalanced development. The so-called
balanced development with resources spread over the entire Development and Inflation
field of economic development might not be effective. On the If the development plans do succeed in augmenting the stream
other hand, a big thrust even though appearing to give rise to of goods and services, it would not give rise to inflation. It is
unbalanced development to start with, would in fact create sometimes stated that inflation is an inevitable concomitant of
opportunities of investment in complementary fields of the development plan. It is true that development projects do
activities and would eventually stimulate wide ranging economic not immediately yield results, but if they are completed on
development. time, and do yield the goods and services expected, develop-
ment would not be accompanied b\ inflation. Successful
Another structural transformation that has to take place is that
development has to be anti-inflationaiy in character.
between the urban and the rural population. Development
leads to greater urbanisation. England which was the first The pace of development must keep ahead of the increasing
country to be the workshop of the world is urbanised to the growth of population or else development may well prove a
extent that 75 per cent of the population lives in urban areas. Sisyphean effort. Measures for population control should be a
This process is going on in other countries as well. In South part of development strategy.
Korea within a period of two decades— between 1960 and New Dimensions of Development
1980— the ratio 75:25 of rural-urban population has been Successful development planning should lead to an increase in
reversed. In India 10 percent of the population lives in urban the gross national product, higher per capita standard of living,

17
 fuller employment, reduction in poverty and improvement in However, in the first UN Development Decade which began in
DEVELOPMENT

the quality of life. These may appear to be multiple objectives 1961, development was almost equated with economic growth.
of development but they are related to each other and often During this Decade, the world’s total Gross National Product
flow from each other. Development only in terms of increase in increased by $ 1,000 billion. About 80 per cent of this increase
the GNP is no longer considered acceptable since what matters went to countries with a per capita income of $ 1,000 with 25
is the composition of the GNP. Does it consist of luxury per cent of the world population. Only 6 per cent of the
goods consumed only by the rich or of goods of mass increase went to countries where per capita yearly income average
COMMUNICATION

consumption? Do the masses have the requisite purchasing was 200 or less and areas comprised 60 per cent of the world
power so that their essential needs can be translated into population.
effective demand? Masses would have the requisite purchasing The second UN Development Decade, therefore, stated that
power only if they have opportunities for gainful employment. Development for the developing countries is not simply an
Hence, full or near full employment must go along with increase in productive capacity but a major transformation in
development and equitable distribution of the fruits of their social and economic structures. Economic growth and
development. The latter may require that priority be given to social progress are not mutually inter-dependent, but are
minimum social consumption, indirection of the productive organically related parts of a simple process of development.
system- banking resources, ownership of assets and entitle-
And the third Development Decade launched in 1981, laid
ments in favour of the poor. What it implies then is a direct
emphasis on Basic Minimum Needs.
assault on poverty rather than reliance on the trickle down
effect.’ Finally, the development must not be at the cost of the The basic values underlying development are human dignity,
nation’s life supporting system consisting of soil, water, forests equality and social justice. These three concepts are not separate
and other natural resources. Environmental protection is thus a and distinct but interrelated and dependent on each other.
new dimension of development which cannot be overlooked. Another principle implied in social development is the empha-
sis on cooperation as against competition. It lays emphasis on
Conclusion the collectivity as against rugged individualism. It does not deny
The classical model remained the only model in the West until the right of full development and expression of the individual
1913. After World War I, especially after the Russian Revolution and his/her role in decision making that affects their lives. It
and the Great Depression, the classical model declined and lays greater emphasis on the well-being of the total society and
alternative forms emerged. After World War II, the world all its individuals.
entered another new stage of development.
Development based on the principles of human dignity,
The most important common feature of development is equality and social justice can be defined as a goal and process
growth. To develop means to advance, to further, to evolve, or that aims to achieve an integrated, balanced and unified (social
to expand by a process of growth. A modern society is one and economic) development of society. It is international in
which is growing, expanding and advancing. scope and has a holistic, interdisciplinary, inter-sectoral and inter-
Development is a process of societal transformation from a regional approach to societal issues and problems. It focuses on
traditional society to a modern society, and such a transforma- “qualitative” development as measured by (a) the participation
tion is also known as modernization. A modern society is also a of people in matters affecting their lives, (b) the nature of social
rational society. While all societies have rational and irrational and interpersonal relations and (c) the relationship of people to
elements, modern society is said to be rational that it is not their environment. Quantitatively, social development aims at
dominated by super-natural factors or by tradition and that it structural and institutional reforms to bring about changes in
assigns high value to making decisions on the basis of reason the distribution of income, wealth and services,
and performing tasks in accordance with rational methods and In fact, social development means something more than merely
procedures. economic, political, social and environmental development It is
Another common feature is the building of Nation-State as the not merely an effort to provide ad-hoc growth targets in each of
unit of development. This is why modern development is the sectors of planning. Social development planning requires
often known as national development. Development involves the perception and delineation of the nature of interrelation-
institutional changes. Institution is a significant element in the ships between the different sectors. Social development is an
life of a culture which is persistent and enduring, which regulate integrative concept and this integration depends upon clear
the pattern of behavior; and which is widely tolerated, sanc- enunciation of the values and the type of society toward which
tioned or legitimized by society.’ planning is to be undertaken.”
Development is considered to be a process of improving the Development Philosophy and Objectives
capability of a nation’s institutions and value system to meet Development is a process by which one’s overall personality is
increasing and different demands social, political and economic. enhanced. This is so for a society as well as for an individual.
Development has also been defined as economic growth plus For society the identity is collective. Thus development for
social change as bread plus dignity; as a technical solution to society means development of the collective personality of
underdevelopment; as institutional building; human develop- society.
ment, a more equitable spread of distribution and
Development of collective personality requires physical, material
development resources.
and economic development, but it is above all the development

18
and application of consciousness. A child may grow physically Self-reliance does not necessarily mean self-sufficiency. With

DEVELOPMENT
while his personality does not develop. So it is with society. psychological staying power a self-reliant society can open up
Thus, “economic development”, while it is vitally necessary, and negotiate from a position of strength. But some measure
cannot be treated as an independent variable divorced from its of self-sufficiency in strategic areas that are easily prone to
social bearings. Development of a society is social development, manipulation by exploitative interests is desirable. Such
a process in which “economic” and “non-economic” elements vulnerable areas are staple food production, technology and
interact organically with each other. Attempts to isolate the spare parts and military resistance power.

COMMUNICATION
“economic” elements and fit them into any hypothetical model All these make the development of appropriate technology
of “economic development” are, therefore, unscientific. indispensable. While development of a modern sector is
Development thus defined is a multi-variate quantitative and imperative, the technological revolution has to be primarily
qualitative change. It would be futile to attempt to measure any internally achieved.
country’s social development quantitatively and expect consen-
sus about it. The world’s richest society may be considered to be Participatory Democracy
its sickest, and hence not developed at all. Such positions can be The collective as we conceive it functions through the active
understood but cannot be refuted, and yet scientific judgments participation of the people. Without this the individual would
may be given on such a basis. While scientific judgments about not belong organically to the collective and the collective itself
social development need to be reasoned, cardinal quantification would not to that extent be a reality. Hence the collective and
has often served as a fetish that has detracted from rather than participatory democracy are inseparable concepts. Participatory
helped evaluate the more essential qualitative attributes. democracy is not the formal voting of leaders to power once
every five years and passive obedience in between; it is not
Self-reliance merely government of the people but also, and more funda-
Of all the new values to be created, self-reliance is the single mentally” by the people”. Participatory democracy rules out the
most important. India has depended too long on external dominance of any minority group over the broad masses of
masters. This is much more true of Rural India which has people. In the Indian context it precludes, therefore, dictator-
depended too long on the city. The rural poor have been ship of the “elite” over the masses, of the city over the
subservient too long to the rural rich and to the “officer” sent countryside and of the modern sector over the traditional, and
from the city, a subservience that has been forced upon them; in new forms of external control which would dilute the processes
the process their own initiative and vitality have been sapped. of democracy. Moreover, there is no room in this participatory
The result is a history of exploitation of the “dependant” by system for power-wielding, though intelligent leadership, which
the master”. The dependant, appearing to have no self-respect, is alien to the broad masses of the people and tends to
commands no respect from others- He is laughed at by the strengthen its own position at the expense of the latter; nor is
world and despised at the same time as he is squeezed. there a place for the unaccountable and unresponsive bureaucrat
India cannot develop unless it rejects the soft option and who considers it beneath his dignity to have any interaction
resolves to be self-reliant. This means building up a combina- with the masses.
tion of material and mental reserves that enable one to choose
Consciousness Gap
one’s own course of evolution, uninhibited by what others
The problem of a “consciousness gap” between the leaders of a
desire. It requires maximum mobilization of domestic
society and the masses of the people remains. In concrete
resources, but above all it requires psychological, and institu-
historical conditions in any society some persons may be ahead
tional staying power to meet crisis situations when the supply
of others in perceptions of the need for social change, in their
of essential materials is too short. This slaying power is best
ability to systematize ideas whose origins are in the masses
attained collectively. Individually a hungry man feels isolated and
themselves, in seeing through complex relationships and in
his mental reserve wanes; collectively this reserve is reinforced
relevant technical expertise. Such men are natural leaders of
for each and collective resolve gives individuals strength to fight
society, whom the masses of the people tend to follow without
a calamity with their heads high.
coercion. Participatory democracy in such situations would not
yet be complete, nor would the leaders be fully accountable to
the people in a real sense. Such a relationship may be formally
‘democratic’, but in the depth of the situation lies the seed of
leadership ego which may grow and gradually alienate the leader
from his people, so that finally he leads them to a vision that is
more ha than theirs. This would, in turn, alienate the people
and inhibit the growth of their collective personality. The
leadership and the masses must, therefore, move in a mutually
interacting process that systematically reduces the consciousness
gap. Democracy in this sense is not a system to be implanted,
but an objective to be realized through a process.

19
 sector banks and insurance corporations in particular are not
DEVELOPMENT
De-alienation
Many of the above objectives imply a regeneration and develop- contributing substantially to the process of motivating low-
ment of values that man has lost or nearly lost through ages of income group and mobilizing small savings. The social
subordination to exploitation, maladministration and misdirec- organizations, religious organizations and even Red Cross
tion. Regressive social relations and cultural taboos have paved society often fail in creating public awareness and sub serving
the way for such alienation from Man’s original and inherent social interests.
potentials. Do we find any justification for endangering social interests just
COMMUNICATION

In essence, the development philosophy mid objectives which for generating profits?
we have enunciated centre around five core concepts which stand Today or tomorrow, we have no option but to change our
inseparably together. attitudes. Whatever we think is for society, whatever we plan is
1. Man as the end of development which is, therefore, to be for society, whatever we produce is for the society and whatso-
judged by what it does to him. ever we market is for the society. This makes it essential that we
2. De-alienation of man, in the sense that he feels at home are well aware of the multi-dimensional changes found in the
with the process of development in which he becomes the society.
subject as well as the object. Development, understood as widening the range of people’s
3. Development of collective personality of man in which he choices, has to consider three interrelated and crucial dimen-
finds his fullest expression. sions: human, or “people-centred “ development, global
development and sustainable development. Together they
4. Participation as the true form of democracy.
imply a radical change to the current development paradigm. If
5. Self-reliance as the expression of man’s faith in his own one or more of these factors is missing in decision-making,
abilities. then conflicts between people and nations are inevitable. These
In India, whose situation we are reviewing, rural development three dimensions represent the conceptual base and necessary
is the key to its overall social development. The personality of focus of action for people’s movements, for policy making and
India cannot be enhanced without raising the personality of for the missions of any private initiative.
rural India. This leads us to a strategy of development which Human development of people, for people and by people
points that the countryside should be the centre of activity for means investing in human capabilities to empower individuals
contemporary India. The inner-directed strategy that we arc to take charge of their own destiny. People are the end goal.
seeking encompasses the city, but the focus and driving spirit is Therefore, the benefits of development are to be directed
the village where the new Indian Drama will inevitably have to toward them and it should serve them. It means that economic
be played. growth is distributed fairly and widely, that people benefit from
We welcome economic development but our development their contributions to work and social life, and people are given
programmes should not pave ways for the long-run dangers. If the chance to participate in the process.
economic transformation processes start paving ways for the Global development has three dimensions: spatial, time and
social dangers, the wave of development must be checked and holistic. The spatial dimension refers to ensuring that actions
be turned into right direction. Of course commercial consider- have applicability to the rest of the world. The time dimension
ations are important to survival and prosperity but in no case, provides for a perspective of the continuity of events and facts.
the commercial motives should be successful in establishing an The holistic dimension ensures that development is not
edge over the social, cultural and ethical values. fragmented, but analysed from an integrated viewpoint and as a
In an age of environmental disaster, population explosion, part of the same system.
socio-cultural confrontation, tension and dissension, we need Sustainable development utilizes resources to satisfy present
to review the present philosophy of transformation of the needs without compromising the satisfaction of the needs of
industrial economy. We cannot deny the fact that the present future generations. Until the last quarter of this century, we have
system of economic development, standing on the pillars of not considered the world’s resources limited. Decision-making
mechanized industrial economy, has helped sensing, serving needs to take greater responsibility for the implications in the
and satisfying customers fantastically but at the same time have lives of others, including future generations.
also been instrumental in inviting a number of social evils.
Development, therefore, is a whole; it is an integral value
We do not find any justification for promoting the fast food loaded, cultural process; it takes in the natural environment,
industry, especially when researches reveal that most of the food social relations, education, production, consumption and
items served by them are harmful. The hamburger, fried welfare. The approach to development depends upon the local
chickens are found gaining popularity the world over though cultural or national situations, not on any outside model. In
these are found injuring consumer health considerably. The other words, development springs, from the heart of each
service generating industries are also found actively involved in society, relying on its history and traditions, as also its own
the process. To be more specific the communication services strengths and resources as far as possible.
have been found invading on social and cultural values. All of
us witness the movies and TV serials very much instrumental in Need for an Alternative Paradigm of
promoting the social evils. The educational institutes, hospitals Development
are also in queue. The financial institutions in general and public Adoption of development strategies of the western countries

20
created havoc in the developing countries. The context of these development. China was able to improve its agricultural

DEVELOPMENT
countries and the ‘soil’ of the countries were not suitable to production mainly by the mobilisation of rural labour. Even in
make grow the strategies that were developed in the western India the earthen dams like Nagarjunasagar dam was con-
countries. This led to many a problems. structed by mobilising the labour resources of the country. This
Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected idea is also embodied in programmes like the Food for Work
Programme or the currently operating National Scheme for
To understand the need for alternative Paradigm in the approach to
Rural Employment. In their book on poverty, Dandekar and

COMMUNICATION
development
Rath (1971) had suggested that the work programmes provid-
To know further the problems of underdevelopment ing employment to the unskilled manpower of the country is
perhaps one of the most important ways of raising people
Inappropriate Technology
above the poverty line. It was Marx who said that capital is
Technologies developed in the western countries were inappro-
congealed labour. Following his dictum the underdeveloped
priate in poor countries. The most up-to-date or sophisticated
countries can transform their idle labour into capital assets.
technology lacked the technical know-how and apt environment
in the developing countries. This lead to training the personnel But this does not mean that the drudgery of unskilled labour is
in the western universities or hiring know-how from developed the only fate of underdeveloped peoples. Their skills can be
countries. This led to further capital outflow from the develop- improved and with simple machines can be put to more
ing countries. Eventually the dependence on the western productive use. Also, development, in the ultimate analysis,
countries increased, and foreign debt grew. means human development It implies improving the capability
of the population and one of the best ways of achieving this is
It has been rightly pointed out that in absorbing the technology
to make them literate. Literacy seems lo be the minimum
of the Western countries or even of the USSR and other East
precondition for development. Without near total literacy, no
European countries developing countries should not needlessly
nation can make the transition from underdevelopment to
saddle themselves with obsolete technology. At the same time
development. From that point of view the fact that literacy in
in the name of modern technology, they should not absorb a
India is as low as 36 per cent according to the 1981 census, is
capital-intensive technology since they (certainly India) are
certainly a very disturbing fact. Even the neighbouring countries
abundantly endowed with human resources, which need to be
of Asia have a much higher rate of literacy. India’s development
fully harnessed. In many cases labour intensive technology
plans have, therefore, to be geared towards achieving 100 per
would be more ‘appropriate’ than capital-intensive technology.
cent literacy at the earliest. This should be followed by
This was the principal thrust of the book Small is Beautiful, by programmes for the development of skills such as training for
Schumacher (1976), who himself drew inspiration from rural youth in self-employment. Also their education system
Mahatma Gandhi in making out a case for labor-intensive should be geared more and more to the dissemination of
technology. Much of this labour intensive technology may have technological skills rather than traditional courses in the general
to be developed indigenously as it may not be possible to arts. Thus education through building up our human resources
borrow it from Western technological development which is can make a significant contribution to development.
geared more and more to automation. It has been pointed out
that in the field of agriculture, the bias of Western technology
has been in favor of large-scale farms and that such a technology
is not suitable to the small and marginal farmers in India
(Andersen 1982). The agricultural technology should be such as
to cater to the requirements of marginal farmers who are forced
to be agricultural workers in their spare time.
Human Resources Underutilized
The idea of labour intensive technology brings out the
importance of the productive utilization of idle manpower
resources in India. Here again it was Mahatma Gandhi who
wrote at length on the use of the spinning wheel and of cottage
industries for removing unemployment and underemployment
in rural and urban areas. This concept of mobilisation of idle
manpower resources in developing countries also received
attention from the economists of developed countries and one
of the earliest books by Ragnar Nurkse (I960) was concerned The importance of human resources can be emphasised by once
with capital formation through the utilisation of unemployed again taking the example of Japan. Japan lacks natural resources
and underemployed manpower resources. He pointed out that like petroleum or coal or even agricultural land. Only 1/lOth of
underdeveloped countries may he short of capital resources but Japanese land is cultivable; and yet with a hard working,
they have abundant manpower resources, which if put to disciplined and skilled population, Japan has been able to
productive use (even the unskilled manpower), can produce import raw material from all over the world and convert it into
capital assets such as earthen dams, rural roads and social finished products for which they have been able to get a market
services. It has been pointed out that in the early years of through aggressive salesmanship all over the world.

21
 low health - poorer people - Men go to cities - less farming - less
DEVELOPMENT
Cultural Ethos towards Development
Above all, the change in human resources must mean a change food production.
in the altitudes to work and life. Many Western authors have The population growth worsens the situation. Every year 97
pointed out that the other worldly and fatalistic attitudes of million people are added to the population. Half of this
Hindus that leaves everything to karma or fate, rather than self- explosion takes place in South Asia and Africa. Though the
reliance or the efforts of human beings, has been the major percentage of people below the poverty line is on the decrease,
obstruction to development and progress in India. This, the absolute number is going up.
COMMUNICATION

however, does not mean that Hindu religion and philosophy

The growth in population demands more food, more space. It
are antithetical to development as was insisted upon by Gunnar
accelerates deforestation and food crisis.
Myrdal in his Asian Drama (1968). It is not correct to say that
Hindu religion is responsible for making India a ‘soft state’. It If the present generation empties the limited oil resources, and
has to be recognized that the Bhagwad Gita, the holy scripture if no other fuel is invented, our future generation will have to
of the Hindus, gives the call to human beings to awake, arise walk as our former parents did, if alternate energy sources are
and to do their duty rather than give up in the face of danger. not found.
This philosophy can provide a great source of inspiration to the Balancing population and resources in a way that renews and
development effort in our country. revives the environment is the current objective of develop-
Some Western economists had developed a theory of the ment. It is to be pursued locally, nationally and globally for the
backward sloping supply curve of labour as typical of the benefit of the present and future generation.
attitude of workers in the underdeveloped countries. The Therefore development initiatives have to orient towards
theory states that Indians have limited ambitions and are sustainable development.
satisfied with minimum conveniences of life and therefore with
a low level of income. If offered higher wages they tend to
work less rather than work more. It is doubtful that such a
theory can be uniformly applied to all Indians. Experience has
shown that given incentives, Indian farmers can produce more
and that it is not correct to assume that they are unresponsive to
incentives.
A similar theory has also been propounded, though with much
different implications, by John Galbraith. While dealing with Note
the problem of poverty in underdeveloped countries, he has
pointed out that poverty perpetuates because poor people have
come to terms with it (1979). They know through experience
that they cannot afford to take risks, even small risks, and
therefore they are reluctant to respond to any change. This
attitude also explains the unwillingness of the marginal farmers
who readily accept the hybrid seeds and other ‘green revolution”
innovations. While the unwillingness of the poor to undertake
risks can be understood, it is not necessary to assume that the
poor in underdeveloped countries will remain poor for all time
to come. Given an organised social effort, the poor can get over
their accommodation to poverty. Thus what development
requires is a combination of capital formation, appropriate
technology, and a motivated and trained population. These
have to be galvanized in an organized social effort.
Environmental Degradation
Full utilization of the natural resources leads to environmental
degradation.
Every year, in Asia, an area, the size of Bhutan looses its forest
cover. If the present rate of deforestation continues, every year,
fifty million hectares of forest will be lost, equivalent to the size
of Thailand. Deforestation results in floods, landslides, which
destroys people and crops. People, who depend on forest for
firewood, food and fodder, now have to face the impact.
This results in a destructive chain reaction such as; Less fodder -
less livestock - less dung - less fertile land - less productivity -
chemicals - Destruction of soil system - less crops - less food -

22
 UNIT II
LESSON 5: ALTERNATIVE PARADIGMS OF
UNDERDEVELOPMENT REVISITED DEVELOPMENT

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected theorists (Wallerstein) was vigorous and intellectually quite

DEVELOPMENT
challenging. There are still points of serious disagreements
To understand the need the theories of underdevelopment
among the various strains of dependency theorists and it is a
To critically evaluate theories like dependency theory mistake to think that there is only one unified theory of
After the 50’s the paradigm with which thinkers approached dependency. Nonetheless, there are some core propositions
development issues began to take a pro-sufferer angle. Devel- which seem to underlie the analyses of most dependency
oped countries which clad themselves with a philanthropic robe, theorists.

COMMUNICATION
began to be looked with suspicion as if a wolf was hiding Dependency can be defined as an explanation of the economic
behind their smiles. development of a state in terms of the external influences—
political, economic, and cultural—on national development
Dependency Theory
policies (Osvaldo Sunkel, “National Development Policy and
Dependency Theory developed in the late 1950s under the
External Dependence in Latin America,” The Journal of
guidance of the Director of the United Nations Economic
Development Studies, Vol. 6, no. 1, October 1969, p. 23).
Commission for Latin America, Raul Prebisch. Prebisch and his
colleagues were troubled by the fact that economic growth in the Theotonio Dos Santos emphasizes the historical dimension of
advanced industrialized countries did not necessarily lead to the dependency relationships in his definition: [Dependency
growth in the poorer countries. Indeed, their studies suggested is]...an historical condition which shapes a certain structure of
that economic activity in the richer countries often led to serious the world economy such that it favors some countries to the
economic problems in the poorer countries. Such a possibility detriment of others and limits the development possibilities of
was not predicted by neoclassical theory, which had assumed the subordinate economics...a situation in which the economy
that economic growth was beneficial to all even if the benefits of a certain group of countries is conditioned by the develop-
were not always equally shared. ment and expansion of another economy, to which their own is
subjected. (Theotonio Dos Santos, “The Structure of Depen-
Prebisch’s initial explanation for the phenomenon was very
dence,” in K.T. Fann and Donald C. Hodges, eds., Readings in
straightforward: poor countries exported primary commodities
U.S. Imperialism. Boston: Porter Sargent, 1971,)
to the rich countries who then manufactured products out of
those commodities and sold them back to the poorer countries. There are three common features to these definitions which
The “Value Added” by manufacturing a usable product always most dependency theorists share. First, dependency characterizes
cost more than the primary products used to create those the international system as comprised of two sets of states,
products. Therefore, poorer countries would never be earning variously described as dominant/dependent, center/periphery
enough from their export earnings to pay for their imports. or metropolitan/satellite. The dominant states are the advanced
industiral nations in the Organization of Economic Co-
Prebisch’s solution was similarly straightforward: poorer
operation and Development (OECD). The dependent states are
countries should embark on programs of import substitution
those states of Latin America, Asia, and Africa which have low
so that they need not purchase the manufactured products from
per capita GNPs and which rely heavily on the export of a single
the richer countries. The poorer countries would still sell their
commodity for foreign exchange earnings.
primary products on the world market, but their foreign
exchange reserves would not be used to purchase their manu- Second, both definitions have in common the assumption that
factures from abroad. external forces are of singular importance to the economic
activities within the dependent states. These external forces
The traditional neoclassical approach said virtually nothing on
include multinational corporations, international commodity
persistent poverty of the poorer countries, except to assert that
markets, foreign assistance, communications, and any other
the poorer countries were late in coming to solid economic
means by which the advanced industrialized countries can
practices and that as soon as they learned the techniques of
represent their economic interests abroad.
modern economics, then the poverty would begin to subside.
However, Marxists theorists viewed the persistent poverty as a Third, the definitions of dependency all indicate that the
consequence of capitalist exploitation. And a new body of relations between dominant and dependent states are dynamic
thought, called the world systems approach, argued that the because the interactions between the two sets of states tend to
poverty was a direct consequence of the evolution of the not only reinforce but also intensify the unequal patterns.
international political economy into a fairly rigid division of Moreover, dependency is a very deep-seated historical process,
labor, which favored the rich and penalized the poor. rooted in the internationalization of capitalism. Dependency is
an ongoing process:
Defining Dependency Theory
The debates among the liberal reformers (Prebisch), the Latin America is today, and has been since the sixteenth century,
Marxists (Andre Gunder Frank), and the world systems part of an international system dominated by the now-

23
 developed nations.... Latin underdevelopment is the outcome of the process by which the world is transformed and is
DEVELOPMENT

of a particular series of relationships to the international therefore a process which accelerates the communist revolution.
system. (Susanne Bodenheimer, “Dependency and Imperialism: Marx spoke approvingly of British colonialism in India:
The Roots of Latin American Underdevelopment,” in Fann “England has to fulfill a double mission in India: one destruc-
and Hodges, Readings) tive, the other regenerating—the annihilation of old Asiatic
In short, dependency theory attempts to explain the present society, and the laying of the material foundations of Western
underdeveloped state of many nations in the world by society in Asia.” (Karl Marx, “The Future Results of the British
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examining the patterns of interactions among nations and by Rule in India,” New York Daily Tribune, No. 3840, August 8,
arguing that inequality among nations is an intrinsic part of 1853.)
those interactions. For the dependency theorists, underdevelopment is a wholly
The Structural Context of Dependency: Is it Capitalism or is it negative condition which offers no possibility of sustained and
Power? Most dependency theorists regard international autonomous economic activity in a dependent state.
capitalism as the motive force behind dependency relationships. Additionally, the Marxist theory of imperialism is self-liquidat-
Andre Gunder Frank, one of the earliest dependency theorists, ing, while the dependent relationship is self-perpetuating. The
is quite clear on this point: “...historical research demonstrates end of imperialism in the Leninist framework comes about as
that contemporary underdevelopment is in large part the the dominant powers go to war over a rapidly shrinking
historical product of past and continuing eonomic and other number of exploitable opportunities. World War I was, for
relations between the satellite underdeveloped and the now Lenin, the classic proof of this proposition. After the war was
developed metropolitan countries. Furthermore, these relations over, Britain and France took over the former German colonies.
are an essential part of the capitalist system on a world scale as a A dependency theorist rejects this proposition. A dependent
whole. (Andre Gunder Frank, “The Development of Underde- relationship exists irrespective of the specific identity of the
velopment,” in James D. Cockcroft, Andre Gunder Frank, and dominant state. That the dominant states may fight over the
Dale Johnson, eds., Dependence and Underdevelopment. disposition of dependent territories is not in and of itself a
Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1972) pertinent bit of information (except that periods of fighting
According to this view, the capitalist system has enforced a rigid among dominant states affords opportunities for the depen-
international division of labor which is responsible for the dent states to break their dependent relationships). To a
underdevelopment of many areas of the world. The dependent dependency theorist, the central characteristic of the global
states supply cheap minerals, agricultural commodities, and economy is the persistence of poverty throughout the entire
cheap labor, and also serve as the repositories of surplus capital, modern period in virtually the same areas of the world,
obsolescent technologies, and manufactured goods. These regardless of what state was in control.
functions orient the economies of the dependent states toward Finally, there are some dependency theorists who do not
the outside: money, goods, and services do flow into depen- identify capitalism as the motor force behind a dependent
dent states, but the allocation of these resources are determined relationship. The relationship is maintained by a system of
by the economic interests of the dominant states, and not by power first and it does not seem as if power is only supported
the economic interests of the dependent state. This division of by capitalism. For example, the relationship between the former
labor is ultimately the explanation for poverty and there is little dependent states in the socialist bloc (the Eastern European
question but that capitalism regards the division of labor as a states and Cuba, for example) closely paralleled the relationships
necessary condition for the efficient allocation of resources. The between poor states and the advanced capitalist states. The
most explicit manifestation of this characteristic is in the possibility that dependency is more closely linked to disparities
doctrine of comparative advantage. of power rather than to the particular characteristics of a given
Moreover, to a large extent the dependency models rest upon economic system is intriguing and consistent with the more
the assumption that economic and political power are heavily traditional analyses of international relations, such as realism.
concentrated and centralized in the industrialized countries, an
The Central Propositions of Dependency Theory
assumption shared with Marxist theories of imperialism. If
There are a number of propositions, all of which are contest-
this assumption is valid, then any distinction between economic
able, which form the core of dependency theory. These
and political power is spurious: governments will take whatever
propositions include:
steps are necessary to protect private economic interests, such as
those held by multinational corporations. 1. Underdevelopment is a condition fundamentally different
from undevelopment. The latter term simply refers to a
Not all dependency theorists, however, are Marxist and one
condition in which resources are not being used. For
should clearly distinguish between dependency and a theory of
example, the European colonists viewed the North American
imperialism. The Marxist theory of imperialism explains
continent as an undeveloped area: the land was not actively
dominant state expansion while the dependency theory explains
cultivated on a scale consistent with its potential.
underdevelopment. Stated another way, Marxist theories explain
Underdevelopment refers to a situation in which resources
the reasons why imperialism occurs, while dependency theories
are being actively used, but used in a way which benefits
explain the consequences of imperialism. The difference is
dominant states and not the poorer states in which the
significant. In many respects, imperialism is, for a Marxist, part
resources are found.

24
2. The distinction between underdevelopment and advantage, capital accumulation, and import/export strategies.

DEVELOPMENT
undevelopment places the poorer countries of the world is a Some of the most important new issues include:
profoundly different historical context. These countries are 1. The success of the advanced industrial economies does not
not “behind” or “catching up” to the richer countries of the serve as a model for the currently developing economies.
world. They are not poor because they lagged behind the When economic development became a focused area of
scientific transformations or the Enlightenment values of study, the analytical strategy (and ideological preference) was
the European states. They are poor because they were quite clear: all nations need to emulate the patterns used by

COMMUNICATION
coercively integrated into the European economic system the rich countries. Indeed, in the 1950s and 1960s there was a
only as producers of raw materials or to serve as repositories paradigmatic consensus that growth strategies were
of cheap labor, and were denied the opportunity to market universally applicable, a consensus best articulated by Walt
their resources in any way that competed with dominant Rostow in his book, The Stages of Economic Growth.
states. Dependency theory suggests that the success of the richer
3. Dependency theory suggests that alternative uses of countries was a highly contingent and specific episode in
resources are preferable to the resource usage patterns global economic history, one dominated by the highly
imposed by dominant states. There is no clear definition of exploitative colonial relationships of the European powers.
what these preferred patterns might be, but some criteria are A repeat of those relationships is not now highly likely for
invoked. For example, one of the dominant state practices the poor countries of the world.
most often criticized by dependency theorists is export 2. Dependency theory repudiates the central distributive
agriculture. The criticism is that many poor economies mechanism of the neoclassical model, what is usually called
experience rather high rates of malnutrition even though “trickle-down” economics. The neoclassical model of
they produce great amounts of food for export. Many economic growth pays relatively little attention to the
dependency theorists would argue that those agricultural question of distribution of wealth. Its primary concern is on
lands should be used for domestic food production in order efficient production and assumes that the market will allocate
to reduce the rates of malnutrition. the rewards of efficient production in a rational and
4. The preceding proposition can be amplified: dependency unbiased manner. This assumption may be valid for a well-
theorists rely upon a belief that there exists a clear “national” integrated, economically fluid economy where people can
economic interest which can and should be articulated for quickly adjust to economic changes and where consumption
each country. In this respect, dependency theory actually patterns are not distorted by non-economic forces such as
shares a similar theoretical concern with realism. What racial, ethnic, or gender bias. These conditions are not
distinguishes the dependency perspective is that its pervasive in the developing economies, and dependency
proponents believe that this national interest can only be theorists argue that economic activity is not easily
satisfied by addressing the needs of the poor within a disseminated in poor economies. For these structural
society, rather than through the satisfaction of corporate or reasons, dependency theorists argue that the market alone is
governmental needs. Trying to determine what is “best” for not a sufficient distributive mechanism.
the poor is a difficult analytical problem over the long run. 3. Since the market only rewards productivity, dependency
Dependency theorists have not yet articulated an operational theorists discount aggregate measures of economic growth
definition of the national economic interest. such as the GDP or trade indices. Dependency theorists do
5. The diversion of resources over time (and one must not deny that economic activity occurs within a dependent
remember that dependent relationships have persisted since state. They do make a very important distinction, however,
the European expansion beginning in the fifteenth century) between economic growth and economic development. For
is maintained not only by the power of dominant states, but example, there is a greater concern within the dependency
also through the power of elites in the dependent states. framework for whether the economic activity is actually
Dependency theorists argue that these elites maintain a benefiting the nation as a whole. Therefore, far greater
dependent relationship because their own private interests attention is paid to indices such as life expectancy, literacy,
coincide with the interests of the dominant states. These infant mortality, education, and the like. Dependency
elites are typically trained in the dominant states and share theorists clearly emphasize social indicators far more than
similar values and culture with the elites in dominant states. economic indicators.
Thus, in a very real sense, a dependency relationship is a 4. Dependent states, therefore, should attempt to pursue
“voluntary” relationship. One need not argue that the elites policies of self-reliance. Contrary to the neo-classical models
in a dependent state are consciously betraying the interests of endorsed by the International Monetary Fund and the World
their poor; the elites sincerely believe that the key to economic Bank, greater integration into the global economy is not
development lies in following the prescriptions of liberal necessarily a good choice for poor countries. Often this policy
economic doctrine. perspective is viewed as an endorsement of a policy of
The Policy Implications of Dependency Analysis autarky, and there have been some experiments with such a
If one accepts the analysis of dependency theory, then the policy such as China’s Great Leap Forward or Tanzania’s
questions of how poor economies develop become quite policy of Ujamaa. The failures of these policies are clear, and
different from the traditional questions concerning comparative the failures suggest that autarky is not a good choice. Rather

25
 a policy of self-reliance should be interpreted as endorsing a societies” implies either that the underdeveloped countries have
DEVELOPMENT

policy of controlled interactions with the world economy: no history or that it is unimportant.” (Griffin 1969)
poor countries should only endorse interactions on terms But it is increasingly clear that the history of the post-colonial
that promise to improve the social and economic welfare of countries has been crucially important in shaping their present
the larger citizenry. underdevelopment. The most influential proponent of the
A Critique thesis that European expansion and colonialism created the
underdevelopment of these countries has been Andre Gubder
COMMUNICATION

Dependency theory posits that the cause of the low levels of

development in less economically developed countries Frank. Frank”s thesis is that underdevelopment is not basically
(LEDC’s) is caused by their reliance and dependence on more a consequence of traditionalism. Rather, he argues that under-
economically developed countries (MEDC’s) - i.e. the LEDC’s development in Latin America-and by extension, parts of Africa
are undeveloped because they rely on the MEDC’s. Some and Asia- has been systematically created by colonist exploita-
proponents of dependency theory assert that LEDC’s will tion. Frank has documented “the development of
remain less developed because the surplus that they produce underdevelopment” in Chile, Brazil, Mexico and Cuba.
will be siphoned off by MEDC’s - under the guise of multina- Conspiracy Theory of Underdevelopment
tional corporations. There is, as such, no profit left for Conspiracy theories that suggest “development” is a multi-
reinvestment and development. national capitalist scheme to enslave the world, saddling many
As a corollary of this theory, LEDC’s should cut off ties with Third World countries today with international debts crippling
MEDC’s, retain their surplus production, and follow economi- economic growth.
cally independent and socialistic ideas in order to further Donors missing overseas assistance for flagrant strategic political
develop their economies, as the Soviet Union had done to great ends, notably during the Cold War to support and reward allies,
effect. Additionally, it also emphasises the virtuous circle of self- but continuing up to present times by tying aid to trade.
perpetuating benefits that the MEDC’s gain from their existing
The neo-Malthusian argument that relentless population
prosperity.
growth is wiping out any technological gains, despite the fact
Dependency theory refers to relationships and links between that yield statistics demonstrates that the world produces
developed and developing economies and regions. It sees enough food to feed us all.
underdevelopment as the result of unequal power relationships
Even the “Green Revolution” increased agricultural production
between rich developed capitalist countries and poor developing
from genetically engineered hybrid grains that produce high
ones.
yields in return for high inputs of chemical fertilizers and
Powerful developed countries dominate dependent powerless pesticides. That in the long run destroyed the soil system and
LEDC’s via the capitalist system. In the Dependency model polluted the water bodies. Developing countries still depend on
underdevelopment is created by developed countries. the developed countries for cereals, petrochemical fertilisers,
Proponents of the theory state that growth can be achieved bu machines, and assistance for irrigation projects, as high breed
closing the economy and following a self-reliant policy. varieties needed much more water than the traditional varieties.
Developed countries have such a technological and industrial It further divided the rich –poor gap, urbanization and
advantage that they can ensure the ‘rules of the game’ (as set immigration. Mechanisation of agriculture caused rural
out by World Bank and IMF) works in their own self-interest. depopulation as poor people seek jobs elsewhere; e.g. Pakistan,
This partly explains the hostility shown towards the WTO in Thailand, Mexico, India, Philippines.
Seattle in 1999. How did the development discussions make conflict worse in
Dependency theory, as a theory based on materialist and one Bangladeshi village? The Bangladesh projects have followed
structuralist theories, has been criticized for placing too much established participatory approaches, striving to empower while
emphasis on material and economic factors. The development facilitating technology transfer. Further, the scientists have
of many Asian economies that developed along capitalistic, adopted a problem-centred approach, generating a range of
open lines, also serves as an empirical contradiction to depen- potential options from which “beneficiaries” might choose.
dency theory. (This is not to say that many asian “tiger Proponents of conspiracy theory state that globalization,
economies” did not follow the ideas propounded by develop- liberalization, international trade arrangements, diplomacy,
ment theory, for indeed many did - South Korea, Taiwan and everything is aimed at maintaining the statusquo of the
others developed through a process of import-substitution - underdeveloped countries.
backed up with heavy investment of American capital.)
The Development (of Underdevelopment) Note
Theory
Gubder Frank proposed an alternative to dependency theory -
“Development Theory”.
The conventional view of the undeveloped countries denies
them a history: “To classify these countries as “traditional

26
 DEVELOPMENT
LESSON 6:
POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL SYSTEMS FOR DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNICATION
Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected In short, capitalism arises as individuals (a) learn the advantages
of division of labor and voluntary exchange, and (b) discover
To appreciate capitalism, socialism and mixed economy principles
and live by the moral laws (rules of conduct) necessary for
To know their impact on development ideology peaceful relations, one with another.
Capitalism This progress requires growing understanding of the nature of
Capitalism is an economic system characterized by the follow- man and the meaning of justice, together with appreciation for
ing: private property ownership exists; individuals and honor, truth, and goodwill toward more and more of their
companies are allowed to compete for their own economic gain; fellow humans.
and free market forces determine the prices of goods and Capitalism as an Economic System
services. Such a system is based on the premise of separating The following example introduces many of the ideas involved
the state and business activities. Capitalists believe that markets in capitalism. When starting a business, the initial owners
are efficient and should thus function without interference, and typically provide some money (the Capital), which is used by the
the role of the state is to regulate and protect. business to buy or rent some means of production. For
The word ‘capital’ originate in a context of trade and ownership example, the enterprise may buy or rent a piece of land and a
of animals. The Latin root of the word capital is capitalis, from building; it may buy machinery and hire workers (Labour). If
the Indo-European kaput, which means “head”, this being more money is needed than the initial owners are willing to
how wealth was measured. The more heads of cattle, the better. provide, the business may borrow a limited amount of extra
The terms chattel (meaning goods, animals, or slaves) and even money with a promise to pay it back with interest - in effect it
cattle itself also derive from this same origin. The lexical may rent more capital. The business then has a degree of legal
connections between animal trade and economics can also be authority, and thereby hopefully control, over a set of factors of
seen in the names of many currencies and words about money: production (as economists call them). The business can register
fee (faihu), rupee (rupya), buck (a deerskin), pecuniary (pecu), as a corporate entity, meaning that it can act as a type of virtual
stock (livestock), and peso (pecu or pashu) all derive from person in many matters before the law. The owners can pay
animal-trade origins. themselves some of the income derived from the business
The word “Capitalism” was in fact not used by Karl Marx, who (Dividends), sell shares in the company, or they can sell all of
only spoke about capital; although it is not completely clear who the equipment, land, and other assets, and split the proceeds
used the word in its current, systemic context first, it was coined between them.
and introduced into the economic discourse by Werner Sombart Traditionally capitalist economies have had corporations
in his 1906 classic, Modern Capitalism. working along the lines of the above example existing in
parallel with other types of organisation such as governments,
Definition
sole traders, partnerships and sometimes cooperatives, credit
Capitalism, according to the dictionaries, commonly means
unions, and other entities. Observers do not always agree which
private ownership of the means of production. Private
of these organisations, or which features of them are part of
ownership means that individuals control their own persons,
capitalism, although most often companies, or many features
their own energies, and the products of their energies. It
of their operation, are included as part of the definition.
prevails to the extent that individuals do not restrain or interfere
with one another as they use, exchange (sell) or give away what Additionally, many of the characteristics and techniques of
they find unclaimed or abandoned, what they make, and what business workings in the above example existed before
they get from other persons by gift or exchange (purchase). capitalism, and many have continued to be added. So this leaves
much room for debate. However, many people agree that it was
Capitalism has its origins, therefore, in individual freedom.
around the time when share-trading in corporate bodies became
Freedom implies that individuals do not coerce, intimidate or
common and widely understood that capitalism can be said to
cheat one another. This means that they do not use violence or
have begun, even though there is often disagreement that it was
fraud to injure one another or to deprive one another of
the share-trading itself that defined capitalism. Such share
possessions obtained by peaceful means, and that they do not
trading first took place widely in Europe during the 17th
threaten to injure one another in their persons or properties.
century and continued to develop and spread thereafter,
This freedom develops as individuals learn that, over a period although the word “Capitalism” itself did not come into use
of time, they gain more from cooperation motivated by hope until the 19th century.
of reward than they do from services performed under threat
In larger companies, authority is usually delegated in a hierarchi-
of violence. In other words, they gain more in the long run by
cal system of management. When company ownership is
production and exchange of goods and services than they can
spread among many shareholders, the shareholders generally
get by stealing, fraud, banditry or other forms of predation.

27
 have votes in the exercise of authority over the company in
DEVELOPMENT
Competition and Survival of the Fittest
proportion to the size of their share of ownership. Capitalist economies have large numbers of companies and
Importantly, the owners receive any profits or proceeds people free to enter into many types of arrangements with each
generated by the productive capacity that they own - sometimes other. The economy reacts to various changes in technologies,
in the form of dividends, other times in the form of profits. discoveries, and other situations, by means of companies and
Various owners are motivated to various degrees by this individuals re-assessing their arrangements with each other.
incentive - some give away a proportion of what they own, Therefore, the control mechanisms of the economy, and the
COMMUNICATION

others seem very driven to increase their holdings. Nevertheless way that information flows through it, evolve over time, and
the incentive is always there, and it is credited by many as being a are subject to a kind of “survival of the fittest” form of
key aspect behind the growth exhibited by capitalist economies. selection not unlike biological entities.
Prices are fixed by market operations.
Characteristics of Capitalist Economies
Prices are fixed by demand for and supply of a product.
Economic Growth
Capitalist economies have shown an erratic but sustained Private Ownership and Least State Intervention
tendency towards economic growth, when measured as an While there is a great deal of planning within companies and
increase in GDP. They have on occasion been through nearly other organisations in capitalist economies, there is no
disastrous periods (such as the Great depression), and some economy-wide direction, or even any reliable prediction or
have argued that it has only been government intervention that knowledge of how the economy will behave or perform more
has prevented capitalist economies from collapsing, while others than a year into the future. While nearly all transactions may be
maintain that it was government intervention that caused such approved of and planned by the people taking part, many
disasters. The former argue that it is only government interven- society-wide phenomena emerging from the transactions or
tion that has enabled capitalist economies to ever grow at all, or markets are often not planned, predicted, or approved or
even that economic growth in capitalist economies is not due to authorized by anyone.
capitalism itself, but exists despite capitalism - perhaps due to Most of the enterprises are private oriented.
some other reason such as increased scientific knowledge, or
Unemployment/Employment
some form of ‘imperialism’. Others have argued that the
Since individuals typically earn income through finding a
natural tendency of capitalism is to continuous growth and that
company for which to work, it is possible that not all individu-
government intervention in the form of subsidies and taxes is
als will be able to find a company that will want their labor at a
the cause of depressions. Yet others argue that growth, or often
given time. This would not be such a big problem in an
growth without enough freedom, is a bad thing. Still others
economy in which individuals had access to the resources to
argue that modern capitalism has been a disaster because of its
provide for themselves, but when ownership of the bulk of
other effects besides the growth of GDP. Further discussion on
productive resources is collected in relatively few hands, most
these points might be found in following sections. Neverthe-
individuals are made dependent on employment for their well
less, good or bad, because of or despite capitalism, it can be
being. It is normal that all real capitalist economies have
seen from history that there has been a sustained tendency for
fluctuating unemployment rates typically between 3 and 15%.
capitalist economies to grow over time.
Some economists have used the term the “natural rate of
Distribution of Wealth unenployment” to describe this situation. Occasionally employ-
Capitalist economies have shown an uneven distribution of ment rates have reached levels of 30%, and occasionally they
wealth. Typically between 0.5% and 1% of people own more have fallen to 2 or 1%, but rarely is there enough employment
than half of productive capacity, if not half of all wealth. for all. Some economists consider a certain level of unemploy-
Various studies have shown distributions with the peak in the ment to be necessary for capitalist economies to function. Some
distribution at or near zero with fewer people owning progres- political figures have claimed that the “natural rate of unem-
sively higher wealth. In these distributions some people own ployment” shows the inefficiencies of a capitalist economy, since
hundreds of thousands, or sometimes millions of times more not all resources, human labor in this case, are efficiently
than average. allocated.
The distribution of wealth in capitalist economies is one of its The Fruits of Capitalism
most contentious issues. To properly visualize the shape of Supporters of capitalism state that it supports the individual-
these distributions it is useful to imagine what it would be like ism, creativity, individual freedom, and the ability of the
if some other commonly known characteristic of people were individual to develop.
to be distributed this way. If height were distributed in the
During feudalism poor people were eternally poor, but in
same way as wealth with the same average height as now, most
capitalism they could rise up. The supporters claim that the
people would be under 1 meter (3 feet) tall, but you would still
peoples of the economically backward countries are poorer than
see people 100 kilometers (60 miles) tall, if you could see up
the Americans because their countries lack a sufficient number
that far, and the wealthiest would rise well into space.
of successful capitalists and entrepreneurs.
Critics argue that it is exploitation through which rich become
richer. Supporters state that inequality of income depends on
risk taking, innovativeness and investing.

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A tendency toward an improvement of the standard of living that capitalism has inherent contradictions that will inevitably

DEVELOPMENT
of the masses can prevail only when and where the accumula- lead to its collapse. Capitalism is seen as just one stage in the
tion of new capital outruns the increase in population figures. evolution of the economy of a society.
Problems of Capitalism Marxists also often argue that the structure of capitalism
necessarily leads to unjust exploitation of workers, regardless of
Capitalism leads to Class Divisions
whether or not the political system is one of an elected democ-
Over the past twenty years the United States particularly merits
racy or not. For this reason Marxists typically emphasise the

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Marx’s indictment for its aggravations of class divisions. As the
capitalist economic system of western countries rather than the
rich get richer and the poor poorer, we are all pitted against each
democratic political system. A capitalist system is an economic
other, millions in the third world are killed each year by
system - although often associated with democratic systems,
humanly reproduced poverty, environmental destruction
capitalist systems have functioned well under unelected
proceeds out of control, and handy advantages of race, gender
governments, two examples being Hong Kong and Singapore.
or nationality are used to exclude our neighbors.
In mainland China differences in terminology sometimes
Capital given Importance than Humans confuse and complicate discussions of Chinese economic
Humanity is the highest value. Elevating something subhuman reform. Under Chinese Marxism, which is the official state
(capital) above it, subjecting humanity to it in impersonal, ideology, capitalism refers to a stage of history in which there is
“masterless slavery” (Max Weber’s apt phrase), is morally wrong. a class system in which the proletariat is exploited by the
Unless joined to labor of humans, capital produces no profit. bourgeoisie. In the official Chinese ideology, China is currently
The labor is not rewarded according to the value the labor adds in the primary stage of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
to the capital. This “surplus labor”, and its contribution, However, because of Deng Xiaoping’s dictum to seek truth
“surplus value,” is the profit that is controlled by capitalists. from facts, this view does not prevent China from undertaking
Profit Orientedness policies which in the West would be considered capitalistic
Capitalists are entitled to profit because of their unique including employing wage labor, increasing unemployment to
productive contributions like entrepreneurial insight, managerial motivate those who are still working, transforming state owned
skill, innovation, and risk-taking. enterprises into joint stock companies, and encouraging the
growth of the joint venture and private capitalist sectors.
Commodity Fetishism
According to Karl Marx, the treatment of labor as a commodity Capitalism and political ideologies
led to people valuing things more according to their price rather 1. Some political ideologies favor capitalism:
than their usefulness (see commodity fetishism) and to an Libertarianism, sometimes also called classical liberalism,
expansion of the system of commodities. Marx observed that defends a capitalist free market with minimal state
some people bought commodities in order to use them, while intervention. Minarchist libertarians see the role for
others bought them in order to sell elsewhere at a profit. Much government in the economy as solely defending the rights of
of the history of late capitalism involves what David Harvey the participants against violence, theft, fraud, and damages
called the “system of flexible accumulation” in which more and such as pollution. Anarcho-capitalists see no role for
more things become commodities the value of which is government whatsoever.
determined by their exchange rather than by their use. Thus not
Conservatism varies depending on countries in its specific
only are pins commodities; shares of ownership in a factory
stances. In Western nations, conservatives often defend the
that makes pins become commodities; then options on shares
status quo of capitalist practices. Most people who call
become commodities; then portions of interest rates on bonds
themselves politically conservative however, economically
become commodities, and so on. The predominance of
subscribe to Mercantilism. See also political conservatism.
commodity speculation in modern capitalism very much shapes
its results. Objectivism argues that from the individual’s standpoint,
the only moral economic system is capitalism, since
Marxists and others criticize capitalism for enriching capitalists
capitalism itself can never come to exist without free men
(owners of capital) at the expense of workers without necessar-
who act rationally and within the bounds of their
ily working themselves (“the rich get richer, and the poor get
unalienable, and rationally derived, rights.
poorer”), and for the degree of control over the lives of
workers enjoyed by owners. Supporters of capitalism counter 2. Some ideologies favor a mixed economy with capitalist and
this criticism by claiming that ownership of productive capacity state-run elements:
provides motivation to owners to increase productive capacity Mercantilism defends a mostly free market within the nation,
and so generally increase the average material wealth (“we all get but proposes state intervention to protect domestic
richer”). Opponents of capitalism counter this by pointing out commerce and industries against foreign competition. See
that the average inflation-adjusted hourly wage in the United also protectionism, and in opposition, free trade, and Crony
States is below what it was 35 years ago. capitalism.
Marxists believe that the capitalism allows capitalists - the Social democracy and new liberalism argue for extensive state
owners of capital - to exploit workers. The existence of private regulation and partial intervention in an otherwise capitalist
property is seen as a restriction on freedom. Marxists also argue economy. Social democrats occupy a position between

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 socialists and classical liberals with regards to economic
DEVELOPMENT
Arguments for and against capitalism
matters. They see a need for government to regulate There seem to be four separate and distinct questions about
employment, trade, and labor, and sometimes favor capitalism which have clearly survived the 20th century and
nationalization of certain industries. See also welfare state, remain hotly debated today. Certain thinkers claim or claimed to
political liberalism. have simple answers to these questions, but political science
Distributism desires an economy with private property and generally sees them as scales or shades of grey:
with almost all people possessing a means of production.
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Is capitalism moral? Does it actually encourage traits we find

This would take place in for example a country of sustenance useful or appealing in human beings?
farmers. In a distributist economy, laws would be made to
Yes: Ludwig von Mises, Ayn Rand, Robin Hanson
restrict larger corporations from taking over. Distributists
favor achieving these goals not primarily through No: John McMurtry, Karl Marx
government regulation, but firstly through grass roots Is capitalism ethical? Can its rules and contracts and enforce-
efforts and collaboration. ment systems be made wholly objective of the people
Fascism established a state-controlled economy with powers administering them, to a greater degree than other systems?
delegated to capitalist interests subservient to the central Yes: Buckminster Fuller, John McMurtry, Friedrich Hayek
government. Socialists sometimes describe modern No: Karl Marx, Peter Kropotkin
capitalism as “fascist”, meaning an analogy to historical
Is capitalism efficient? Given whatever moral purposes or ethical
fascism with its cooperation (or cronyism) between industry
standards it might serve, can it be said to allocate energy,
and government. Fascism argues for a limited market
material resources, or human creativity better than any of the
economy, while emphasizing non-economic issues such as
alternatives?
nationalism and obedience to authority as the solution to
what the fascists see as the problems of capitalism. Yes: Ludwig von Mises, Paul Hawken, Joseph Schumpeter
3. Some ideologies oppose capitalism and support a collectively No: Peter Kropotkin
run economy: Is capitalism sustainable? Can it persist as a means of organiz-
Socialism argues for greater state control of the economy ing human affairs, under any conceivable set of reforms as per
than under social democracy. Areas of capitalism or private the above?
ownership may remain in certain sectors (such as small Yes: Buckminster Fuller, Paul Hawken
businesses) under socialism, but industry and labor are No: Joseph Schumpeter, Karl Marx
regulated by the state for the benefit of the populace at large.
Socialism argues for extensive non-private control of the
Marxism and Socialism
economy, which may or may not be associated with Karl Marx: The Life and the Message
democratic control by the people over the state (if a nation- Karl Heinrich Marx was born into a middle-class home in Trier
state exists in such a system). Philosophies calling themselves on the river Moselle in Germany on May 5, 1818. Marx’s father,
socialist may be libertarian, authoritarian, or anything in Heinrich, was a Jewish lawyer who had converted his family to
between. Socialism also argues for a high degree of economic Christianity partly in order to preserve his job in the Prussian
equality and the eradication of poverty and unemployment. state. Karl himself was baptized in the Evangelical church.
In common usage, the term socialism tends to be used At the age of seventeen, Marx enrolled in the Faculty of Law at
specifically to denote Social democracy. the University of Bonn. At Bonn he became engaged to Jenny
Communism is a variant of socialism which calls for the von Westphalen, the daughter of Baron von Westphalen, a
overthrow of the capitalist system and the establishment of prominent member of Trier society, and man responsible for
public ownership of the means of production. Communists interesting Marx in Romantic literature and Saint-Simonian
see socialism as a stage towards the establishment of a politics. The following year Marx’s father sent him to the more
stateless and classless economy. Historical Soviet serious University of Berlin where he remained four years, at
Communism, a system of Party-controlled socialism, is which time he abandoned his romanticism for the Hegelianism
distinct from the Communist ideal. which ruled in Berlin at the time.
Marxism argues for collective ownership of the means of As a student at the University of Berlin, young Marx was
production, and the eventual overthrow of the state, with an strongly influenced by the philosophy
intermediate stage in which the state will be used to eliminate of Georg Hegel and by a radical group
the vestiges of capitalism. Marxism is the foundation of called Young Hegelians, who attempted
several different ideologies, including communism and to apply Hegelian ideas to the move-
certain types of socialism. ment against organized religion and the
Libertarian socialism or left anarchism argues for collective Prussian autocracy. Although he shared
control of the economy without the need for a State. It Hegel’s belief in dialectical structure and
argues for total abolition of both the state and the capitalist historical inevitability, Marx held that the
economy. Instead, its proponents argue for a society based foundations of reality lay in the material
on non-coercive voluntary co-operation. base of economics rather than in the
abstract thought of idealistic philoso-

30
phy. Marx believed that philosophy ought to be employed in the idealistic socialism of P. J. Proudhon (1809-1865). He also

DEVELOPMENT
practice to change the world. joined the Communist League. This was an organization of
He earned a doctorate at Jena in 1841, writing on the material- German émigré workers with its center in London of which
ism and atheism of Greek atomists. In 1842, Marx became Marx and Engels became the major theoreticians. At a confer-
editor of the Rheinische Zeitung in Cologne, a liberal demo- ence of the League in London at the end of 1847 Marx and
cratic newspaper for which he wrote increasingly radical editorials Engels were commissioned to write a succinct declaration of
on social and economic issues. The newspaper was banned by their position. Scarcely was The Communist Manifesto

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the Prussian government in 1843, and Marx left for Paris with published than the 1848 wave of revolutions broke out in
his bride. There he went further in his criticism of society, Europe.
building on the Young Hegelian criticism of religion. In 1845, Marx moved to Brussels. He jotted down some notes,
Arriving in Paris at the end of 1843, Marx rapidly made contact Theses on Feuerbach, which he and Engels enlarged into a
with organized groups of émigré German workers and with book, The German Ideology, in which they developed their
various sects of French socialists. He also edited the short-lived materialistic conception of history. They argued that human
Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher which was intended to bridge thought was determined by social and economic forces,
French socialism and the German radical Hegelians. During his particularly those related to the means of production. They
first few months in Paris, Marx became a communist and set developed a method of analysis they called dialectical material-
down his views in a series of writings known as the Economic ism, in which the clash of historical forces leads to changes in
and Philosophical Manuscripts (1844), which remained society.
unpublished until the 1930s. In the Manuscripts, Marx outlined In 1847 a London organization of workers invited Marx and
a humanist conception of communism, influenced by the Engels to prepare a program for them. It appeared in 1848 as
philosophy of Ludwig Feuerbach and based on a contrast The Communist Manifesto. In it they declared that all history
between the alienated nature of labor under capitalism and a was the history of class struggles. Under capitalism, the struggle
communist society in which human beings freely developed between the working class and the business class would end in a
their nature in cooperative production. It was also in Paris that new society, a communist one.
Marx developed his lifelong partnership with Friedrich Engels Early in 1848 Marx moved back to Paris when a revolution first
(1820-1895). broke out and onto Germany where he founded, again in
Ludwig Feuerbach had written a book called The Essence of Cologne, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung. The paper supported a
Christianity, arguing that God had been invented by humans as radical democratic line against the Prussian autocracy and Marx
a projection of their own ideals. Feuerbach wrote that man, devoted his main energies to its editorship since the Commu-
however, in creating God in his own image, had “alienated nist League had been virtually disbanded. Marx’s paper was
himself from himself.” He had created another being in suppressed and he sought refuge in London in May 1849 to
contrast to himself, reducing himself to a lowly, evil creature begin the “long, sleepless night of exile” that was to last for the
who needed both church and government to guide and control rest of his life.
him. If religion were abolished, Feuerbach claimed, human The outbreak of the Revolutions of 1848 in Europe led Marx
beings would overcome their alienation. to return to Cologne, where he began publication of the Neue
Marx applied this idea of alienation to private property, which Rheinische Zeitung, but with the failure of the German liberal
he said caused humans to work only for themselves, not for the democratic movement he moved permanently, in 1849, to
good of their species. In his papers of this period, published as London. He spent most of his time in the British Museum,
Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, he elaborated studying economic and social history and developing his
on the idea that alienation had an economic base. He called for a theories.
communist society to overcome the dehumanizing effect of Settling in London, Marx was optimistic about the imminence
private property. of a new revolutionary outbreak in Europe. He rejoined the
Marx was expelled from Paris at the end of 1844 and with Communist League and wrote two lengthy pamphlets on the
Engels, moved to Brussels where he remained for the next 1848 revolution in France and its aftermath, The Class Struggles
three years, visiting England where Engels’ family had cotton- in France and The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. He was
spinning interests in Manchester. While in Brussels Marx soon convinced that “a new revolution is possible only in
devoted himself to an intensive study of history and elaborated consequence of a new crisis” and then devoted himself to the
what came to be known as the materialist conception of history. study of political economy in order to determine the causes and
This he developed in a manuscript (published posthumously as conditions of this crisis.
The German Ideology), of which the basic thesis was that “the During the first half of the 1850s the Marx family lived in
nature of individuals depends on the material conditions poverty in a three room flat in the Soho quarter of London.
determining their production.” Marx traced the history of the Marx and Jenny already had four children and two more were to
various modes of production and predicted the collapse of the follow. Of these only three survived. Marx’s major source of
present one — industrial capitalism — and its replacement by income at this time was Engels who was trying a steadily
communism. increasing income from the family business in Manchester. This
At the same time Marx was composing The German Ideology, was supplemented by weekly articles written as a foreign
he also wrote a polemic (The Poverty of Philosophy) against correspondent for the New York Daily Tribune.

31
 Marx’s major work on political economy made slow progress. “Just as Darwin discovered the law of development or organic
DEVELOPMENT

By 1857 he had produced a gigantic 800 page manuscript on nature, so Marx discovered the law of development of human
capital, landed property, wage labor, the state, foreign trade and history: the simple fact, hitherto concealed by an overgrowth of
the world market. The Grundrisse (or Outlines) was not ideology, that mankind must first of all eat, drink, have shelter
published until 1941. and clothing, before it can pursue politics, science, art, religion,
In the early 1860s he broke off his work to compose three large etc.; that therefore the production of the immediate material
volumes, Theories of Surplus Value, which discussed the means, and consequently the degree of economic development
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theoreticians of political economy, particularly Adam Smith and attained by a given people or during a given epoch, form the
David Ricardo. It was not until 1867 that Marx was able to foundation upon which the state institutions, the legal
publish the first results of his work in volume 1 of Capital, a conceptions, art, and even the ideas on religion, of the people
work which analyzed the capitalist process of production. In concerned have been evolved, and in the light of which they
Capital, Marx elaborated his version of the labor theory value must, therefore, be explained, instead of vice versa, as had
and his conception of surplus value and exploitation which hitherto been the case.
would ultimately lead to a falling rate of profit in the collapse But that is not all. Marx also discovered the special law of
of industrial capitalism. Volumes II and III were finished motion governing the present-day capitalist mode of produc-
during the 1860s but Marx worked on the manuscripts for the tion, and the bourgeois society that this mode of production
rest of his life and they were published posthumously by has created. The discovery of surplus value suddenly threw light
Engels. on the problem, in trying to solve which all previous investiga-
Marx’s ideas began to influence a group of workers in London, tions, of both bourgeois economists and socialist critics, had
who established the International Workingmen’s Association in been groping in the dark.
1864, later known as the First International. He devoted his Two such discoveries would be enough for one lifetime. Happy
time and energy to the First International as a member of its the man to whom it is granted to make even one such discov-
General Council. He was particularly active in preparing for the ery. But in every single field which Marx investigated — and he
annual Congresses of the International and leading the struggle investigated very many fields, none of them superficially — in
against the anarchist wing led by Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876). every field, even in that of mathematics, he made independent
Although Marx won this contest, the transfer of the seat of the discoveries.
General Council from London to New York in 1872, which Such was the man of science. But this was not even half the
Marx supported, led to the decline of the International. man. Science was for Marx a historically dynamic, revolutionary
The most important political event during the existence of the force. However great the joy with which he welcomed a new
International was the Paris Commune of 1871 when the discovery in some theoretical science whose practical application
citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the perhaps it was as yet quite impossible to envisage, he experi-
city for two months. On the bloody suppression of this enced quite another kind of joy when the discovery involved
rebellion, Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, The immediate revolutionary changes in industry, and in historical
Civil War in France, an enthusiastic defense of the Commune. development in general. For example, he followed closely the
In 1867, Marx published the first volume of Das Kapital. The development of the discoveries made in the field of electricity
next two volumes, edited by Engels, were published after and recently those of Marcel Deprez.
Marx’s death. The fourth volume was edited by Karl Kautsky. For Marx was before all else a revolutionist. His real mission in
Marx’s last years were marked by illness and depression. Marx life was to contribute, in one way or another, to the overthrow
continued to write treatises on socialism, urging that his of capitalist society and of the state institutions which it had
followers disdain softhearted bourgeois tendencies. brought into being, to contribute to the liberation of the
By the time of the brief Commune of Paris in 1871, Marx’s modern proletariat, which he was the first to make conscious of
name had begun to be well known in European political circles. its own position and its needs, conscious of the conditions of
its emancipation. Fighting was his element. And he fought with
During the last decade of his life, Marx’s health declined. He
a passion, a tenacity and a success such as few could rival.
traveled to European spas and even to Algeria in search of
recuperation. The deaths of his eldest daughter and his wife His name will endure through the ages, and so also will his
clouded the last years of his life. work. “
His collaborator and close friend Friedrich Engels stated about Marx’s contribution to our understanding of society has been
his death: “On the 14th of March 1883, at a quarter to three in enormous. His thought is not the comprehensive system
the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. He had evolved by some of his followers under the name of dialectical
been left alone for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back materialism. The very dialectical nature of his approach meant
we found him in his armchair, peacefully gone to sleep — but that it was usually tentative and open-ended. There was also the
for ever.” He called Marx as “the best-hated and most-calumni- tension between Marx the political activist and Marx the student
ated man of his time.” of political economy. Many of his expectations about the future
course of the revolutionary movement have, so far, failed to
Marx was buried at Highgate Cemetery in North London.
materialize. However, his stress on the economic factor in
Engels gave the following speech in memory of Marx.
society and his analysis of the class structure in class conflict

32
have had an enormous influence on history, sociology, and greatest part [in the formation of capital. In writing of the

DEVELOPMENT
study of human culture. genesis of the industrial capitalist, Marx spells out in more
The philosopher, social scientist, historian and revolutionary, detail what he takes to be the true source of the original fund
Karl Marx, is without a doubt the most influential socialist of capital that financed the first capitalist ventures. ‘The
thinker to emerge in the 19th century. Although he was largely discovery of gold and silver in America, the extirpation,
ignored by scholars in his own lifetime, his social, economic and enslavement and entombment in mines of the indigenous
political ideas gained rapid acceptance in the socialist movement population of that continent, the beginnings of the conquest

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after his death. Until quite recently almost half the population and plunder of India, and the conversions of Africa into a
of the world lived under regimes that claim to be Marxist. This preserve for the commercial hunting of black-skins, are all
very success, however, has meant that the original ideas of Marx things which characterize the dawn of the era of capitalist
have often been modified and his meanings adapted to a great production. These idyllic proceedings are the chief moments of
variety of political circumstances. In addition, the fact that Marx primitive accumulation.’
delayed publication of many of his writings meant that is been Marx denies that capitalists genuinely abstain from consump-
only recently that scholars had the opportunity to appreciate tion when they make capital available for production. Marx
Marx’s intellectual stature. claimed that the original industrial capitalists came by their
capital by naked extortion and force.
Marx and Capitalism
Marx lived and wrote to eliminate capitalism. According to him Therefore Marx envisaged that private property should be
capitalists are able to make profits only by exploiting their avoided. A welfare state could be established by sharing the
workers. Profits are made by the capitalist’s appropriation of riches of the country among all.
the surplus value created by the labour of his workers. In other Scientific Approach to History:
words, profits are made by the workers producing for their Dialectical Materialism
capitalist employers sums of value greater than they are paid in Dialectics states that theses creates antethesis and their interac-
wages. That sum of value which the workers receive in wages tion leads to a synthesis. This synthesis acting as a synthesis
they pay back to the capitalist by working for the period of further creates an antethesis.
necessary labour. The sums of value that are created by workers
Marx applied this in his study into the European History. He
during the period of surplus labour represent for the capitalist
stated: Feudalism creates bourgeoisie and this leads to emer-
pure gain. It is a return for which they make no equivalent
gence of capitalism & Capitalism creates proletariat and this lead
outlay. Marx called the rate of surplus vale, therefore, ‘an exact
to Socialism
expression for the degree of exploitation of labour-power by
capital, or of the worker by the capitalist (Conway, 1987). Theory of Class War
Traditionally, defenders of capitalism have wished to ascribe to The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class
capitalists two positive functions which, so they say, constitute struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and
genuine contributions to production that benefit workers and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and
which accordingly entitle them to some part of the product of oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried
the workers’ labour. Further, capitalists bear the burden of risk on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that
that is an inevitable feature of all commodity production. When each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of
goods are produced for sale, there is always a risk that there will society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending
not be sufficient demand for the product at a price which covers classes. In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost every-
the costs of production. By paying wages to workers in advance where a complicated arrangement of society into various orders,
of the sale of their product, the capitalist guarantees a return to a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have
the worker for his labour irrespective of whether his labour will patricians, equites, plebeians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, lords,
turn out to have been worthwhile from an economic point of vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost
view when the commodities come to be sold. The capitalist all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.
spares the worker this risk by shouldering it all himself. Profit is What else does the history of ideas prove, than that intellectual
the reward for taking this risk. production changes its character in proportion as material
Marx challenges the claim that the advance of capital by production is changed? The ruling ideas of each age have ever
capitalists involves abstinence on their part. He contests this been the ideas of its ruling class. When people speak of ideas
claim, first, in connection with the historical origin of the that revolutionize society, they do but express the fact that
capitalist mode of production, and, second, in connection with within the old society the elements of a new one have been
capitalism after its inception. Marx’s views about the origin of created, and that the dissolution of the old ideas keeps even
the capital which funded the first capitalist industrial ventures pace with the dissolution of the old conditions of existence.
are contained in his Theory of Primitive Accumulation, The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins
expounded in Part VIII of Capital Volume 1. Marx denies that of feudal society has not done away with clash antagonisms. It
the sums of capital which financed the first capitalist ventures has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression,
were formed as a result of the frugality of the initial capitalists. new forms of struggle in place of the old ones. Our epoch, the
Marx writes: ‘In actual history, it is a notorious fact that epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinctive
conquest, enslavement, robbery, murder, in short, force, play the feature: it has simplified the class antagonisms. Society as a

33
 whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile word, the feudal relations of property became no longer
DEVELOPMENT

camps, into two great classes directly facing each other: Bour- compatible with the already developed productive forces; they
geoisie and Proletariat. became so many fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they
From the serfs of the Middle Ages sprang the chartered were burst asunder. Into their place stepped free competition,
burghers of the earliest towns. From these burgesses the first accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted to it,
elements of the bourgeoisie were developed. The discovery of and by the economical and political sway of the bourgeois class.
America, the rounding of the Cape, opened up fresh ground In proportion as the bourgeoisie, i.e., Capital, is developed, in
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for the rising bourgeoisie. The East-Indian and Chinese the same proportion is the proletariat, the modern working
markets, the colonization of America, trade with the colonies, class, developed—a class of laborers, who live only so long as
the increase in the means of exchange and in commodities they find work, and who find work only so long as their labor
generally, gave to commerce, to navigation, to industry, an increases capital. These laborers, who must sell themselves
impulse never before known, and thereby, to the revolutionary piece-meal, are a commodity, like every other article of com-
element in the tottering feudal society, a rapid development. merce, and are consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of
The feudal system of industry, under which industrial produc- competition, to all the fluctuations of the market. Owing to the
tion was monopolized by closed guilds, now no longer sufficed extensive use of machinery and to division of labor, the work
for the growing wants of the new markets. The manufacturing of the proletarians has lost all individual character, and conse-
system took its place. The guild-masters were closed on one quently, all charm for the workman. He becomes an appendage
side by the manufacturing middle class; division of labor of the machine, and it is only the most simple, most monoto-
between the different corporate guilds vanished in the face of nous and most easily acquired knack, that is required of him.
division of labor in each single workshop. Hence, the cost of production of a workman is restricted,
Meantime the markets kept ever growing, the demand ever almost entirely, to the means of subsistence that he requires for
rising. Even manufacture no longer sufficed. Thereupon, steam his maintenance, and for the propagation of his race. But the
and machinery revolutionized industrial production. The place price of a commodity, and therefore also of labor, is equal to its
of manufacture was taken by the giant, Modern Industry, the cost of production. In proportion, therefore, as the repulsive-
place of the industrial middle class, by industrial millionaires, ness of the work increases, the wage decreases. Nay more, in
the leaders of whole industrial armies, the modern bourgeois. proportion as the use of machinery and division of labor
Modern industry has established the world-market, for which increases, in the same proportion the burden of toil also
the discovery of America paved the way. This market has given increases, whether by prolongation of the working hours, by
an immense development to commerce, to navigation, to increase of the work exacted in a given time or by increased
communication by land. This development has, in its turn, speed of the machinery, etc.....
reacted on the extension of industry; and in proportion as Masses of laborers, crowded into the factory, are organized like
industry, commerce, navigation, railways extended, in the same soldiers. As privates of the industrial army they are placed under
proportion the bourgeoisie developed, increased its capital, and the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants.
pushed into the background every class handed down from the Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the
Middle Ages. We see, therefore, how the modern bourgeoisie is bourgeois State; they are daily and hourly enslaved by the
itself the product of a long course of development, of a series machine, by the foreman, and, above all, by the individual
of revolutions in the modes of production and of exchange. bourgeois manufacturer himself. The more openly this
Each step in the development of the bourgeoisie was accompa- despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim, the more petty,
nied by a corresponding political advance of that class. An the more hateful and the more embittering it is. Differences of
oppressed class under the sway of the feudal nobility, an armed age and sex have no longer any distinctive social validity for the
and self-governing association in the medieval commune; here working class. All are instruments of labor, more or less
an independent urban republic (as in Italy and Germany), there expensive to use, according to their age and sex. The growing
a taxable third estate of the monarchy (as in France); afterwards, competition among the bourgeoisie, and the resulting commer-
in the period of manufacture proper, serving either the semi- cial crises, make the wages of the workers ever more fluctuating.
feudal or the absolute monarchy as a counterpoise against the The unceasing improvement of machinery, ever more rapidly
nobility, and, in fact, the corner-stone of the great monarchies in developing, makes their livelihood more and more
general, the bourgeoisie has at last. since the establishment of precarious...The modern laborer, instead of rising with the
Modern Industry and of the world-market, conquered for itself, progress of industry, sinks deeper and deeper below the
in the modern representative State, exclusive political sway. The conditions of existence of his own class. He becomes a pauper,
executive of the modern State is but a committee for managing and pauperism develops more rapidly than population and
the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie. wealth....
We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They
whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were have a world to win.
generated in feudal society. At a certain stage in the development To establish this new format of society, working men (the
of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions proletariat) must be organized and take up the struggle against
under which feudal society produced and exchanged, the feudal the capitalists who defraud them. Thus the actors in this drama
organization of agriculture and manufacturing industry, in one are the social classes — the proletariat is arrayed against capital-

34
ism. This struggle, according to Marx and Engels, will end in (whether it was agricultural land, urban land, factories and other

DEVELOPMENT
victory for the proletariat, that is, in the triumph of universal means of production, or banks and other financial institu-
Socialism. tions), and that the trend was accelerating in the direction of
impoverishing the majority certainly applied to colonial and
Widening gap between Have’s and Have
post-colonial India where hunger, homelessness, malnutrition
Nots
and disease had never been more widespread.
Marx also noted that in all but some of the earliest agricultural
Although today, society may not be sharply divided into polar

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communes, human society was invariably divided into social
classes and some classes exercised much greater control over the opposites quite as Marx described, there are important similari-
ownership (and disposal or exchange) of land (and other ties between contemporary India, and the bleak reality that Marx
means of production), and hence also enjoyed greater authority had described then.
in defining social roles and shaping social conduct. Fifty years after independence, the distribution of wealth in
He saw inequities in the access to property and the control of India (like most other developing nations) remains highly
wealth, deriving from, and influencing inequities in the levels of unequal. In a nation of almost a billion people, barely a million
social and political influence that particular social categories or are able to purchase a car each year. Less than 1 in 3 households
groupings enjoyed. He noticed a strong correlation between own a telephone. Roughly 20-25% (or even more) of all
economic and political power in society. workers earn fifty rupees (a dollar) a day or less. In spite of the
dramatic reduction in poverty since independence, poverty in
This was one of Marx’s most revolutionary insights, because it
India remains unacceptably high. Children drop out at young
lifted the veil of secrecy that had always shrouded unequal
ages to join the work force while educated adults are unable to
societies in the past. Inequities were argued away on a variety of
find work.
religious grounds or on the basis of socially discriminatory
theories. It was either “God’s Will” that people were poor, or it Just as Marx had observed, industrial development (in the
was their “karma” in a previous life, or that this life was merely a hands of private capital) has been an unplanned and anarchic
test, and the ultimate liberation lay in the after-life when a “Just process that has led to regional neglect and the proliferation of
God” would dispense the gift of “eternal happiness” to those slums in the urban areas. Industrialization for profits (at any
who had followed “His Teachings” obediently. But according to cost) has led to life-threatening pollution, the dumping of toxic
Marxian theory, oppressed individuals had the opportunity of wastes, criminal exposure to hazardous materials and danger-
liberation in this world by recognizing social divisions, forming ous conditions for many ordinary workers.
associations with like class members, and acting in a manner The expansion of private property has led to the expropriation
that reduced or eliminated class-inequities through informed of community property, village pasture lands and forests
and determined struggle. leading to landlessness, the impoverishment of the small
Based on his observations of 19th C European life, Marx peasantry, destruction of fishing and forest resources, and the
believed that capitalism was nurturing the very weapon which impoverishment of local artisans and traditionally trained and
could liberate humanity from the depredations of the capitalist skilled craftspeople.
class. This weapon was the proletariat - i.e. those who had no Although the growth of capitalism in India has led to a
choice but to work for a living but got very little rewards for growing supply of consumer goods, many are beyond the reach
their toils and tribulations. It was this proletariat which was of the average Indian. And what is worse is that the most basic
going to be the prime mover in a future revolutionary change essentials of life - such as clean drinking water, fresh air and
for a society free from ignorance, injustice, and cruelty - a society dignified housing are becoming more scarce.
where people could enjoy the varied fruits of all scientific, Even relatively better-off Indians must contend with constant
technological and cultural advances. power outages, inadequate water supply, poor sewage facilities
In 19th C Europe, the proletariat was large, and appeared to be and transportation gridlock. And like the poor, sections of
growing. Living conditions were impossible to bear, and India’s professional intelligentsia must live with nagging
nothing short of a revolutionary change seemed the answer. insecurity about the future. Will they find jobs when they
But as is evident today, in much of Europe and the US, classes graduate, will they be able to hold on to their jobs, will they
are not as starkly polarized as they once were, and class divisions have enough savings for sickness and old-age? Will they find a
appear to be more graduated and diffused than they were a job they like, or will they be forced to work at something
century earlier. But in the slums of India (or any other formerly insufferably boring just for the sake of the money...Will they be
colonized nation) the contrast between rich and poor remains forced to learn a foreign language to get work? These are not
vivid and intolerable. The classic proletariat as Marx described academic or abstract questions, but the reality for many Indians
may not exist in overwhelming numbers in Europe, but is fairly (or citizens of any developing nation experiencing uncertain
numerous in most poorer countries of the world. growth). Yet, few question the basic economic system that
Concentration of Wealth and Unplanned creates these problems. Many blame “corrupt officials and
Growth politicians” but hardly ever see the connection between econom-
Marx’s observation that the wealth of society was getting ics and politics, or understand these problems in the context of
concentrated in the hands of a very small minority - i.e. a small class divisions.
proportion of society owned a variety of economic resources Marx however made an important leap in the understanding of
social relations when he saw an interactive and dialectical

35
 connection between the social, economic and political forces in capitalism in a relatively backward country such as Russia) could
DEVELOPMENT

society. Rather than see these various forces as independent or instead be positively harnessed by a revolutionary coalition of
unrelated forces he saw the links between them. Rather than see all oppressed people in society (including peasants, manual
government bodies as prime (or independent) determinants of workers and intellectuals - i.e. scientists, engineers, teachers etc).
production and distribution, he saw these as by-products of They envisioned that this coalition could then create a society
the specific political-economic system and the class divisions that would be fair and just, and maximize the quality of life for
that existed in society. He saw politicians and government the vast majority of the people. It is important to note that this
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officials acting in support of specific class interests. He con- vision of socialism as elucidated by the People’s Will Party
cluded that in any nation legal relations as well as forms of involved the participation of categories other than just workers
state and government arose not from the specific ideas or and peasants (as is typically enunciated by most communist
thought processes of some individuals in society but rather, parties).
they developed from the general social and political conditions The role of the intellectual in the transition to socialism and
that influence both individuals and society at large. communism has not been entirely well-understood and many
By analysing various societies he observed that the social and have in fact failed to consider that intellectuals can play a dual
political conditions of society were shaped by their economic role in society. Parasitic intellectuals can obstruct social progress,
structure. By economic structure he meant the means of but progressive intellectuals can be of great assistance in moving
production and the social relations involved in economic society forward.
activity. For instance, he pointed out how in ancient Greece and The intellectual simply cannot be simply wished away in
Rome, most production in society was carried out by slaves. modern societies. The intellectual - whether as teacher, or
This aspect of economic relations had far reaching consequences organizer, or discoverer of new scientific knowledge, or creator
on the political and cultural life of these ancient societies. For of new technology, or designer of more advanced production
instance, in Greek democracy, slave holders had special rights processes (such as machines, or hardware or software codes) is
but slaves were not allowed to vote. The same was true of the an essential, perhaps even leading force (in some instances) in
American South during the slave-owning period. contemporary production. This is not to say that the intellectual
On the other hand, most production in Indian history was not can replace the actual workers, but that the intellectual can greatly
carried out by slaves but by peasants and artisans who (to facilitate the increased productive capacity of the average worker.
varying degrees) were divided into different jatis (guilds) or (Once productive processes become routinized, the role of the
castes. They were paid in either cash or kind. Since jati/caste had intellectual can diminish, even be eliminated altogether. But as
an important role in the specialization and allocation of labor - long as society is scientifically and technologically dynamic, the
(what Marx would have called the “relations of production”) - need for intellectual work will remain. Socialists might try to
jati/caste came to play an important role in social relations in distribute this work so as to prevent the formation of intellec-
society as well, and in determining who enjoyed greater political tual cartels or intellectual monopolies, but the complete
authority and social influence. elimination of the intelligentsia as a social category is unlikely in
On the other hand production in modern societies is carried out the foreseeable future, and serious Marxists will do well not to
more and more by indirect labor. That is to say that machines overlook the necessity of garnering support for socialism
either replace human labor entirely or else they magnify it amongst the intelligentsia.)
manifold. The production and maintenance of machinery And whether Marxists acknowledge this or not, intellectuals
involves both physical and mental labor. This has led to a played an important role in the Soviet Revolution as well. Due
dramatic change in the process of production and productive to the compelling leadership of Lenin, in 1918, the Bolshevik
relations. It has consequently also led to changes in culture, Party in Russia captured power, and was offered the opportu-
social interaction and forms of government. But regardless of nity of implementing the vision of the Russian People’s Will
how the world has changed over the centuries, Marx’s axiom: Party (even though the People’s Will Party had actually consider-
“The mode of production of material life conditions the social, ably decayed by that time).
political and intellectual life process in general. It is not the
During the period of British colonization of India, some of
consciousness of men that determines their being, but, on the
India’s greatest freedom fighters were also inspired by the ideals
contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness”
of the Russian Revolution. Prominent amongst them was
remains an important guide to understanding social realities,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh who read the works of Lenin in jail while
and how societies can be shaped for a better future.
awaiting the outcome of his trial. Refusing to compromise
(Of course, there is a danger in interpreting the above statement before the British, Bhagat Singh was sentenced to death. But his
too literally - because social memories - the weight of history, of impending death neither frightened him, nor dampened his
cultural traditions also have an impact on human consciousness heroic patriotism. In his last days, Bhagat Singh read furiously,
- and these too can play a role in shaping the destiny of human and in one of his very last testaments, argued persuasively that
societies - either by retarding progress, or facilitating it) the liberation of India’s impoverished and oppressed masses
However, in the 19th C, the People’s Will Party (in Russia) used would require nothing less than a socialist revolution.
this understanding of Marxian theory to argue that the greatly Six decades after Shaheed Bhagat Singh kissed the gallows, the
enhanced productive capacity of modern industrial processes Russian Revolution has disintegrated and the ideals of the
(rather than being left to the unpredictable workings of socialist revolution are treated with disdain by sections of the

36
Indian intelligentsia. Marxian theory is considered ‘passe’, out collapse in currency rates and stock prices throughout South

DEVELOPMENT
of date and irrelevant to the future of human progress. East Asia. Although some of the biggest Korean conglomer-
Intellectuals have often been told that their interest does not lie ates have just about survived this shock, many small investors
with the cause of socialism but with capitalism. Such feelings and even medium-sized businesses in Korea, Thailand, and
have been exacerbated by the propaganda of some Marxist Indonesia have been permanently bankrupted. And now, even
(particularly Maoist) tendencies that have ridiculed intellectuals, before East Asia has fully recovered from the last crisis, a new
and associated the pursuit of knowledge and technological (and potentially deeper and wider) recession looms high on the

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understanding with counter-revolutionary sentiments. Such horizon.
misguided derivations and applications of Marxian theory have The latest victims of economic turmoil are now to be found in
needlessly alienated potential allies to the cause of socialism. For Turkey and South America (such as in Argentina where there
that reason, the approach of the People’s Will Party is extremely has been a dramatic economic collapse that threatens to engulf a
important and relevant, particularly for those of India’s large proportion of the population, and by some accounts, has
intellectuals who are seeking alternatives to the capitalist already forced almost half the population into poverty, a quarter
paradigm. into dire poverty.)
For the majority of India’s workers and poor peasants, During a period of what seemed like an unstoppable boom, it
socialism remains a fairly obvious choice, (if only they were was easy to ignore Marx’s warnings about capitalist crises and
made aware of it); but it is also a preferable option for many of economic collapse. Yet, now, at least for some, these warnings
India’s well-educated, since only those who are able to avail of might hit home. In Argentina, the middle class is learning the
the opportunities for a prosperous life in the US (or find hard way that economic insecurity cannot always be wished away
lucrative jobs with a select group of export-oriented or foreign- under capitalism.
owned corporations) manage to escape the myriad problems of
Although, a string of welfare measures have helped limit the ill-
life under capitalism in India.
effects of economic downturns in the wealthier nations, many
It is quite ironic how so much of Marx’s critique of early middle class stock investors in the US have been recently
capitalism remains so relevant to the Indian condition today. exposed to the enormous risks of investing in the stock
Even as specific aspects of the writings of Marx or Lenin may markets when they got burned by their investments in Enron,
not hold validity, many of the general trends outlined in their or WorldCom, or sundry other highly touted high-tech
writings continue to hold true. On a world-wide scale, as Marx companies.
had warned, capitalism continues to favor the concentration of
In several key respects, Marxian concepts and formulations not
both economic and political power. Transnational corporations
only remain relevant, they are indispensable tools of social and
in the US and Europe enjoy market capitalization and valua-
political analysis. At the same time, it is important for Marxists
tions that exceed the GNP of entire nations. As Marx had
to take the trouble of clearing up many misimpressions and
argued, those who own considerable wealth are rarely satisfied
stereotypes about Marxism that have invaded the popular
with their present level of capital ownership. They continue to
consciousness. Marxism is often represented as an ideological
demonstrate an insatiable need for expanding and increasing
system that is undemocratic and authoritarian, that represses
their monopoly powers.
personal freedoms and squashes individuality and personal
The concept of “free” competition is repeatedly threatened by choice. Yet nothing could be further from the truth. It is a myth
attacks from viciously manipulative and rigged “market” forces. that Marxist conceptions of socialism require the absolute
Although new technology brings forth new companies, and crushing of dissent or suppression of individual freedom and
allows new entrepreneurs to emerge, in more established initiative.
industries, capitalism rapidly degenerates from fair competition
to monopolistic or oligopolic control. And as predicted by both Socialism and Democracy
Marx and Lenin, wars of acquisition and economic control have It is important to note that when the Bolshevik Party embarked
not been eliminated. Regardless of the propaganda concerning a on a journey to build socialism, it was a pioneering effort, an
the war and occupation of Iraq, this war has not been fought to experiment that was new and unique in the history of class-
liberate any nation or people, but to facilitate the US (and its divided human society. Just as new technologies and new
allies such as Britain and Israel among others) in their domina- inventions need several cycles of debugging and correction, the
tion of the Middle East - to promote the monopolistic control process of building socialism in human society will also involve
of super-profits from the oil-fields of the Arabian Peninsula, several attempts - some less successful and some more. It will
and hence, to control the energy resources of energy deficient involve constant learning and self-correction.
nations such as India. Whereas Indian history has a rich tradition of dialectical
Throughout the world, capitalist governments have been largely thinking and philosophical debate, where a variety of religious
ineffective in countering the power of the US and its allies. The and philosophical views found a platform and competed for
sudden collapse of the Asian tigers was a lesson for all develop- acceptance, such has not been the case in societies where religion
ing countries. It showed how Western capital could manipulate became fused with the state, and religions of the book insisted
currency and bond markets. It vividly illustrated how the Asian on a “revealed truth” being the last word in human under-
stock markets had attracted all kinds of speculators and market standing and philosophy.
manipulators, leading to the wild run-ups and the unexpected

37
 At the dawn of the socialist revolution in Orthodox Russia, necessities, providing educational and cultural opportunities,
DEVELOPMENT

there was no well-established tradition of parliamentary assuring access to health and other essential social services) the
democracy, of a vibrant press, or of multiple political parties. Soviet Union was not only more democratic than Czarist
Even though Czarist Russia was becoming more liberal, and Russia, it also led many so-called “liberal democratic” nations.
permitted (even encouraged) a considerable degree of progress Where it lagged was in offering broader political and intellectual
in the realm of science and culture, it allowed for only limited democracy and greater freedom for dissent - something that is
political freedom. Democratic currents were weak and fragile. In seen as too precious to give up in countries such as India. But
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fact, in 1918, there were few real democracies in the world - most too often, democracy is seen as an end in itself - rather than as
of Eastern Europe was under dictatorial rule and much of Asia simply a means of achieving social fairness and justice. To the
and Africa were under the colonial gun. In many so-called extent that democratic freedoms are exploited to undermine
‘democracies’, there wasn’t yet universal suffrage. There was social justice, democracy can be a hindrance to progress (rather
racial and gender discrimination, and often, property owners than a facilitator of progress as is sometimes mechanically
and old feudal elites enjoyed political privileges that ran counter assumed).
to democratic values. It is therefore, not too surprising that the
In any case, there is no reason to believe that a new socialist
construction of socialism in 20th C Russia was not to be
society couldn’t be more liberal than earlier incarnations. Surely
accompanied by the sort of political and intellectual democracy
any future attempt at building socialism could learn some
that some might have hoped and envisaged. (Lenin had
valuable lessons from the Soviet experience, and attempt to
himself predicted that no new society is completely able to
rectify those aspects of the Soviet system that were inadequate
destroy the ghosts of the past.)
or caused the revolution to go astray. With India’s greater
Moreover, soon after the Bolshevik victory, the Bolshevik state experience with tolerance of dissent and differences (and over
was attacked from all sides. Some of the decisions that the five decades of democratic functioning), it is likely, that
Bolsheviks took in suppressing democracy were more in the socialism in India might likely entail more democratic freedoms
nature of emergency measures that eventually got institutional- (and tolerate much higher levels of dissent) than was possible
ized. This led to scathing criticism from Rosa Luxembourg who in the Soviet Union.
saw in such measures the danger of internal rot and decay due
Yet, it is also important to reiterate the present limitations of
to misuse by opportunist elements (something that gradually
Indian democracy (as of democracy as practised in all other
came to pass, and contributed to the eventual dismembering of
capitalist countries).
the Soviet Union). Karl Kautsky, while sympathizing with the
dilemmas faced by the Bolsheviks, also warned that the Today, in democratic India, we have a wide spectrum of political
repression of democracy could at best be a temporary measure, parties, newspapers and magazines in several languages and
and that the long-term health of any socialist state would stable democratic institutions. Yet, virtually all the political
inevitably require the construction of stable democratic institu- parties are unanimous in their support for market-driven
tions, albeit within a socialist framework. economic policies and greater liberalization of the Indian
economy regardless of any negative consequences. Every
It is therefore important not to over-generalize from the Soviet
political party makes tall promises before elections, but few, if
model, and to recognize that even in 1918, there were differing
any of these get implemented. Although parties in opposition
views amongst Marxists as to how to build a stable socialist
might oppose certain retrograde moves of the party in power
state.
(such as voice their opposition to reckless privatisation), they
But even as one might take note of such criticisms of the rarely take sufficient steps to actually counter or restrain the
Bolshevik approach, one ought not to ignore the equally serious ruling party.
dangers of the misuse of liberal democracy or the misuse of
Political parties might criticize the IMF or the WTO, but they are
radical populism. Bolshevism has not been the only political
rarely able to take any concrete steps to actively advance Indian
system that was undermined by the covert invasion of parasitic
interests in the international arena. The interests of the imperial
elements. In recent years, the utter bankruptcy of liberal
powers, of the transnationals, and of the CII (Confederation
democracy should pose no less a threat and warning to sincere
of Indian Industry) or ASSOCHAM (Association of Indian
advocates of social change. Lenin, Stalin (and later Gramsci)
Chambers of Commerce) and other such organizations
understood very well that if the world had to be changed for
invariably seems to supercede the will of the people.
the better, one couldn’t rely upon either radical populism, or
corrupt liberal democracy. Lenin’s purpose in advocating the The Indian press even as it acknowledges the problems faced by
formation of a revolutionary vanguard must be fully compre- ordinary Indians overwhelmingly speaks for foreign and/or
hended before advocating any solutions to the problem of domestic business interests before it speaks for the Indian
socialist democracy. public interest. The solutions they advocate rarely have anything
to do with ameliorating the plight of ordinary Indians. It is
For democracy to be truly effective, not only must one eliminate
little wonder that often, in Delhi and Gujarat and other places
the unequal power of capital accumulation and concentration,
in India, only half the eligible voters even bother to vote.
one must also provide rigorous education in the theory and
Indian democracy, while undoubtedly superior to Pakistan’s
practice of scientific socialism.
Jehadi militarism, is nevertheless an inadequate political
It must also be noted that democracy is more than just the right solution for the problems that grip India.
to vote. In some important respects (such as guaranteeing life’s

38
One can therefore hope that genuine and serious advocates of with inquiries into the liberation of the human spirit. There are

DEVELOPMENT
social change in India (or elsewhere in the subcontinent) will shlokas in the Atharva Veda which speak of human inter-
not dismiss Marxian theory, but make their own investigation connectedness and the need for tolerance and cooperation.
and inquiry into the writings of Marx and other Marxist Buddhism went several steps further in analyzing the human
scholars, incorporating aspects relevant to the Indian experience condition, and inquiring into what might lead to human
into their analysis and criticism of social and political conditions happiness. Whereas many Indian philosophical systems
in India. Theories of social change that utilize the best of attempted to solve this problem in the context of an individual

COMMUNICATION
Marxist literature (whether developed by Marx himself, or those alone, early Buddhism attempted to relate the individual
that followed him) are far more likely to help in bringing about experience to the functioning of society - and correctly posited
the sweeping transformation that is required to liberate the that the happiness of an individual could not be fully realized
Indian people (and their neighbors) from what seems to be an without also realizing the happiness of society as a whole.
unending saga of social and political strife, economic frustra- Marxian theory attempts to turn such revolutionary insights
tions and deprivation. into concrete realizations, unencumbered by the idealistic and
practically unachievable constructs of ancient philosophical
Common Good given Priority to
systems.
Individual Greed
But Marxism is not just an ideology for the liberation of the Thus, Marxism is not the rejection of ancient philosophical
poor and disenfranchised. An equally important aim is to systems, but their rehabilitation and their renewal - their
release human creativity from the shackles of commercialism - transformation from the wishful or desirable to the realizable.
from the inhibitions imposed by the imperative of the profit- Thus even as one great socialist experiment has fallen apart,
motive, from the necessity of dog-eat-dog competition and there will be others that will once again awaken the world to the
from the credo of survival of the fittest. Socialism has often possibility of the cooperative and collective will of millions
been criticized for strangling the human spirit. But socialism acting in concert to raise the human spirit to new heights of
need only restrict those aspects of individual freedom that social consciousness and cooperation, allowing for a free and
trample on the rights of others. Socialism may also attempt to unbridled (but positively oriented) individuality to thrive and
encourage cooperation and social harmony which justifiably flourish. That will be the socialism of the future.
involves a certain degree of sacrifice of self-centered egotism and
Capitalism versus Socialism
individualism. But socialism has no reason to restrict those
The debate between socialism and capitalism is far from over.
aspects of individual freedom that cause no harm to others, or
In fact the battle of ideas is intensifying. International agencies,
may benefit others. In fact, socialism has the potential of
including the United Nations, the International Labor Organi-
offering a much greater variety of positive individual freedoms
zation (ILO), the Food and Agricultural Organization, the
that would be impossible to realize under capitalism.
World Health Organization and reports from NGO’s,
In fact, the goal of socialism is not to crush individualism but UNESCO and independent experts and regional and national
rather to organize and manage the economic life of society in a economic experts provide hard evidence to discuss the merits of
way that encourages the individuality of all human beings to capitalism and socialism.
blossom. By guaranteeing the essentials of life to all citizens,
Comparisons between countries and regions before and after
and ensuring equal opportunity to all the children that enter this
the advent of capitalism in Eastern Europe, Russia and Central
world, socialism then creates the potential of every individual to
Europe as well as a comparison of Cuba and the ex-communist
develop unique personality traits, engage in any useful human
countries provide us with an adequate basis to draw some
endeavour and realize the maximum creative potential that may
definitive conclusions. Fifteen years of “transition to capital-
exist in one, (but often remains dormant due to adverse social
ism” is more than adequate time to judge the performance and
conditions).
impact of capitalist politicians, privatizations, free market
The vision of socialism is therefore not just about eliminating policies and other restoration measures on the economy, society
the existing problems of poverty, underdevelopment, hunger and general welfare of the population.
and disease, but also to enable individuals to use their bodies
Under communism the economic decisions and property were
and intellectual and entrepreneurial abilities to the fullest,
national and publicly owned. Over the past 15 years of the
without concern for cut-throat competition, market risks and
transition to capitalism almost all basic industries, energy,
uncertainties. Socialism is not just for manual workers and
mining, communications, infrastructure and wholesale trade
peasants, it is also for those engaged in cultural, educational,
industries have been taken over by European and US multi-
scientific, technological, managerial or entrepreneurial activities.
national corporations and by mafia billionaires or they have
It is for every one who dreams of a just and happy world, a
been shut down. This has led to massive unemployment and
world in which peace and harmony reign instead of war. It is
temporary employment, relative stagnation, vast out-migration
for those who wish to build a world based on reasoned
and the de-capitalization of the economy via illegal transfers,
optimism - who wish to take advantage of basic human
money laundering and pillage of resources.
goodness, rather than for those whose world-view stems from
cynicism and the exploitation of human frailty. In Poland, the former Gdansk Shipyard, point of origin of the
Solidarity Trade Union, is closed and now a museum piece.
In many key respects, socialist goals are not at odds with those
Over 20% of the labor force is officially unemployed (Financial
of the philosophers of ancient India. Indian history is replete

39
 Times, Feb. 21/22, 2004) and has been for the better part of the predict Russia’s population will decline by 30% over the next
DEVELOPMENT

decade. Another 30% is “employed” in marginal, low paid jobs decades (WSJ Feb 4, 2004).
(prostitution, contraband, drugs, flea markets, street venders The worst consequences of Western supported “transition” to
and the underground economy). In Bulgaria, Rumania, Latvia, capitalism are still to come over the next few years. The intro-
and East Germany similar or worse conditions prevail: The duction of capitalism has totally undermined the system of
average real per capita growth over the past 15 years is far below public health, leading to an explosion of deadly but previously
the preceding 15 years under communism (especially if we well-controlled infectious diseases. The Joint United Nations
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include the benefits of health care, education, subsidized Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) published a comprehen-
housing and pensions). Moreover economic inequalities have sive empirical report which found that in Eastern Europe and
grown geometrically with 1% of the top income bracket Central Asia…”infection levels are growing faster than anywhere
controlling 80% of private assets and more than 50% of else, more than 1.5 million people in the region are infected
income while poverty levels exceed 50% or even higher. In the today (2004) compared to 30,000 in 1995” (and less than 10,000
former USSR, especially south-central Asian republics like in the socialist period). The infection rates are even higher in the
Armenia, Georgia, and Uzbekistan, living standards have fallen Russian Federation, where the rate of increase in HIV infection
by 80%, almost one fourth of the population has out-migrated among young people who came of age under the Western-
or become destitute and industries, public treasuries and energy backed ‘capitalist’ regimes between 1998-2004 is among the
sources have been pillaged. The scientific, health and educational highest in the world.
systems have been all but destroyed. In Armenia, the number
A big contributor to the AIDS epidemic are the criminal gangs
of scientific researchers declined from 20,000 in 1990 to 5,000 in
of Russia, Eastern Europe, the Balkans and Baltic countries,
1995, and continues on a downward slide (National Geo-
who trade in heroin and each year deliver over 200,000 ‘sex-
graphic, March 2004). From being a center of Soviet high
slaves’ to brothels throughout the world. The violent Albanian
technology, Armenia today is a country run by criminal gangs in
mafia operating out of the newly “liberated” Kosova controls a
which most people live without central heat and electricity.
significant part of the heroin trade and trafficking in sex-slaves
In Russia the pillage was even worse and the economic decline throughout Western Europe and North America. Huge
was if anything more severe. By the mid 1990’s, over 50% of amounts of heroin produced by the US allied war lords of
the population (and even more outside of Moscow and St. “liberated” Afghanistan pass through the mini-states of former
Peterburg - formerly Leningrad) lived in poverty, homelessness Yugoslavia flooding Western European countries. The newly
increased and universal comprehensive health and education ‘emancipated’ Russian Jewish mafia oligarchs have a major stake
services collapsed. Never in peace-time modern history has a in the trafficking of drugs, illegal arms, women and girls bound
country fallen so quickly and profoundly as is the case of for the sex- industry and in money-laundering throughout the
capitalist Russia. The economy was “privatized” - that is, it was US, Europe and Canada (Robert Friedman, Red Mafiya ,2000).
taken over by Russian gangsters led by the eight billionaire Mafia billionaires have bought and sold practically all major
oligarchs who shipped over $200 billion dollars out of the electoral politicians and political parties in the self-styled
country, mainly to banks in New York, Tel Aviv, London and “Eastern democracies”, always in informal or formal alliance
Switzerland. Murder and terror was the chosen weapon of with US and European intelligence services.
“economic competitiveness” as every sector of the economy and
Economic and social indicators conclusively document that “real
science was decimated and most highly trained world class
existing capitalism” is substantially worse than the full employ-
scientists were starved of resources, basic facilities and income.
ment, moderate growth, welfare states that existed during the
The principal beneficiaries were former Soviet bureaucrats, mafia
previous socialist period. On personal grounds -in terms of
bosses, US and Israeli banks, European land speculators, US
public and private security of life, employment, retirement, and
empire-builders, militarists and multinational corporations.
savings -the socialist system represented a far safer place to live
Presidents Bush (father) and Clinton provided the political and
than the gang-controlled capitalist societies that replaced them.
economic backing to the Gorbachov and Yeltsin regimes which
Politically, the communist states were far more responsive to the
oversaw the pillage of Russia, aided and abetted by the
social demands of workers, provided some limits on income
European Union and Israel. The result of massive pillage,
inequalities, and, while accommodating Russian foreign policies
unemployment and the subsequent poverty and desperation
interests, diversified, industrialized and owned all the major
was a huge increase in suicide, psychological disorders, alcohol-
sectors of the economy. Under capitalism, the electoral
ism, drug addiction and diseases rarely seen in Soviet times. Life
politicians of the ex-communist states sold, at bargain prices, all
expectancy among Russian males fell from 64 years in the last
major industries to foreign or local monopolies, fostering
year of socialism to 58 years in 2003 ( Wall Street Journal, 2/4/
monstrous inequalities and ignore worker health and employ-
2004), below the level of Bangladesh and 16 years below Cuba’s
ment interests. With regard to ownership of the mass media,
74 years (Cuban National Statistics 2002). The transition to
the state monopoly has been replaced by foreign or domestic
capitalism in Russia alone led to over 15 million premature
monopolies with the same homogenous effects. There is little
deaths (deaths which would not have occurred if life expectancy
question that an objective analysis of comparative data between
rates had remained at the levels under socialism). These socially
15 years of capitalist ‘transition’ and the previous 15 years of
induced deaths under emerging capitalism are comparable to the
socialism, the socialist period is superior on almost all quality of
worst period of the purges of the 1930’s. Demographic experts
life indicators.

40
Let us turn now to compare Cuban socialism to the newly nation to U.S. empire building. Equally important while AIDS

DEVELOPMENT
emerging capitalist countries of Russia, Easter Europe and infects millions in Eastern Europe and Russia, Cuba has the
south-central Asia. best preventive and most humane treatment facilities in the
Cuban socialism was badly hit by the turn to capitalism in the world for dealing with HIV. Free anti-viral drugs, humane cost-
USSR and Eastern Europe. Industrial production and trade fell free treatment and well-organized, extensive public health
by 60% and the daily caloric intake of individual Cubans fell by programs and health education explains why Cuba has the
half. Nevertheless infant mortality in Cuba continued to decline lowest incidence of HIV in the developing world despite the

COMMUNICATION
from 11per 1000 live births in 1989 to 6 in 2003 (comparing presence of small-scale prostitution related to tourism and low
favorably to the U.S.). While Russia spends only 3.8% of its incomes.
GNP on public healthcare and 1.5% on private care, the Cubans The debate over the superiority of socialism and capitalism
spend 16.7%. While life expectancy among males declined to 58 continues because what has replaced socialism after the collapse
years in capitalist Russia, it rose to 74 years in socialist Cuba. of the USSR is far worse on every significant indictor. The
While unemployment rose to 21% in capitalist Poland, it debate continues because the achievements of Cuba far surpass
declined to 3% in Cuba. While drugs and criminal gangs are those of the emerging capitalist countries and because in Latin
rampant among the emerging capitalist countries, Cuba has America the emerging social movements have realized changes
initiated educational and training programs for unemployed in self-government (Zapatistas), in democratizing land owner-
youth, paying them salaries to learn a skill and providing job ship (MST Brazil) and natural resource control (Bolivia) which
placement. Cuba’s continued scientific advances in biotechnol- are far superior to anything US imperialism and local capitalism
ogy and medicine are world-class while the scientific has to offer.
infrastructure of the former communist countries has collapsed The emerging socialism is a new configuration which combines
and their scientists have emigrated or are without resources. the welfare state of the past, the humane social programs and
Cuba retains its political and economic independence while the security measure of Cuba and the self-government experiments
emerging capitalist countries have become military clients of the of the EZLN and MST.
US, providing mercenaries to service the US empire in the
The great world crisis and slump seemed to justify the Marxist
Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq. In contrast to Eastern Europe-
analysis. While all other systems and theories were groping
ans working as mercenary soldiers for the US in the Third
about in the dark, Marxism alone explained it more or less
World, 14,000 Cuban medical workers serve some of the
satisfactorily and offered a real solution.
poorest regions in Latin America and Africa in cooperation with
various national governments that have requested their skills. Mixed Economy
There are more than 500 Cuban medical workers in Haiti. In A “mixed” economy is a mix between socialism and capitalism.
Cuba, most industries are national and public with enclaves of It is a hodgepodge of freedoms and regulations, constantly
private markets and joint ventures with foreign capital. In ex- changing because of the lack of principles involved. A mixed
communist countries, almost all basics industries are economy is a sign of intellectual chaos. It is the attempt to gain
foreign-owned, as are most of the mass media and “culture the advantages of freedom without government having to give
industries”. While Cuba retains a social safety net for basic up its power.
foodstuff, housing, health, education and sports, in the A mixed economy is always in flux. The regulations never
emerging capitalist countries the “market” excludes substantial produce positive results, because they always force people to act
sectors of the unemployed and underpaid from access to many against their own interests. When a particular policy fails, it is
of those goods and services. propped up by other regulations in the hopes that more control
Nehru (1941) says: will produce better results. Sometimes the results are so
I had long been drawn to socialism and communism, and Russia had destructive they must either be removed, or the people must be
appealed to me.” Though he disapproves the oppression and violence which violently oppressed to make them accept it.
is present both in the capitalistic and socialist countries. Violence was Thus, mixed economy is an economy which combines regulated
common in both places, but the violence of the capitalist order seemed free market capitalism and a limited number of socialist
inherent in it; while the violence of Russia, bad though it was aimed at a institutions and state ownership of some sectors of the
new order based on peace and co-operation and real freedom for the economy such as social security environmental regulation, labor
masses. … In the balance, therefore, I was all in favor of Russia, and regulation, product safety regulation, progressive taxation,
the presence and example of the Soviets was a bright and heartening public education, and health care.
phenomenon in a dark and dismal world.” Most democratic countries have mixed economies. It is nearly
Comparative data on economy and society demonstrate that impossible to have pure capitalism (the government regulates
“reformed socialism” in Cuba has greatly surpassed the nothing) or pure socialism (the government runs everything),
performance of the emerging capitalist countries of Eastern but the term mixed economy is generally used when an
Europe and Russia, not to speak of Central Asia. Even with economy has reasonably significant portions of both socialism
the negative fall-out from the crisis of the early 1990’s, and the and capitalism.
growing tourist sector, Cuba’s moral and cultural climate is far While, in theory, resource allocation could be undertaken
healthier than any and all of the corrupt mafia- ridden electoral exclusively through markets or exclusively through govern-
regimes with their complicity in drugs, sex slavery and subordi- ments, in the real world all economies rely on a mix of both

41
 markets and governments for allocation decisions. Markets economy has ever been completely unmixed. Even before
DEVELOPMENT

allocate resources through voluntary choices made by living, Independence. India had a fairly important public sector, the
breathing people. Government forces allocation through most important component of which was the railway system.
involuntary taxes, laws, restrictions, and regulations. While you There may be various grades of mixture between the impracti-
might have your own personal favorite in the use of markets or cable extremes of one hundred per cent laissez-faire and one
government to do the deed of allocation, don’t be too quick to hundred per cent socialist production. In India, the Second Five
judge. Both institutions play vital roles in a mixed economy. Year Plan summed up the objectives of the planned develop-
COMMUNICATION

An economy that uses nothing but markets to allocate resources ment in the phrase ‘socialist pattern of society’, implying that
is called a pure market economy. This is a theoretical ideal that “the basic criterion for determining lines of advance must not
doesn’t actually exist in the real world. But it gives us an be private profit, but social gain...” and yet the character of the
excellent benchmark for comparison with real world economies. economy that has emerged as a result of planned development
does not resemble even remotely socialism. Nationalization of
An economy that uses nothing but government to allocate
banks, setting up a number of enterprises in the public sector
resources is called a pure command economy. This is also a
and such other measures may create an illusion that the
theoretical extreme that doesn’t actually exist the real world. But
economy has advanced towards socialism but in fact socio-
like a pure market economy, it provides a benchmark for
economic relations have not undergone any such change as to
comparison with real world economies.
warrant the conclusion that the Indian economy has drifted
An inherent dimension of a mixed economy is the pursuit of away from its capitalist form. According to Sukhamoy
economic goals using assorted government policies. The five Chakravarty, “...as of now, there is no evidence that despite the
basic goals that are generally desired by society are (1) full growth of a large public sector, India has moved to any
employment, (2) stability, (3) economic growth, (4) efficiency, significant extent closer to a ‘socialist society’, in any meaningful
and (5) equity. Governments take primary responsibility in the sense of the term. If the present trends are not going to be
pursuit of these five goals with a wide variety of economic reversed, it is possible that India will witness in the closing
policies that assist, guide, control, and regulate voluntary market decade of this century a considerably enlarged private sector with
exchanges. Such policies take the form of (1) laws passed by further erosion of the role of planning in the traditional sense
legislatures, (2) administrative actions taken by elected execu- of the term.”’” Fifteen years have passed since Sukamoy
tives, (3) rules set forth by government agencies, and (4) Chakravarty made these, observations. In these years commit-
decisions made through the courts. ment to build a socialist economy has been completely
It is an economy that combines elements of capitalism and abandoned. Even the policy measures adopted by the govern-
socialism, mixing some individual ownership and regulation. ment have been such that they significantly undermine the role
Some capitalist countries, France, for example, employ what is of economic planning. However, in many respects, the character
often called state capitalism. In this form of a mixed economy, of the Indian economy is different from that of the capitalist
the state becomes a major shareholder in private enterprises. An economies of the eighteenth century Europe. The two factors
alternative, employed in Great Britain (more in the past than in the Indian economy, viz, the presence of the public sector
now), is for the state to own some industries while leaving and economic planning make it distinctly different from the
others in private hands. Australia is a mixed economy, with capitalist economies of the West in the earlier phase of their
major state-owned enterprises in communications, transport, development. Some economists taking note of the public
banking, energy generation and health services, as well as sector and economic planning in India’s economy have charac-
privately owned enterprises in the same areas. In common with terized it as state capitalism. In essence, however, state
capitalist economies such as the UK and New Zealand, capitalism is the same thing as the mixed economy. We explain
Australian governments are reducing these activities by below such features of India’s economy which determine its
privatising state-operated businesses. Other examples are seen character as a mixed economy.
in eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, where newly Private Ownership of the means of Production and
independent states have embraced the principles of private Profit-induced Commodity Production
enterprise. China, too, provides a striking illustration of the Under Indian constitution private ownership of means of
transition to a mixed economy. production has been allowed. Moreover, the capitalist class
In economics and politics, a mixed economy is an economy controls the State power whereby it influences the policies of
which combines regulated free market capitalism and a limited the government. These factors adequately explain why the
number of socialist institutions and State ownership of some private sector in this country remains pervasive. (The share of
sectors of the economy such as social security, environmental the public sector in the total national output is less than 25 per
regulation, labor regulation, product safety regulation, progres- cent). At present a big segment of the industrial sector is in
sive taxation and public education. private hands. As a matter of fact, with the exception of some
basic industries, all other industries, including cotton textiles,
India as a Mixed Economy
jute, sugar, cement, vegetable oil, leather, etc., are in the private
The Indian economy is a mixed economy. It has acquired this
sector. Lately with the adoption of neoliberal economic policy
form with the growth of a large public sector since Indepen-
the government is hastily withdrawing from industrial sector so
dence. Bhabatosh Datta asserts, “In examining the Mixed
much so that even the profit making industrial enterprises are
Economy thus introduced, one has to remember that no
being handed over to private companies at prices which arc far

42
below their asset values. Though railways are still State owned, which have been carried out in this country since 1991-92

DEVELOPMENT
road transport is mostly in private hands. Agriculture, the various physical controls have been withdrawn. Thus the
principal economic activity in the country, is in the private sector market now operates far more freely than in the past.
as the ownership of agricultural land is entirely personal. These
Monopoly Trends
facts pointedly suggest that the production in such an economy
Since Independence, monopoly houses have grown rapidly and
will be done for the market and the activity of the producers
with it the concentration of economic power in the country has
‘’will be motivated primarily by profit. In agriculture, no doubt,

COMMUNICATION
increased. This trend was first noted by the Committee on
small farmers do not have marketable surplus and, therefore,
Distribution of Income and Levels of Living chaired by P.C.
their behaviour as producers is generally not responsive to
Mahalanobis. The Committee stated in its report, “It is also
market changes.
evident that the working of planned economy has contributed
Decisive Role of the Market Mechanism to this growth of big companies in Indian industry.” Rapid
Market mechanism has a predominant position in the .Indian growth of monopolies in the country was later on confirmed
economy. At present this country has markets not only for by the Monopolies Enquiry Commission. According to the
various products, but also for productive factors, such as labour Commission, there were 75 big business houses in 1963-64
and capital. In terms of organisation all the commodity and controlling 44 per cent of the paid up capital of all non-
factor markets may not be equally integrated but there is no government and non-bunking companies of the country. In
denying the fact that prices of most of the commodities and absolute terms they had control over capital worth RA. 2,606
factors of production are determined by the interplay of crore. Since then, monopoly trends appear to have become
demand and supply forces. Prices of various commodities and stronger and the grip of big business on the economy seems to
timely changes therein, along with future price expectations, ‘have increased in spite of the governmental measures to
influence the decisions of the producers. Factor prices, to a great control them. Each of the top 10 had1 net sales of Rs. 4,700
extent, also determine the techniques of production. Money crore or more in 2001 (ranking in terms of net sales). In terms
market in the country is also now better organised comprising of assets, the- two largest private? sector companies of the
diversified financial institutions. Though all major commercial country in 2001 were Reliance Industries and Hindustan Lever
banks still remain nationalised, their working as well as their with their assets amounting to Rs. 29,875 crore and Rs. 5,735
business dealings with producers in the private sector are crore respectively. The phase of economic reforms initiated in
generally determined according to the laws of the market. 1991 has seen the emergence of some new business companies
Further, the amount of investment and its form is greatly and the manifold increase in the assets of many old companies.
influenced by the interest rates that prevail in the money market.
Public Sector
In the stock market too, fluctuations in the share prices not only
Presence of a large public sector in India along with free
reflect the prospects of different companies, but they also
enterprise makes the character of the economy as mixed. The
determine whether particular companies can obtain equity capital
public sector in India has not been developed for any ideological
for their expansion or not.
reasons. Its creation was a historical necessity. At the time of
However, the market mechanism in India has not been Independence the private enterprise had neither the resources
completely free from State control. In 1951, Industries (Devel- nor the will to undertake the task of industrial development on
opment and Regulation) Act was passed to provide a regulatory a massive scale. Furthermore, country’s transport system, energy
system for industrial activity in the country. The State wanted to sources and certain other components of the infrastructure were
evolve a licensing system under the provisions of the Act, as an undeveloped. To be brief, though the economy emerging from
effective instrument of industrial planning. In practice, this its colonial past needed a ‘big push’, the conditions prevailing in
objective could not be realised. Jagdish Bhagwati and Padma the country were hardly conducive to development in general
Desai have extensively analysed the working of the licensing and industrialization in particular. At this Juncture an effective
system of India and have noted that the Licensing Committee intervention of the State in the economy was an imperative
did not follow any fixed criteria or principle for granting licenses condition to break the low-level equilibrium trap in which the
either for establishing new industrial units or for expanding the economy was caught during the British period. The govern-
capacities for existing limits. The approach of the Licensing ment recognizing this need of the time decided to take upon
Committee was generally ad hoc. Apart from the licensing itself the responsibility of developing strategic sectors so as to
system, the government also introduced certain other controls create conditions for the development of private economic
and incentive measures for influencing the decisions that were activity. Hence during the earlier four decades of economic
arrived at in the markets. These controls and incentive measures, planning around 40 per cent investments were made in the State
however, did not alter the basic character of market mechanism. sector. This policy is sometimes wrongly construed as a step
Their importance lay only in their capacity to rectify irrationality towards socialism. In fact, in a predominantly free enterprise
of certain market decisions by changing them for the better. economy, creation of a Slate sector (however large it may be) will
[Link] is, however, of the view that the license and not alter the basic character of the economy and India is no
control system in this country failed in this direction. Contrary exception to this rule.
to the expectations of the Indian planners, the private sector
In India’s essentially capitalistic economy, creation of a large
could not be made ineffective in its exploitative motive under
public sector is, by no means, a novel experiment. In a number
the license and control system. Under the structural reforms
of Western capitalist countries, the State has not only inter-

43
 vened in their economies in a big way but has also engaged were thus meant to move a standstill economy, their purpose
DEVELOPMENT

itself in various productive and distributive functions. The was not to change the basic character of the country’s economy.
developmental role of the State has been more direct and Therefore, the character of the Indian economy has not
pronounced particularly in those countries where industrializa- undergone any change since Independence. It still continues to
tion was somewhat delayed. Therefore, the presence of the be a mixed economy. The Indian experience shows that the
public sector in some country or an active role played by the mixed economy framework is a feasible proposition for a
State in promoting the development of the economy provides developing country as it allows for a modest rate of growth,
COMMUNICATION

no guarantee that the character of the economy would not be which is both steady and less subject to fluctuations in the
capitalistic. At best these factors would make it a mixed economic activity at the international level. This requires over
economy, which, in essence, is a variant of capitalism. time substantial growth of productive capacity in the key sectors
of the economy. In the mixed economy framework this can be
Economic Planning
ensured by transferring commanding heights of the economy
Another factor in the Indian economy that often creates
into the hands of the State. Such a system is also consistent
confusion about its character is economic planning. Economic
with an increase in the rates of saving and capital formation.
planning has been an integral part of the Indian economy for
India’s experience over the years proves this point. It may thus
the past five decades. Because planning was first adopted in the
be argued that the mixed economy framework which India
erstwhile Soviet Union and thereafter other socialist countries
decided to pursue after getting Independence enabled it to
also followed the path of planned economic development,
overcome one of its major obstacles to economic growth. As
planning got so much identified with socialism that many
stated earlier, the pursuit of a mixed economy framework does
people now mistakenly characterise all planned economies
not transform a capitalist economy into a socialist economy.
(irrespective of (lie form of planning) us the socialist econom-
Sukhamoy Chakravarty rightly states that India’s experience
ics. No doubt economic planning is an essential ingredient of a
shows that “adherence to a mixed economy does not imply that
socialist economy, but all planned economies are not necessarily
it will grow into what many people once thought to be its
socialist economies. A country can adopt planning while
rationale, i.e., a socialist pattern of society. In fact, a mixed
retaining its capitalistic structure, but in its form and range
economy is an unstable blend of different features, which is
planning in a capitalist economy would be different from the
dynamically compatible with different outcomes. Which
one in a socialist economy.
outcome finally prevails depends on a changing balance of social
In India, economic planning has been introduced in a basically forces and also on the ability of the political processes to find
capitalistic economic framework. It has nothing to do with corridors of action.”
socialism or an egalitarian order of society. Further, not only
The mixed economy framework in India has tended to favour
planning in this country is limited in its range, it also very much
relatively rich on account of their strong economic position.
lacks the element of compulsion. In socialist countries every
Suresh D. Tendulkar
possible attempt is made to implement the plans and great
contends that when the
seriousness is attached to the realization of targets laid down in
feature of market based
it. There are no such compulsions in the Indian planning. The
decentralized economic
Indiana-plans lay down targets even for sectors over which the
activity in the private sector
State has little control. For example, the whole of agriculture is
in a mixed economy “is
in the private sector and the government attempts to realize the
combined with a skew size
targets laid down for this ‘sector by providing certain incentives,
distribution of private
which may not always work. Even for the sectors over which the
ownership of means of
government may have effective control, the measures adopted
production, it implies a
by the administration may not always be in conformity with
possible accentuation of
those stated in the plans. This is quite natural in the Indian
economic inequalities. The
economic planning which is indicative in its form. Commenting
deprived in the social
upon the character of the Indian plans, Charles Bettelheim has
system expect the govern-
aptly remarked, “The main characteristic is that they state what is
ment to counter this
anticipated or expected. They are entirely -different from socialist
tendency by regulating the activities in the private sector and
plans, Which lay down imperative and compulsory conditions.
through direct participation in extensive areas of economic
The latter sort of plan, once adopted, has to be implemented
activities. However, in a class society like the one we have in this
by administrations and enterprises, whereas the Indian plans
country the government has neither the ability nor the required
attempt to define as precisely as possible the government’s
will to prevent the tendency of the concentration of economic
agricultural, economic and industrial policies for the following
power. In India, the assumption that “the State in general and
five years. The government and its administration naturally
the government in particular can act as an agent of desirable
want to fulfill as much of the plan as possible, but they may
socio-economic change independently of the various interest
adopt measures very different to those suggested by the original
groups” does not hold good and thus accentuation of income
Plan without violating any legal obligations.”
inequalities and a rise in the absolute number of poor is
The economic planning as practiced in India over the past five inevitable.
decades and the development of the public sector in this period

44
 DEVELOPMENT
LESSON 7:
PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION
Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected has two consequences, One fall in employment leading lo a fall
in the income implying a fall in demand. Second, production is
To know the philosophical basis of DEVCOM
not commensurate with the enhanced productivity of the
To appreciate scientific socialism, liberation theology and Gandhism community. Both ways contradictions develop within: the
To develop a concern for the poor and oppressed. system - an increase in productivity and a fall in production, an
increase in supply and a fall in demand. In such a situation, a fall
Scientific Socialism of Marx in the rate of profit is simply inevitable.
According to Marx, man once existed in a simple, primitive
The Capitalist tries to maintain and increase the profit rate. That
state. At that time, there was happiness and tranquility. This
further deepens the crisis. Profit simply understood is the excess
primitive state of happiness was disrupted, however, by the rise
of price over cost. For profit, we need to have either a price rise
of economic classes where one class sought to oppress and
or a cost reduction. A general tendency of overproduction rules
exploit another for its own economic advantage. Marx believed
out any possibility of price rise. The other way open is through
all of man’s problems are the direct result of this class exploita-
reduction in cost. Wages constitute a major element in the cost.
tion. He portrayed capitalism as the chief culprit that gave rise to
Obviously, any measure to reduce cost simply leads to wage
this undesirable state of affairs.
reduction and labour retrenchment. Anyway, the incidence is on
Marx was adamant that man can never be truly happy or free in the labour and finally a way out is sought through building
a capitalistic society. Man, he said, has become an alienated being combine1-, forming monopolies. This corners the consumer.
and does not feel “at home” in a capitalistic environment.
Thus unemployment, wastage of productive, power, exploita-
However, this alienation will not last forever.
tion of the worker and the consumer constitute the inevitable
Marx believed that history is inexorably moving toward a consequences of the competitive system. Economic inequalities
climactic day when the oppressed workers of the world, the assume alarming proportions. Wasteful luxury consumption
proletariat, will rise up and overthrow their capitalistic oppres- dictates the production programme.
sors, the bourgeoisie. In the place of the old bourgeois society
Science and technology indeed enhance productive powers of
with its classes and class antagonisms, there will be a harmoni-
the community. Growth and development rightly interpreted
ous society in which there is equity for all.
must ensure full Utilization of productive capacity. With private
1989 saw almost the whole of Eastern Europe rise up in revolt property and private enterprise as essential tenets of the system,
against Marxist ideology. The major reforms occurring in the capitalism is bound to develop inherent contradictions. History
Soviet Union and East Bloc nations represent an admission demands, Marx rightly maintains, replacement of the system by
that Marxism has failed. socialism where social needs, rather than personal profit,
Socialism as a philosophy got rooted in the thoughts of Saint planning in place of competition would be the main governing
Simon, Fourier, Sismodi, Proudhan and Robert Owen. Karl principles. This is a historical inevitable process. However, the
Marx gets a special place among the socialist thinkers as the propertied class, capitalists, may not-almost will not — accept
founder of scientific socialism. the change. A class conflict, a political struggle becomes
Marx lived at a time when Germany was just emerging as a inevitable. And here, Marx urges and directs labour, the
Capitalist democracy. The entire experience of England in principal participant in the production process, to organize into
respect of industrial revolution and trade unionism and French a political power to seize the State and create conditions for the
experience of post-revolutionary struggle provided a fine establishment of socialist economy.
perspective to interpret social conflict and social change. The Church and Marxism
dialectics of Hegel was the methodology. Yet unlike Hegel, for The Vatican said that Marxism should be avoided because it is
Marx economic factors rather than ideas and ideals were the linked to class hatred and Christian norms of charity. It strikes
determinants of social change. Individual ownership of the at the heart of Christian belief about God and about human
means of production and private entrepreneurship constitute beings. It is totally materialistic. Marxists would rubbish the
basic features of capitalist economy. Profit is the principal Christian response to poverty and exploitation. The must not
incentive. However, in the course of competition, the rate of be given any foothold. If the Marxist principle of class struggle
profit declines and crisis develops. Unbridled competition were adopted as the means of attaining liberation for the poor,
results in excess production-excess in relation to demand— then that class struggle will affect the unity of the Church itself.
leading to a fall in the price and a decline in the rate of profit.
Liberation Theology
There is another aspect. Labour is primarily responsible for Liberation Theology has biblical roots as Jesus lived and spoke
production. Capital indeed enhances productivity of labour. In for the downtrodden. The mission of liberation started in
the course of competition use of capital increases involving a Latin America as Church began to work for the indigenous
relative fall in the employment of labour. This development

45
 peoples, blacks, mestizos, and the poor rural and urban masses. The end of the 1960s, all the nations of the Western world
DEVELOPMENT

The governments of the 1950s and 1960s especially those of were engaged in a vast process of development; however, it was
Perón in Argentina, Vargas in Brazil, and Cárdenas in Mexico, interdependent and unequal, organized in such a way that the
started formulating policies favoring the middle class and the benefits flowed to the already developed countries of the
rich upper class. The poor began to struggle against it. This led “center” and the disadvantages were meted out to the histori-
to oppressing the poor all the more using police and military. cally backward and underdeveloped countries of the
Pockets of armed uprising appeared in many countries, aimed “periphery.” The poverty of Third World countries was the
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at overthrowing the ruling powers and installing socialist- price to be paid for the First World to be able to enjoy the fruits
inspired regimes. of overabundance.
Starting in the 1960s, a great wind of renewal blew through the The second general conference of the episcopate of Latin
churches. They began to take their social mission seriously: America, held at Medellin, Colombia, in 1968, spoke of the
laypersons committed themselves to work among the poor, church “listening to the cry of the poor and becoming the
charismatic bishops and priests encouraged the calls for progress interpreter of their anguish”. The following conferences sees
and national modernization. Various church organizations liberation as an integral, indispensable, essential, part of the
promoted understanding of and improvements in the living mission of the church. The “preferential option for the poor,”
conditions of the people: movements such as Young Christian became a central axis of liberation theology.
Students, Young Christian Workers, Young Christian Agricul- The first Catholic congresses devoted to liberation theology
turalists, the Movement for Basic Education, groups that set up were held in Bogota in March 1970 and July 1971. On the
educational radio programs, and the first base ecclesial commu- Protestant side, ISAL organized something similar in Buenos
nities. Aires the same years. Finally, in December 1971, Gustavo
The new way of living the Christian life, was theologically and Gutiérrez published his seminal work, Teología de la liberación.
philosophically supported by the —integral humanism of In May Hugo Assmarm had conducted a symposium, “Op-
Jacques Maritain, the social personalism of Mounier, the pression-Liberation: The Challenge to Christians,” in
progressive evolutionism of Teilhard de Chardin, Henri de Montevideo, and Leonardo Boff had published a series of
Lubac’s reflections on the social dimension of dogma, Yves articles under the title Jesus Cristo Libertador. The door was
Congar’s theology of the laity, and the work of M.D. Chenu. opened for the development of a theology from the periphery
The Second Vatican Council produced a theological atmosphere dealing with the concerns of this periphery, concerns that
characterized by great freedom and creativity. This gave Latin presented and still present an immense challenge to the
American theologians the courage to think for themselves evangelizing mission of the church.
about pastoral problems affecting their countries. Liberation theology spread by virtue of the inner dynamism
There were frequent meetings between Catholic theologians with which it codified Christian faith as it applies to the pastoral
(Gustavo Gutiérrez, Segundo Galilea, Juan Luis Segundo, Lucio needs of the poor.
Gera, and others) and Protestant Emilio Castro, Julio de Santa Liberation of people as a theological perspective was present in
Ana, Rubem Alves, José Míguez Bonino), leading to intensified the studies of the Synod of Bishops, in 1971 and 1974. In
reflection on the relationship between faith and poverty, the 1975, Paul VI gave his apostolic blessing to those who practice
gospel and social justice, and the like. In Brazil, between 1959 liberation theology and work towards people’s integral develop-
and 1964, the Catholic left produced a series of basic texts on ment in his Evangeli Nuntiandi (paragraph nos. 25-39).
the need for a Christian ideal of history, linked to popular The Church in its “Instruction on Some Aspects of Liberation
action, with a methodology that foreshadowed that of Theology, “ (August 6, 1984) legitimized the expression and
liberation theology; they urged personal engagement in the purpose of liberation theology, and warned Christians of the
world, backed up by studies of social and liberal sciences, and risk inherent in an uncritical acceptance of Marxism as a
illustrated by the universal principles of Christianity. dominant principle in theological endeavor. The International
At a meeting of Latin American theologians held in Petrópolis Theological Commission, in 1977, published the “Declaration
(Rio de Janeiro) in Much 1964, Gustavo Gutiérrez described on Human Development and Christian Salvation”.
theology as critical reflection on praxis. This line of thought was Church Instruction on Certain Aspects of the “Theology of
further developed at meetings in Havana, Bogotá, and Liberation” (1984) warned that it is impossible to invoke
Cuernavaca in June and July 1965. Many other meetings were Marxist principles and terminology without ultimately embrac-
held as pat of the preparatory work for the Medellin conference ing Marxist methods and goals. Marxism should therefore be
of 1968; these acted as laboratories for a theology worked out avoided altogether. Two years later (1986), the Instruction on
on the basis of pastoral concerns and committed Christian Christian Freedom and Liberation affirmed the legitimacy of
action. Lectures given by Gustavo Gutiérrez in Montreal in 1967 armed struggle “as a last resort to put an end to an obvious and
and at Chimbote in Peru on the poverty of the Third World prolonged tyranny which is gravely damaging the common
and the challenge it posed to the development of a pastoral good.”
strategy of liberation were a further powerful impetus toward a
There were also voices against certain aspects of liberation
theology of liberation. Its outlines were first put forward at the
theology in action. In 1985, a Latin American Bishop Hoyos,
theological congress at Cartigny, Switzerland, in 1969: “Toward a
denounced liberation theologians, saying: “When I see a church
Theology of Liberation.”

46
with a machine gun, I cannot see the crucified Christ in that But an event that took place within three weeks of his election

DEVELOPMENT
church. We can never use hate as a system of change. The core that would transform the ascetic and timid Romero.
of being a church is love.”
Dietrich Bonhoeffer has issued a call to redefine religion in a
secular context. His theology emphasizes human responsibility
toward others, and stresses the value of seeing the world with
“the view from below” - the perspective of the poor and

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oppressed.
Gustavo Gutierrez, emphasizes that theology is not just to be
learned, it is to be done. In his thinking, “praxis” is the starting
point for theology. Praxis (from the Greek prasso: “to work”)
involves revolutionary action on behalf of the poor and
oppressed - and out of this, theological perceptions will
continually emerge. The theologian must therefore be im-
mersed in the struggle for transforming society and proclaim
his message from that point. In the theological process, then,
praxis must always be the first stage; theology is the second
stage. Theologians are not to be mere theoreticians, but
practitioners who participate in the ongoing struggle to liberate When he took over the archdiocese on February 22 1977, the
the oppressed. social conflict had taken on all the aspects of civil war: the killing
of campesinos was everyday news, the massacres committed by
Liberationists view capitalist nations as sinful specifically because
paramilitary organizations protected and sheltered by the
they have oppressed and exploited poorer nations. Capitalist
oligarchic State (in that same month of February General Carlos
nations have become prosperous, they say, at the expense of
H. Romero was fraudulently proclaimed winner of the
impoverished nations. This is often spoken of in terms of
presidential elections).
“dependency theory” - that is, the development of rich
countries depends on the underdevelopment of poor coun- The new archbishop’s first priest, Rutilio Grande, was am-
tries. bushed and killed along with two parishioners. Grande was a
target because he defended the peasant’s rights to organize farm
Most of the liberation theologians consider accepting oppres-
cooperatives. He said that the dogs of the big landowners ate
sion and abiding with it passively is sin. Attempts towards
better food than the campesino children whose fathers worked
overthrowing oppression even through violent means has
their fields.
value.
The night Romero drove out of the capitol to Paisnal to view
Liberation theologians say that God is not impassive. Rather,
Grande’s body and the old man and seven year old who were
He is dynamically involved in behalf of the poor and down-
killed with him, marked his change. In a packed country church
trodden. And because God stands against oppression and
Romero encountered the silent endurance of peasants who
exploitation, those who follow Him must do likewise. Indeed,
were facing rising terror. Their eyes asked the question only he
Gutierrez says that “to know God is to do justice.”
could answer: Will you stand with us as Rutilio did? Romero’s
Gutierrez and other liberation theologians say the church’s “yes” was in deeds. The peasants had asked for a good shep-
mission is no longer one of a “quantitative” notion of saving herd and that night they received one.
numbers of souls. Rather, the church’s mission “is at all times
Romero demanded an inquiry into the events that had led up
to protest against injustice, to challenge what is inhuman, to
to the death of the priests and set up a permanent commission
side with the poor and the oppressed.”
for the defence of human rights. Meanwhile crowds began
Case Study : Bishop Romero flocking to his Masses, especially those on Sundays. Monsignor
Oscar Arnulfo Romero was born in Salvador, Latin America, Romero became an authority listened to and loved by the
1917. At 12 he began to work for a carpenter, and then went to people. The diocesan radio was tuned into more than any other
the seminary while still very young and was ordained a Catholic station.
Priest at Rome during the Second World War. Romero already understood the church is more than the
In 1970, Romero was appointed auxiliary bishop to Monsignor hierarchy, Rome, theologians or clerics—more than an institu-
Luis Chávez Gonzales, Archbishop of San Salvador. He became tion—but that night he experienced the people as church. “God
the Archbishop of San Salvador in [Link] was a needs the people themselves,” he said, “to save the world . . .
compromise candidate elected to head the bishop’s episcopacy The world of the poor teaches us that liberation will arrive only
by conservative fellow bishops. He was predictable, an ortho- when the poor are not simply on the receiving end of hand-
dox, pious bookworm who was known to criticize the outs from governments or from the churches, but when they
progressive liberation theology clergy so aligned with the themselves are the masters and protagonists of their own
impoverished farmers seeking land reform. The authorities and struggle for liberation.”
the establishment of the country welcomed the decision. Public
opinion saw him as a moderate conservative.

47
 Romero’s great helplessness was that he could not stop the “The church would betray its own love for God and its fidelity
DEVELOPMENT

violence. Within the next year some 200 catechists and farmers to the gospel if it stopped being . . . a defender of the rights of
who watched him walk into that country church were killed. the poor . . . a humanizer of every legitimate struggle to achieve
Over 75,00 Salvadorans would be killed, one million would flee a more just society . . . that prepares the way for the true reign
the country, another million left homeless, constantly on the of God in history.” He said.
run from the army—and this in a country of only 5.5 million. “While it is clear that our Church has been the victim of
All Romero had to offer the people were weekly homilies persecution during the last three years, it is even more impor-
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broadcast throughout the country, his voice assuring them, not tant to observe the reason for the persecution. ...The
that atrocities would cease, but that the church of the poor, persecution comes about because of the Church’s defense of
themselves, would live on. the poor, for assuming the destiny of the poor.”
Romero begged for international intervention. He was alone. “A church that suffers no persecution but enjoys the privileges
The people were alone. In 1980 the war claimed the lives of and support of the things of the earth - beware! - is not the
3,000 per month, with cadavers clogging the streams, and true church of Jesus Christ. A preaching that does not point
tortured bodies thrown in garbage dumps and the streets of out sin is not the preaching of the gospel. A preaching that
the capitol weekly. With one exception, all the Salvadoran makes sinners feel good, so that they are secured in their sinful
bishops turned their backs on him, going so far as to send a state, betrays the gospel’s call.”
secret document to Rome reporting him, accusing him of being
“When the church hears the cry of the oppressed it cannot but
“politicized” and of seeking popularity.
denounce the social structures that give rise to and perpetuate
Unlike them, Romero had refused to ever attend a government the misery from which the cry arises.”
function until the repression of the people was stopped. He
That same month, he received death threats and therefore
kept that promise winning him the enmity of the government
decided that his colleagues should not accompany him when he
and military, and an astonishing love of the poor majority.
went out, so as not to expose themselves to unnecessary risks.
And as the massacres were becoming ever bloodier, and On Monday, 10 March...an attache case was found near the High
governments changed, not least through coups, attacks against Altar behind the pulpit, which the. …Police found had
the Church intensified. Priests were imprisoned and expelled, a contained a bomb that had failed to go off.
bomb went off in the offices of the archdiocese’s Catholic
On March 23 Romero walked into the fire. He openly chal-
newspaper, though it was within the Church itself that conflict
lenged an army of peasants, whose high command feared and
exploded.
hated his reputation. Ending a long homily broadcast through-
There was a storm of accusations and attacks from certain out the country, his voice rose to breaking, “Brothers, you are
prelates against the archbishop. Among other things he was from the same people; you kill your fellow peasant . . . No
accused in May 1979, in a document signed by several bishops soldier is obliged to obey an order that is contrary to the will of
and sent to Rome, of inciting “the class struggle and revolu- God . . . “
tion” by his pastoral activities. Monsignor Romero had written
There was thunderous applause; he was inviting the army to
in a pastoral letter: “When the Church comes into the world of
mutiny. Then his voice burst, “In the name of God then, in the
sin in the intention of saving and liberating, the sin of the
name of this suffering people I ask you, I beg you, I command
world enters into the Church and splits it, separating the
you in the name of God: stop the repression.”
genuine Christians of good will from those who are Christian
only in name and appearance.” Archbishop Oscar Romero promised history that life, not
death, would have the last word. “I do not believe in death
“If some day they take away the radio station from us . . . if
without resurrection,” he said. “If they kill me, I will be
they don’t let us speak, if they kill all the priests and the bishop
resurrected in the Salvadoran people.”
too, and you are left a people without priests, each one of you
must become God’s microphone, each one of you must Days before his murder he told a reporter, “You can tell the
become a prophet.” people that if they succeed in killing me, that I forgive and bless
those who do it. Hopefully, they will realize they are wasting
By 1980, amidst overarching violence, Romero wrote to
their time. A bishop will die, but the church of God, which is
President Jimmy Carter pleading with him to cease sending
the people, will never perish.”
military aid because U.S. sent $1.5 million in aid every day for 12
years. He wrote: “You say that you are Christian. If you are It was 6.30 on the evening of March 24, 1980, Romero was
really Christian, please stop sending military aid to the military assassinated before the altar of the small chapel of the hospital
here, because they use it only to kill my people.” His letter went of Divine Providence as he was saying Mass. A shot through
unheeded. the heart just as he was about to elevate the bread and wine for
the sacrifice.
In his sermon on 17 February 1980, he stated, “...neither the
(Government) Junta nor the Christian Democrats govern this Romero’s murder was a savage warning. Even some who
country. Political power is in the hands of the armed forces attended Romero’s funeral were shot down in front of the
which are unscrupulous in their use of this power. They only cathedral by army sharpshooters on rooftops.
know how to repress the people and defend the interests of the The National Police went to the Chapel of the Hospital...to
Salvadoran oligarchy.” gather evidence. They did not do this properly, however, since

48
they failed to collect material evidence of the crime at the scene. Gandhi wrote: “There is no such thing as Gandhism, and I do

DEVELOPMENT
Atilio Ramirez Amaya, the Judge of the Fourth Criminal not want to leave any such after me. I have tried in my own way
Court, gave instructions for the Salvadoran Polyclinic to to apply the eternal truth to our daily life and problems.”
perform an autopsy on the prelate. Following an attempt to Gandhi often expressed his concern for the poor peasants in
assassinate him at his home on 27 March, Judge Ramirez villages and he desired to lead a simple life of that of the typical
Amaya tendered his resignation and left the country. Indian villager in terms of dress, etc. Even during his visits to
The murder of Salvadoran Archbishop Oscar Romero was England, including his visit for the Round Table conference, he

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investigated by the UN Truth Commission in 1992. In went as a typical farmer. In one of his speeches in England in
November 1987, Amado Antonio Garay revealed to the 1931. Gandhi stated :”... we have nearly three hundred million
investigators that on 24 March 1980, former Captain Alvaro unemployed and underemployed for half the year... if I appear
Rafael Saravia had ordered him to drive a red Volkswagen to the today before the British public in my loin-cloth, it is because I
Hospital. He had parked opposite the Chapel. His passenger, a have come as the sole representative of those half-starved, half-
bearded stranger, had ordered him to crouch down and pretend naked dumb millions”.
to be repairing something. He had heard a shot, turned around Gandhi’s development philosophy revolves around man, his
and seen the individual holding a gun with both hands society and nature and their respective and simultaneous
pointing towards the right side of the rear right window of the development. He had a philosophy of work, wealth and
vehicle. He had immediately smelt gunpowder and at that happiness in line with the religious and ethical philosophies of
moment the bearded man had calmly told him: drive slowly, the East as well as the West. His philosophy was governed by
take it easy” and they [drove] off. Garay alleged that he had two fundamental and interrelated principles: truth and non-
driven the individual to former Captain Saravia, to whom the violence (ahimsa). In recent years, his vision of life, society and
stranger had said, “mission accomplished”. Three days later, civilization has been increasingly shared and practised in various
Garay had driven Saravia to a house where former Major parts of the country and the world with reference to several
D’Aubuisson was and Saravia had said in front of basic and contingent problems, like poverty, violence, discrimi-
D’Aubuisson: “We’ve already done what we planned about nation based on caste and religion, ecology, centralization of
killing Monsignor Arnulfo Romero”. wealth and power. This has created a tremendous interest in the
The Commission found that Major Roberto D’Aubuisson gave people to know and understand his philosophy of develop-
the order to assassinate the Archbishop and gave precise ment.
instructions to members of his security service, acting as a Physical development depends basically on proper nutrition,
“death squad”, to organize and supervise the assassination. treatment of ailments, healthy living surroundings, and enough
clothing to protect the body from the ravages of nature. As
Gandhism
long a minimum quantity of these are not made available to the
Among the early pioneers of rural reconstruction schemes,
individual, he remains much too preoccupied with the prob-
Mahatma Gandhi occupies a significant place. He had a very clear
lems of survival. A person dependent on others for primary
perception of the problem. He
necessities of life can hardly declare that all men are equal and he
conceptualised rural develop-
is a part of a society of equals. The word “development”,
ment in its totality, consistent
because of this emphasis on economic condition in the
with the Indian situation.
developing region particularly, has thus been regarded mainly as
Mahatma Gandhi was at once a an economic concept concerned with the increased production
leader, a reformer, a missionary, and distribution of goods and services in a more or less
a revolutionary and above all a integrated system controlled by various agencies as partners in
Messiah. Gandhi was the the exercise of State power. It still means affluence and is
architect of India’s freedom. growth-oriented. Its maturation logically aspires after affluence.
He has been held as the Father This development is planned mostly by the State which, with
of the Nation. Yet Gandhian the help of bureaucracy and technology, carries out development
thought transcends the context tasks and projects.
of India. He viewed India’s
Affluence as a goal of development was not in Gandhi’s mind.
struggle for freedom in a
He believed that there is sufficient to meet the needs of the
universal frame of reference. The mankind was the context of
people, but not their greed. He, therefore, refused to accept any
Gandhian philosophy. Gandhi stood for a social change, fought
move towards affluence as the goal of Indian Society. He
for a new society and experimented in new ways of life.
believed that the type of development that had been achieved in
Gandhi’s Social Philosophy took shape over the years through Europe was the result of a systematic colonization and
continuous “experiments with truth”. It was in South Africa exploitation of both the people and nature. He, therefore,
that he developed his philosophy and technique of Satyagraha- rejected not only supportive mechanism of development such
an instrument for redressing the grievances of the immigrant as bureaucracy, technology and elitist education, but also the
Indian minority in Africa. On his return to India in 1915, he whole idea of development as conceived by the builders of the
established an Ashram. It was not until 1919 that he began to industrial society.
play an influential role in the Indian National Congress.

49
 His opposition to this approach should be understood in villages. The very forces also generated an infinite parabola of
DEVELOPMENT

relation to his philosophy of development, which is closely wants and also corruption, when these wants could not be
linked with his life philosophy. As a great unifier not only of satisfied through honest means. Therefore, there is a need for
persons but of ideas - his social, economic and political ideas are voluntary action to curb the hedonist harm, i.e., “limitation of
all interrelated and interdependent. wants”.
Gandhi had a holistic view of life. Accordingly, his development His second premise was that private property and capital were
philosophy revolved round man, his society and environment the main sources of inequality and exploitation. Working for
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(nature) and their respective and simultaneous development. economic equality meant abolishing the eternal conflict between
He believed that, instead of man exploiting the society and capital and labour. It meant the levelling down of the few rich
both exploiting nature, there is a symbolic way of life which is in whose hands is concentrated the nation’s luck and levelling
in harmony with each other. In his frame of reference for up of the semi-starved millions.
development, man is the centre of attention. The objective is
The British conquest changed the entire socio-economic system of the
the moral and spiritual development of man. Man is primarily
country, a system that endured for nearly 3,000 years. The village
his consciousness, his capacity to be self-conscious and his built-
community combining agriculture and handicrafts was the basis of Indian
in-potentiality to judge between good and evil, between what
economy. Production was primarily for consumption rather than exchange.
will help him in his evolution to higher levels of being and
Social life was governed not so much by the laws of the State but by caste
what will obstruct his path. This gives him a leverage, not only
codes.
to aspire after higher levels but to endeavors to attain the same.
Gandhi believed in this self-effort and the path he outlined lay The British introduced a new land system, a new revenue system, and a
through ethical, moral and spiritual disciplines. The keynote of new system of administration. Railways were built, trade was encouraged,
his ethics is love, which means near identity of interest with and markets were widened. Transition to a money economy was speeded
every sentiment. This love has to be expressed in the form of up. Stale law began to replace custom. Policies were formulated to
service and sacrifice. His ethics in relation to material things and introduce capitalism in India and to add revenue to British Capital. A
property consisted in his concept of trusteeship. Every human retarded economic development, decay of peasant agriculture, general
being is a trustee not only of his faculties and attainments but dislocation of social conditions simply accentuated the inequalities and
of everything he comes by, and trusteeship consists not only in hardships. Unemployment-open and disguised—and poverty were the two
using his powers and goods property, but in using them insoluble economic problems of the country.
selflessly and for the well-being of all others.
Gandhian Approach To Rural Development
Purity of ends and of means formed an important aspect of
Gandhian Economic System formed an integral part of his
his thinking. He believed that means must justify the ends and
Social Dynamics, a corollary of his Social Philosophy. His Khadi
refused to accept the maxim that ends should justify the means.
and Village Industries Programme provided a surviving
He stressed on means because he felt that it is within the
support to the stagnant economy. Food and cloth, the basic
individual’s control and not the ends. It should, however, be
necessities, agriculture and weaving, the basic occupations,
remembered that there is no rigid dichotomy between the two;
should be, Gandhi insisted, within the control of the village. A
sometimes end is changed into means and means to another
self-supporting, self-reliant village community, a self-governing
end. Ends and means are interrelated and interdependent.
village was the vision of Gandhi.
Means is the end in making, the “end in embryo”. It is
determined and conditioned by the end. As a man of action Gandhi resisted economic inequalities. Yet he did not approve
Gandhi, therefore, tried to work out the means to achieve his class war. To the rich, Gandhi advocated the Theory of Trustee-
desired ends - Sarvodaya and Swaraj - the new society of his ship. Beyond what one requires for personal needs, (the
thinking, Gandhi was not only a man of ideas. He could not remainder is to be held as a Trust for and on behalf of the
rest by merely enunciating his idea on development. He tried to society). In matters of industrial disputes, Gandhi pleaded
practise it. Based on his own experiments, he then worked out reconciliation, mutual agreement and settlement. Be it political
the details regarding a wide variety of things which he named as agitation, be it constructive social work, be it rebuilding of
“Constructive Programme” and which he considered as vital for village economy, Gandhi ever insisted on Truth and Non-
building a new society. violence as the basic principles of action. His was an appeal to
the inner conscience and inner instinct of love and sympathy.
Gandhi held freedom of the individual above every thing else;
this, in effect, meant that “man is the measure”. But one must Gandhi visualized an economic system-where each one without
willingly adjust his individualism to social requirements of exception has an opportunity to work, where exploitation is
progress. This is possible only in a non-exploitative, non- totally eschewed, where almost all wants are met through local
coercive social order, which is based on love, altruism, spirit of production, where exchange is resorted to in respect of
service, dignity of labour, non-violence and equality. commodities not locally produced. His was a Decentralized
Economy. In his Hind Swaraj, Gandhi has explained the
The premises that follow are, firstly, that the root of violence lay
concept of self-governing community.
in exploitation. Structurally, industrialism and machine civiliza-
tion of the West were powerful causes of exploitation. They He did not subscribe to the theory that economic development,
caused concentration of economic power in a few hands and in was synonymous with industrial development and
the city centres and, consequently, led to the decay of the urbanisation. He did not view village upliftment as a transi-

50
tional phenomenon. Gandhiji was not for neglecting villages in for the problems of unemployment and poverty. It is in the

DEVELOPMENT
any manner with urban bias. He was so clear about the crucial Sabarmati Ashram in 1915 that we find the actual beginning of
importance of villages that he declared, “If the villages perish, the khadi movement. The movement was started with the
India will perish too.” Gandhiji wanted villages well developed object of enabling the Ashram inmates to discard mill-made
on the lines he envisaged. A band of constructive workers clothing and to use self-manufactured cloths. But, later on,
trained by Mahatma Gandhi worked near Wardha. The Gandhi found that spinning could be adopted as national
Gandhian movement of rural reconstruction consisted of programme. It was considered not only as “a panacea for India’s

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eighteen items of work such as use of khadi, promotion of growing pauperism” but also as the best means for industrializ-
village industries, basic and adult education, rural sanitation, ing the village of India. But the industrialisation of Gandhi’s
uplift of backward classes, welfare of women, education in conception was industrialization through cottage industries and
public health and hygiene and prohibition. the restricted and controlled use of machinery and not through
Mahatma Gandhi was more practical in his approach. He large-scale mechanization.
understood the rural masses and their problems with the A decentralized mixed economy with the State-controlled public
background of rural reality and advocated purely indigenous sector, a network of enterprises ensuring productive employ-
solutions for different problems of rural India. He started ment to all the employables and a self-governing village
looking for economic activities which could be introduced in the community is the core of Gandhian Economic System. A
villages without external assistance and which would create stagnant economy groaning under poverty and deep inequalities
additional employment and income. He stressed on schemes of was the immediate context of Gandhian Economic Thought.
short gestation period like minor irrigation, dairying, Traditional timeless ancient culture was the source of his social
handlooms, etc. He saw in the spinning wheel, “Charkha”, a philosophy. His economic system evolved as a corollary of his
tool of promise because of its simplicity, low cost, cultural philosophy.
acceptance, love for manual work, etc. He was fully convinced
Gandhi’s Ideal Village
that unless hand-woven and hand-spun cloth “Khadi” was
To Gandhi, the idea of an independent India was synonymous
preferred over mill cloth, it could never get a foothold in the
with the betterment of life in Indian villages. He constantly
villages. He preached strongly in favour of locally produced
reminded the country that the soul of India is in her villages
goods and services.
and only when the villager is awakened and rises to his full
Gandhi was aware that mass production through large-scale potentialities, will India be truly independent and usher in a
industries would result in concentration of wealth and power in new era of social and economic justice. His concept of rural
the selected people. Therefore, he wanted industrialization to be development was not mere economic prosperity for a few at the
aimed at the production of tools and machinery which could cost of many; it was the participation of the entire population
help the villages to produce more goods and services for in production as well as consumption “unto the least of all.”
themselves and for the community. Gandhi hated monopoly He was always fond of the concepts of “Gram Swarajya” and
and the privilege of a few and anything which could not be “Gram Vikas” and strongly advocated the establishment of a
shared with the mass was a forbidden act to him. He wanted village set-up based on his doctrine.
close association between production and consumption.
Gandhiji wrote in the ‘Harijan’ in 1942: “My idea of village
In the opinion of Mahatma Gandhi, the “humble industries’, Swaraj is that it is a complete republic, independent of its
such as stone-carving, stone-cutting, carpentry, brick-laying, neighbours for its own vital wants, and yet interdependent for
building, boat-building, cabinet-making, the manufacture of many others in which dependence is a necessity. Thus, every
brass, iron and copper utensils, gold, silver and ivory work, village’s first concern will be to grow its own food crops and
dyeing and tanning and the spinning and weaving industries, cotton for its cloth. It should have a reserve for its cattle,
gave occupations to the people of India without any loss to recreation and playground for adults and children. The village
their individuality. He became convinced that India’s social and will have a school, a public hall and its own waterworks
economic salvation lay in the termination of British domina- ensuring clean water supply. As far as possible, every activity will
tion and the revival other indigenous industries. Viewed in this be conducted on the cooperative basis. The government of the
perspective, his maxim that “without cottage industry, the village will be conducted by the Panchayat... Here there is perfect
Indian peasant is dead”, was full of significance. Of Cottage democracy based upon individual freedom.” His own experi-
industries, Gandhi ascribed paramount importance to charkha ments is in the establishment of Ashrams (self-reliant
which once gave employment and livelihood to millions of communes) in South Africa and India had convinced him that
Indians, men and women. The village industries such as hand- “it is only the villages which can become the nurseries for rearing
grinding, hand-pounding, soap-making, paper-making, a new humanity in the practice of self-reliant, non-exploitative,
matches-making, tanning, oil pressing, etc., were only designed truthful and healthy living.”
to serve as ‘handmaids’ of khadi. Thus, charkha became the
Gandhi prescribed the following conditions for the ideal Indian
symbol of the independence movement and the pivot of
village:
Gandhian economic ideas.
1. There should be orderliness in the structure of the village.
Gandhi believed firmly that India’s economic regeneration lay in
the revival of hand-spinning and hand-weaving. The reintro- 2. The lanes and roads should be orderly and must be kept
duction of hand-spinning and weaving was the proper solution absolutely clean so that “in the land of barefooted

51
 pedestrians”, nobody need hesitate to walk or even sleep in necessity.” He wanted to present the model of real village
DEVELOPMENT

the streets. government to depict his ideal of perfect democracy based upon
3. The lanes should be macadamized and have gutters for individual freedom and at the same time, upon the collective
draining of water. and cooperative action. Gandhi admitted that the conditions he
prescribed apply to the ideal village of his conception, and that
4. Temples and mosques must be kept beautifully clean so that
it might take a life-time to model such a village.
visitors feel an air of tranquil holiness about them.
Gandhi felt that there were two obstacles to establish an ideal
COMMUNICATION

5. The villages should be filled with shade and fruit trees.

village of his dream. One being the foreign rule and the other,
6. They should have a dharamashala, and a small dispensary. the existing evils in the society like caste divisions and commu-
7. Washing and privy arrangements should be such as not to nal disharmony, depression of women, excessive addition to
contaminate the air, water and roads of the village. liquor, dislike for manual work as a mark of social superiority,
8. Every village should be self-sufficient so far as its food and child marriages, widespread illiteracy, superstition about matters
clothing requirements are concerned. of health and social and religious observances.
9. Every village should be capable of defending itself from He stressed the great importance of the village in the Indian
robbers or wild animals. social system and throughout his life he worked for the
reformation of the Indian villages where the majority of the
10. It should have recreation facilities and a playground for
population lived under appealing conditions of poverty. It was
adults and children and a reserve for its cattle.
his deep-rooted conviction that prosperity of a permanent and
11. If space is left over, the village should grow money crops fair nature can be secured through the proper development of
except tobacco, opium, etc. villages and cottage industries, based on the principles of truth
12. The village should maintain a village theatre, school and and non-violence.
public hall.
Need for Cooperation
13. It should have its own water works, ensuring a clean water Man is a social being. Without interrelation with society he
supply. cannot realize his oneness with the universe. Men should live in
14. Education should be made compulsory up to the final basic cooperation and work for the common good. But, according to
course. Gandhi, cooperation should be based on strict non-violence.
15. Caste, with its graded untouchability, should not be The secret of successful cooperative effort is that the member
practiced. must be honest and know the great merit of cooperation.
Gandhi emphasized that the cooperative movement will be a
16. As far as possible, all activities should be conducted on a
blessing to India only to the extent that it is a moral movement
cooperative basis.
strictly directed by men fired with religious fervor. It follows,
[Link]-violence, with its technique of satyagraha and non- therefore, that cooperation should be confined to men wishing
cooperation, should be the sanction of the village to be morally right. The success of the cooperative movement
community, should not be measured by the number of societies, but by the
18. There should be a compulsory service of village guards, to moral condition of cooperatives. The registrars should, in that
be selected by rotation from the register maintained by the event, ensure the moral growth of existing societies before
village. multiplying them. Gandhi also emphasized cooperative effort
19. The government of the village should be conducted by a for protecting cattle in general and cows in particular,
Panchayat of five persons, annually elected by adult villagers Gandhi advocated cooperative farming where land would he
possessing the minimum qualifications. owned and cultivated in cooperation. This would help saving
20. Since there should be no system of punishment in the of labour, capital, tools, animals, etc., as these can be owned in
accepted sense of the term, the village panchayat would be cooperation. Cooperative farming would change the face of the
the legislature, judiciary and executive combined. land and remove poverty and idleness from their midst. All this
is only possible if people become friends of one another and
21. Two panchayats should jointly elect one leader, and they
live as one family.
should form a working party. Fifty such working parties
should elect a second-grade leader. Parallel groups of two The goal of development, according to Gandhi, is satisfaction
hundred panchayats should continue to be formed till they of every man’s need, but not every man’s greed. Gandhi wanted
cover the whole of India, each succeeding group of that through persuasion, a wealthy person should be convinced
panchayats electing a second-grade leader. All second-grade to possess only reasonable amount of wealth and for the rest,
leaders should jointly serve the whole of India and severally he will act as a trustee. To Gandhi, trusteeship meant that the
for their respective areas. The second-grade leaders might rich man would be left in possession of his wealth of which he
elect a chief, whenever they deem necessary, to regulate and will use what he reasonably requires for his personal needs and
command all the groups. will act as a trustee for the remainder to be used for the rest of
the society. For him, the dispossession of wealth through force
Thus, he wanted to make each village a “complete republic
or compulsion meant violence- Therefore, the only way by
independent of its neighbours for its vital wants, and yet
which economic equality could be brought about was by the
interdependent for many others in which dependence is a
non-violent transformation of society through trusteeship. It

52
was for the rich man to take a lead in bringing about economic scripts. The system of basic education is known by different

DEVELOPMENT
equality. Gandhi would not prevent the wealthy from making names, as ‘Nai Talim’ (New Education), the ‘Wardha System’
money if they realised the necessity of giving away their and the ‘Gandhian System.’ But Gandhi himself, who is the
surpluses after meeting the requirements of a simple life, or of originator of the scheme, thought that “a more correct
keeping them in trust for the have-nots, and also if they though much less attractive description would be ‘Rural
adopted honest and noble means for the pursuit of wealth. National Education through village handicrafts.”
Basing on the Gandhian ideology of trusteeship, if the rural Gandhi insisted that education must not begin with the

COMMUNICATION
rich volunteer to share their surplus wealth, including land, etc., alphabet. Even before actual writing or drawing is begun, much
with the rural poor, the goal of rural development is well information could be imparted to the children through the help
achieved. of “eyes, ears and tongue” and thereby create a natural interest
Education for Development in acquiring more knowledge. Imparting knowledge through
He recognized the importance of three kinds of equipment a visual education formed an important aspect of Gandhi’s
person should have in order to be a well-integrated person. He educational philosophy. Instead of taking handicraft to the
should have a clear knowledge of the physical world in which he school and imposing it on the educational curriculum, Gandhi
lives, a clear grasp of the social realities of the group in which he insisted that education must proceed from handicrafts. This
functions and a control over his senses and emotions. Accord- alone was the natural method. His ideas could be summed in
ing to him, the emphasis of new education should be not to the phrases “all instruction must be linked with some basic
memorize the traditional knowledge and to acquire the craft” and “Academic learning must be used as a means to a
traditional skills but to study the problems that an individual greater end: character-building.”
confronts and to solve them. Creativity, rather than receptive- Social Concerns
ness, should be the aim of education. This implies a great Gandhi’s social programme was the legacy of Swami
change from the present fixed curriculum confined to classroom Vivekananda. In matters religious and spiritual he was
work to exposure of the students to rural realities all around. Ramakrishna Paramhamsa virtually reborn. While deeply
He was in favour of religious education which he equated with dedicated to his own Hindu faith, Gandhi recognized the unity
ethical education. Cleanliness of the body and clothes and and equality of all religions. He brought social significance to
purity of character had to be inculcated during the childhood at virtues held supreme in personal life. Love and sympathy,
home and in the school. He emphasized the need to inculcate devotion and dedication, suffering and sacrifice were now
the feeling of oneness among the people, irrespective of supreme social values. He preached the principles more through
differences in caste, creed and class. example than through precept. A great Karmayogi, modelled
He asserts that character-building is the proper foundation of after the Gita. He influenced the people not so much by
education. Character-building involves reasoning. The two go teaching, not even by his programme but by his character. To
together. He emphasises on the spiritual training which the masses Gandhi was not simply a political leader, a social
depends on the life and character of the teacher. Also, he feels reformer, a friend of the poor but a man of God, a Saint, an
that manual work need to be emphasised since children get the Apostle of Peace and Non-violence. A man with a divine
necessary bodily exercise through this. Gandhi feels that mission!
vocational training should be an important part of the educa- Equally significant was Gandhi’s constructive programme.
tional programme. Removal of untouchability, elevation of the status of women,
The fundamentals of basic education as given by Gandhi are: protection of village industries constituted the social and
economic content of this constructive programme. Craft
1. All education to be true must be self-supporting where it
education, cultivation of mother tongue and a common
will pay for itself;
national language made up the core of his educational
2. Manual skill will be utilised up to the final stage. The hands programme. A comprehensive constructive programme ensured
of the pupils will be working skillfully at some industry for sound foundation for the superstructure of the Nation.
some period during the day; Besides, it provided an opportunity to the rich and the elite for
3. All education must be imparted through the medium of the a fruitful positive participation in the social work.
provincial language; Gandhi considered untouchability as the sin of Hindus. Swaraj,
4. There is no room for giving sectional religious training. he maintained, was a meaningless term if about 40 million
Fundamental universal ethics will have full scope; people were kept under perpetual subjection and deliberately
5. This education, whether it is confined to children or adults, denied the fruits of national culture.
male or female, will find its way into the homes of the He was against child marriage. The custom of child marriages
pupils; and indicated physical and moral degeneration, “recession from God
6. Since millions of students receiving this education will as well as Swaraj.” He was in favour of inter-communal
consider themselves as of the whole of India, they must marriages and simplifying the marriage ceremony.
learn an inter-provincial language. This common inter- He stated that “Widowhood imposed by religion or custom is
provincial speech can only be Hindustani, written in Nagari an unbearable yoke and defiles the home by secret vice and
or Urdu script. Therefore, pupils have to master both the degrades religion.” He wanted parents or guardians of girl-

53
 widows to take the courageous step of getting these child- the villagers, you would find half-starved skeletons; living
DEVELOPMENT

widows ‘well-married’ because he refused to believe that they corpses”. He immediately diagnosed the cause of the disease as
had been really married. well: “If India could revive them by putting life and blood into
Gandhi supported divorce when acts of cruelty existed between them in the shape of work, India would help the world.” The
couples, and when there was no other alternative. Hindu society degradation is due to unemployment. The reason of our
has always discouraged divorce. poverty is the extinction of our industries and our consequent
unemployment.” “There is no other country in the world with
COMMUNICATION

He stated that the parents should so educate their daughters

the possible exception of China that is potentially so rich as
that they would refuse to marry a young man who wanted a
India with its inexhaustible resources of manpower. Tap these
price for marrying and would rather remain spinsters than be a
resources, and you at once banish poverty from the country.”
party to degrading terms. The only honourable terms in
marriage are mutual love and mutual consent. Finally, and most importantly, the role that Gandhi assigned to
the people for their own development should be remembered.
Gandhi regarded legislation to remove the inequalities of
“I believe that real freedom can only be realised by the awaken-
women as essential. He could visualize woman only as a man’s
ing of Lok Niti (the politics of the people), that is to make the
companion, gifted with equal mental capacities, possessing “the
people aware of their own inner strength and encourage them
right to participate in every minute detail in the activities of men
to solve problems for themselves. Swaraj is to be attained by
and an equal right of freedom and liberty”.
educating the masses to a sense of their capacity to regulate and
Methods of Social Transformation control authority.”
Gandhi was emphatic on this issue. “A non-violent system of Mahatma Gandhi believed in using good means to achieve
government is dearly an impossibility so long as the wide gulf good ends in making the villages of India completely self-
between the rich and the hungry millions persists. The contrast reliant. His idea of Gram Swaraj meant planning from the
between the palaces of Delhi and miserable hovels of the poor grassroots level and in placing individuals at the centre of all
labouring classes cannot last one day in free India, in which the developmental activities. It opposed centralization of economic
poor will enjoy the same power as the rich of the land. Violent and political power in the hands of the State. He wanted special
and bloody revolution is a certainty one day unless there is a privileges for the economically backward and socially oppressed
voluntary abdication of riches and the power that riches give people of India.
and sharing them for common good.”9 Apart from the faith
that Gandhi seems to place on the power dynamics of universal Approaches of Gandhi and Karl Marx
adult suffrage, it is very clear that the eventual threat of a violent Marx was a historian, a philosopher, an economist, a sociolo-
revolution is directed towards the rich. “As far as the present gist, a social scientist and above all a revolutionary. He was at
owners are concerned, they would have the choice between class once an analyst and a prophet—a prophet with positive
war and voluntarily converting themselves into trustees of their message. Marx viewed society as a moving entity and developed
wealth.” a sharp theory of social change, a theory of conflict and a theory
of conflict-resolution; Gandhi (1869-1948) and Karl Marx
Now, coming to Gandhi’s approach to rural development, the
(1818-1880) are among the greatest lovers of humanity as
city-village antagonism becomes the overriding issue —
observed by Vinobha Bhave, The hearts of both always went in
“exploiting the villages itself is organised violence”. He
sympathy of the submerged, depressed and downtrodden
dramatized the problems: The blood of the villages is ‘the
humanity. Both of them sincerely looked for a new socio-
cement with which the edifice of the cities is built. I want this
political order in which the common mass would enjoy full
blood that is today inflating the arteries of the cities to run once
human rights without any hindrances, suppression or exploita-
again in the blood vessels of the villages”. His opposition to
tion. Each of them prescribed his own method based on his
industrialism and his plea for radical decentralization, and village
own ideology to achieve the goal of human equality and human
self-sufficiency were geared to the liberation of the villages from
brotherhood.
city exploitation.
Gandhi stood for Sarvodaya, the greatest good of all. His ideal
But Gandhi did not talk simply in terms of city-village di-
state is Ramarajya in which exploitation of man by man will be
chotomy. In addition to referring to the village-exploitation role
unknown. This goal is to be achieved by purifying the heart of
of the city, he spoke of “alienation” of the city dweller. He
man and persuading a wealthy man to keep with him a
referred to the village as a “community”, rather than as a socially
reasonable amount of wealth and for the rest, he will act as a
and culturally structured unit.
trustee.
However, Gandhi clearly indicated his priority, which would
Karl Marx, on the other hand, dreamt of a classless society
closely resemble the “target group” approach that is coming
through necessarily a class war. He argued that the privileged
into vogue. To repeat, he said, “If India is not to perish, we
classes will not voluntarily surrender their power and privileges
have to begin with the lowest rung of the ladder. If that was
and hence the necessity of a class conflict between the plutocrats
rotten, all work done at the top or at the intermediate rungs was
and the proletariat, between the rich and the poor, which will
bound ultimately to fail”.
result in the liquidation of the rich class. The victorious
Removal of rural poverty was Gandhi’s most urgent concern proletariat will capture the state machinery and set up a dictator-
and it appears to be his ultimate concern also. “If you went to ship of the proletariat, which will disappear in the fullness of
the villages of India you would find utter despair in the eyes of time and with it, the state also will wither away. Marx believed in

54
coercion, while Gandhi in persuasion. It is rightly observed that Mahatma Gandhi “experimented with truth”. A pilgrim of

DEVELOPMENT
“Gandhi is an apostle of love and peace, Marx, an exponent of peace, he was a freedom fighter, “Do or Die” was his call. Power
class hatred and class war.” Gandhi, however, predicted that “a to the grassroots was his message. In his search for communal
violent and bloody revolution is a certainty one day, unless there harmony, Gandhi embraced martyrdom with a smile.
is voluntary abdication of riches and the power that riches gives, Humanity hopefully awaits a meeting of Marx and Gandhi to
and sharing them for the common good.” ensure a peaceful social change.
In fact, some writers have discovered so great a similarity

COMMUNICATION
Gandhi and Socialism
between the Gandhian and the Marxist ideologies that to them
Gandhi never approved the inhuman aspect of Capitalism. He
Marxism is Sarvodaya minus God. In other words, Sarvodaya
was aware of the rise of labour and socialism in India. In 1908,
is Marxism plus God.
Lenin referred to the emergence of the Indian Proletariat as
Marx believed that all evils of society could be traced to matured sufficiently to wage a class conscious political mass
economic or material possession of wealth by way of individual struggle, Lenin based his judgment on the Bombay Mill
property. Gandhi did not subscribe to this line of thinking, Workers’ political strike in protest against the imprisonment of
even though he expressed deep concern over the economic Tilak In 1920, the Indian Trade Union Congress was founded.
inequality within the nation and among the nations. Gandhi Soon the Communist Party of India began to make its way.
saw in the existing pattern of foreign trade and capital flow Gradually, the left elements in the Indian National Congress
based on comparative advantage and the principle of free started mobilizing within the Congress fold itself. And in 1934
international mobility of capital, an exploitative element. To emerged the Congress Socialist Party.
minimize the exploitation of the poor countries by the rich
Gandhi - essentially a man of the masses - had full sympathy
countries and to prevent transfer of income from the poor to
with the new trend. Yet his adherence lo nonviolence led many
the rich countries associated with foreign trade and investment,
to regard Gandhi as a champion of the Capitalist, a Mascot of
Gandhi offered two doctrines, viz. (i) Swadeshi Doctrine and
the bourgeoisie. This was far from the truth. Gandhi stood for
(ii) the Doctrine of International Cooperation. The first was to
socialist ideals as an end. All the same, he insisted on non-
replace the principle of comparative advantage and the second
violence as a means. Socialism and non-violence were for him
to displace the principle of international competition. The
closely interrelated. “No man could be actively non-violent”,
Swadeshi principle stressed self-reliance of the basic unit of
Gandhi said, “and not rise against injustice no matter where it
Indian society, the village. The same principle extended to
occurred.”
international economic relations stresses maximum economic
self-sufficiency or minimum economic dependence among Gandhi was fully aware of the impact of science and technology.
nations as a means to minimise exploitation of one nation by He appreciated its contribution to the social progress. Total
another. rejection of industrial and machine civilization, Gandhl
conceded, was totally impossible. What he protested was the
Gandhi firmly believed that means are as important as ends. He
debasement of humanity. His views on machine deserve careful
asserted that “If one takes care of the means, the end will take
attention. To him, even his physical “body” was the most
care of itself.” Violence, falsehood, terror and deception, etc.,
delicate piece of machinery. The spinning wheel and the oil
may help to get quick results and may triumph for a time over
press are also machines. When the machine is worked by
truth and justice. In Gandhi’s view, victory achieved by these
human power, it is directly under human control. The possibil-
means is partial and transient. Lasting good and peace of the
ity of its abuse is strictly limited. On the other hand, with the
individual, of the community and of humanity can be ensured
large-scale machinery man tends to become a cog in the
by honest means alone. On the other hand, Marxism believes
machine. The process tends to become important than the
that the end justifies the means. It is observed, “Marxists do
producer and the produce. The situation turns out impersonal
not hesitate to fight for a cause by all the means — fair and foul
and machine dehumanizes man.
— at their disposal, if they are convinced that the cause is a just
one. To them, the cause is more important than the means”. It was the craze for machinery, not machinery as such, that
Gandhi objected to. Machine indeed saves labour. Yet Gandhi
The more we read and hear of Gandhian works and views, the
wanted to save time and labour not for a fraction of mankind
more insight we get into his deep concern for rural develop-
but for all. The supreme consideration for Gandhi was man.
ment in its totality, and therefore, Gandhian approach to rural
“The machine is like the body,” he declared, “useful and only to
development needs serious consideration in the present context
the extent that it subserves the growth of the soul.” He did
of accelerating the pace of rural development.
recognize (he importance of basic and key industries - which are
Karl Marx built up his theory of Social Change almost with a bound to be highly mechanized and on a large scale. However,
mathematical precision. He gave a clarion call, “Workers of the he wanted these to be nationalized and State controlled.
World Unite. They have nothing to lose but their chains”. Marx
awaited the impending economic crisis and the consequent
revolution. He passed away without the realization of this
revolution in his own lifetime.

55
DEVELOPMENT
On the Lighter Side
Political Ideologies
BUREAUCRACY: You have two cows. At first the government regulates what you can feed them and when you can milk them. Then it pays you not to milk
them. Then it takes both, shoots one, milks the other and pours the milk down the drain. Then it requires you to fill out forms accounting for the missing cows.
BUREAUCRATIC SOCIALISM: You have two cows. The government takes them and puts them in a barn with everyone else’s cows. They are cared for
by ex-chicken farmers. You have to take care of the chickens the government took from the chicken farmers. The government gives you as much milk and eggs
COMMUNICATION

the regulations say you should need.

CAMBODIAN COMMUNISM: You have two cows. The government takes both and shoots you.
DICTATORSHIP: You have two cows. The government takes both and drafts you.
FASCISM: You have two cows. The government takes both, hires you to take care of them, and sells you the milk.
FEUDALISM: You have two cows. Your lord takes some of the milk.
ISRAELI “KIBBUTZ”: The kibbutz has two cows. You milk and take care of them. The kibbutz gives you a glass of milk at dinner.
LIBERTARIAN: ANARCHO-CAPITALISM: You have two cows. You sell one and buy a bull.
PURE ANARCHY: You have two cows. Either you sell the milk at a fair price or your neighbors try to take the cows and kill you.
PURE COMMUNISM: You have two cows. Your neighbors help you take care of them, and you all share the milk.
PURE DEMOCRACY: You have two cows. Your neighbors or their representative decide who gets the milk.
PURE SOCIALISM: You have two cows. The government takes them and puts them in a barn with everyone else’s cows. You have to take care of all the
cows. The government gives you as much milk as you need.
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY: You have two cows. Your neighbors pick someone to tell you who gets the milk.
RUSSIAN COMMUNISM: You have two cows. You have to take care of them, but the government takes all the milk.
SURREALISM: You have two giraffes and the government ask you to consider them as cows. The government trains you in music and expects you to play
piano when your neighbor milks the giraffes. (From the Internet)

Note

56
 UNIT III
LESSON 8: PARADIGMS OF DEVELOPMENT
HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected specified the meaning of development as essentially that of

DEVELOPMENT
having enough food, a job, social equality and freedom. Its
To study the origin and growth of DEVCOM as a discipline
ultimate goal is the realization of the human personality or
To define Development communication potential. Seers elaborated that economic development must be
In the fifties an increasing number of countries in Asia and accompanied by social, political and moral development as well.
Africa, hitherto under colonial domination, attained indepen- Dudley Seers (1969) has pointed out quite rightly the essence of
dence and as free countries dedicated themselves to development in the following comment: The questions to ask

COMMUNICATION
development. They looked upon their ‘political freedom’ as a about a country’s development are therefore; What has been
means of ‘economic freedom’ and economic freedom was happening to poverty? What has been happening to inequality?
expected to follow a successful programme of economic What has been happening to unemployment? If all three of
development. these have declined from high levels, then beyond a doubt, this
The development scientists of that time thought that if the has been a period of development for the country concerned. If
developing countries adopt technology used by the developed one or two of these central problems have been growing worse,
countries, they could develop faster by increasing productivity. especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result
The profit from the surplus production can accelerate further ‘development’ even if the per capita income doubled.
development. This will increase the purchasing power of people This statement reflects clearly the newer attitude to develop-
which leads to more demand, more production, more employ- ment. Development is no more a synonym for economic
ment, more income and thus better standard of living. growth, but as a term, also includes distributive justice and
When new born countries tried to adopt the developmental human fulfillment.
technologies of the developed countries the effect was negative. The French school of thought headed by Denis Goulet
Because the context of the countries were different compared to (Development or Liberation? - 1971) and Paulo Friere (Cultural
the environment where these policies were implemented by the Action for Freedom - 1972) emphasized that the goal of
developed countries for their initial development. Rather these development must be nothing other than integral liberation of
new technologies needed technical expertise that the developing the human-kind.
countries lacked. They had to seek the help of foreign techni- In 1975, in the East West Centre Conference, its president,
cians at huge expense. This further made these poor countries Everette Kleinjan defined development as the ‘new growth of
to seek for loans from the developed countries. Foreign aid consciousness, movement of the human mind, uplifting of
makes the nations slaves and always leaves them in an aftermath the human spirit, and the infusion of the human confidence.’
of debt. Thus, foreign loans, aids and technology became a
Stover William J said, “It must aim at creating the whole man
burden rather than an asset. It would be almost impossible for
and woman, and deal beyond economic needs, with the human
the developing countries to reach abreast with the developed
necessity for expression, creativity and conviviality. It must begin
countries, because, the countries that comes late have less chance
by meeting the basic needs, particularly of the poor.... It must
for quicker development.
aim at agricultural and urban reform, redistribution of wealth
Some Latin American sociologists headed by Romero Beltran, and the means of production, decentralization of the poor,
Diaz Bordenave and Reyes Matta came against Wilbur Schramm democratization of the decision-making, self-management and
and Lerner. They suggested that for true economic develop- the curb of stifling democracy”.
ment it is necessary to have;
Development Communication Defined
1. Just distribution of products,
Sociologists, psychologists, economists and communication
2. People’s participation in decision-making and execution experts agree that the proper use of communication can foster
3. Strategies should not be capitalistic, which is immoral, and the pace and process of development. In general terms,
promote acquisitiveness and individualism. communication means interaction between two individuals or
4. Social, economical cultural equality. within a group or a community or a nation. In communication,
the four principle elements are communication source, a
The exponents of these measure agreed, “The condition of the
message, a channel or medium and a receiver or audience. But in
large proportion of the people in the developing world was at
development communication it becomes the process of
best, not much better in 1975 than in 1964. (Communication
affecting or influencing behavior of individuals or groups
and change- The last ten years and next - Wilbur Schramm &
towards certain desired goals and objectives, necessarily for the
Daniel Lerner, 1974)
benefit of the entire society. Thus, the receiver is expected to
The eleventh World Conference of the society for International show the behavior desired by the source of communication.
Development, held in New Delhi in 1969, Dudley Seers

57
 Development communication is mainly concerned with the role explosion”. The idea of using mass media grew out of the
DEVELOPMENT

of information and communication in social and economic notion that media had exceptional power to change human
development of an individual, society and nation. It identifies behaviour. Communication experts began to advocate the use
what mass media can do directly or indirectly to improve the of media for accelerating the transfer of technology. While
quality of life to both urban and rural masses. some communication experts called media as “Magic Multi-
This describes an approach to communication, which provides plier” others advocated that it is a great “lubricator” of the
communities with information they can use in bettering their development process.
COMMUNICATION

lives, which aims at making public programmes and policies One of the earliest studies in this was that of Lerner who
real, meaningful and sustainable. Such information must be found high co-relation between media participation and such
applied in some way as part of community development but it indices of development as organization, literacy and political
must also address information needs which communities participation. In a UNESCO study conducted in developing
themselves identified. The outcome of this approach, in short, countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, strong correlation
is to make a difference in the quality of life of communities. was found between mass media and economic development.
Nora C. Quebral, a leading academic in this field defines Similar findings have been reported by, among others, Cutright,
Development communication as the “art and science of human Nixon, Millikan and Blachmer, Fagen, Farrace, Schramm, Carter,
communication applied to the speedy transformation of a Schrone, Deatschmann and McNelly. All these studies give direct
country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic or Implied support to the view expressed by Millikan and
state of economic growth that makes possible greater social Blachmer that a modern mass media system is an important
equality and the larger fulfillment of the human potential.” part of social overhead capital of a developing country and that,
(Quoted in Development Communication - rhetoric and reality by Pete for example, “a major breakthrough for development would be
Habermann and Guy de Fontagalland.) the creation and production of cheap, long-lived radio or
television sets designed to bring mass communication into
F. Rosario Braid is of the opinion that development communi-
villages by passing the pre-requisite of literacy and electricity”.
cation is “an element of the management process in the overall
planning and implementation of development programs”. Micro level studies have examined the co-relation between
Development communication is, in a broad sense is thus, “The media exposer and modernization variables. In their studies,
identification and utilization and utilization appropriate Rogers, Keith, McNelly and others found significant interplay
expertise in the development process that will assist in the between communication variables and modernization variables.
increasing participation of intended beneficiaries the grassroots That “information of certain kind, once released awakens
level.” appetite for the things or new ways of doing things” and that
mass communication produces a “demonstration effect” and
Growth of Development Communication strikes a “psychic spark of modernization”.
The growth of the concept of Development Communication
This contention was, however, was subjected to scrutiny by
can be attributed to the following factors:
many researchers. In fact the myth was debunked by Klapperin
• Rethinking on the concept of development. 1960. He argued that “mass media ordinarily does not serve as
• Growth of mass media, a necessary and sufficient cause of audience effects, but rather
• Critical review of the role of Communication in functions among and through a nexus of mediating factors and
Development, influences”. He argued further that “these mediating factors are
In the 1960s, development was considered to be the domain of such that they typically render many communication a contribut-
economists and it was synonymous with the process of ing agent but not the sole cause in a process of reinforcing the
modernization modeled on the industrialized societies of the existing conditions”.
North. Economic growth was regarded as the rain index of In recent years a few communication scholars have expressed
development. The paramount concern was to transfer knowl- doubt that more availability of any kind of mass media is not
edge to rural population. As the time passed, it became evident likely to be useful in technological change - that is in influencing
that far more complex forces were at work. The knowledge the peasants to adopt new ideas. They argue that “for the mass
transfer led to lop sided development. The rich farmers became media, to aid in technological change, the information transmit-
richer and the poor poorer - and the gap between them ted should be functionally relevant”. They further argue that
widened. Research studies and evaluation reports revealed that “the influence of communication system involves more than
centrally planned interventions did not ultimately benefit the simply physical availability of media, and that it certainly relates
intended beneficiaries - the poorest. Development experts to the patterns of content placed before readers, viewers and
began to talk about income distribution and social justice apart listeners”. It is implied in these arguments that the mass media
from economic growth. Development began to be seen as in order to aid modernization, rust carry functionally and locally
improvements in the quality of life. It became increasingly clear relevant information. Any mass media with any kind of
that for development to take place people themselves must be message would not bring miracle in the developing countries, as
involved in planning and implementing projects aimed at some scholars often argue it.
improving their lot. The interplay of the three factors namely rethinking in the
The decades of 60s and 70s saw dynamic world-wide growth of concept of development, dynamic-growth of electronic media
electronic media which produced so-called “information and redefinition of the role of communication in development

58
led to the emergence of the concept of Development Commu- we must pay very close attention to the role of communication.

DEVELOPMENT
nication. Indeed, one of the fundamental defects of early development
Terms like Project Support Communication, Development plans of the less-developed countries was the woefully inad-
Support Communication and Development Support Commu- equate role assigned to communication. Pye (1963) is surely
nication began to appear in the development literature in early right when he says: Communication is the web of human
70s. Although UN agencies - UNDP, UNICEF and FAO were society. The structure of a communication system with its
the first to use these terms, the first attempt to define it was more or less well-defined channels is in a sense the skeleton of

COMMUNICATION
made by Nora C. Quebral. She says, “development communi- the social body, which envelops it.
cation grew out of the field of agricultural communication in The content of communication is of course the very substance
the same way that agricultural communication had evolved of human intercourse. The flow of communication determines
from agricultural journalism”. It is quite clear from her paper the direction and the pace of dynamic social development.
that the term development communication was coined to Hence it is possible to analyze all social processes in terms of
enlarge the scope of agricultural communication and to include the structure, content and flow of communication.
under it, apart from agricultural development* other areas of In the Design of Rural Development (1975), World Bank
national development such a s population, nutrition, health, economist Uma Lele designates a number of key areas where
education, housing and employment etc. improvement would impact the productivity and income of
Since all these areas are inter-linked and the development efforts farmers-the backbone-of most Third World countries. These
in all these areas require communication input, development are Agricultural Extension, local farmer participation, credit,
communication was considered to be an appropriate term to marketing, social services, project administration, and training.
describe the scope, the direction and the structure of the If these areas are analyzed carefully, in each activity is found an
discipline. Quebral defines Development Communication as information component that is assumed by the author but is
“the art and science of human communication applied to hardly touched upon in the text. In extension, for example, the
speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people agent is basically the source of new information. In most of the
from poverty to dynamic state of economic growth that makes Third World, these agents are in such short supply that they
possible greater social equality and the larger fulfillment of the reach only a fraction of the farmers, yet there may be other ways,
human potential”. such as mass media, of diffusing the same information to a
This definition of Development Communication encompasses much larger portion of the target population. Local participa-
all national development activities, cutting across many disci- tion when it is a built-in goal of a project, can be promoted by
plines and extending beyond the rural-urban dichotomy. In a both interpersonal and mediated communication. It also
paper entitled “Towards a Definition of Development Com- depends upon a feedback mechanism, so that information
munication”, P.R.R. Sinha describes in detail the two flows in both directions.
components of development communication, namely, Credit is obviously a resource; but it is also often an underused
development and communication. He also describes the service m rural areas, because the poor isolated farmers may not
genesis of the term. its relationship with other tends and its know about it. Information about the availability of credit
parameters. Sinha says that “its (development communication) could change this. Marketing depends, in an intimate way, on
genesis can be traced to the Introduction and application of information, and if the communication system is strictly a
agricultural extension”. A graphic presentation of the genesis proprietary one, its benefits go to those who control it. A more
would be as follows: open market-information system, on radio perhaps, would
help to promote equity. Social services in rural areas are a mix of
material resources and information, whether they are concerned
Agricultural Extension
with adult education, health, family planning, nutrition, or
community development. Administration of rural services also
Agricultural Communication heavily depends on communication. For example, a two-way
communication system, often missing entirely in rural areas,
could keep field personnel in touch with central project leaders.
Rural Communication Finally, training is obviously a largely information-based activity.
Thus, almost every activity considered vital to rural develop-
Development Communication ment is information related or information dependent in some
way. The argument for paying increased attention to this aspect
of rural development should not be taken to mean that
The interesting point to note here is that the main emphasis communication can be substituted completely for other
behind coining a new term appears to be the concern for resources but only that a better mix of material and Informa-
enlarging the scope of the discipline or in the words of Nora C. tion resources can achieve a better result, perhaps at less cost.
Quebral, “to acquire a ‘bigger umbrella”. There are a number of assumptions about information’s role
Communication is the lifeblood of human society; without it, that need to be carefully examined within the context of the
no society can function. Therefore, in any development effort, new approach, alluded to above, in which governments are
placing more emphasis on mobilizing national information

59
 resources for national development goals, especially regarding should be paid to mechanization and automation (Schramm,
DEVELOPMENT

the poor rural majority. Planners consider media as cost efficient, 1964), For this to happen, the modernized elite has to play a
feasible and would change the society fast. crucial role in leadership. Therefore Pye went on to suggest that
in those countries with a small modernized elite, the weight of
The Four Approaches
communication policies should be on the side of protecting the
Dissanayake (1981) describes the approaches in his study of
freedom of these leaders and strengthening their influences
development and communication.
through society (1963).
COMMUNICATION

Approach I
Role of Communication
During the late 50s and the 60s development was understood
Communication can be employed to disseminate new knowl-
as rapid economic growth by means of industrialization. Heavy
edge, impact new skills, introduce new values, raise aspirations
emphasis was laid on capital-intensive technology and
of the people, create a sense of nationhood which transcends
centralised planning. The guiding principle seems to have been
parochial boundaries, reassure people in a state of transition
that the only way in which the less-developed countries could
which development clearly entails — in a word, communication
make progress is by emulating the industrially-advanced
should create the right ambience for development.
countries and taking the same historical path that they had
traversed. Rostow’s influential work The Stage of Economic Despite the optimism expressed by the advocates of this
Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (1960) had a profound approach, it was clear by the 70s that the strategy had not
impact on this type of thinking. In his book, Rostow identified worked. Although the GNP had increased, the exports were up,
five stages: many new problems were created in the process: increase in
unemployment and underemployment, urban congestion, etc.
1. Traditional society
Moreover, the advocates of this approach maintained that the
2. The precondition for take-off benefits occurring by the adoption of this strategy would have a
3. The take-off ‘trickle-down’ effect. This, too, did not materialize. Indeed, the
4. The claim to maturity gap between the rich and the poor in the less-developed
5. Age of high mass-consumption countries began to widen. As Adelman (1975) shrewdly pointed
out, “Not only is there no automatic trickle-down of the
This theory is predicated on the belief that capital accumulation benefits of development; on the contrary, the development
through the mechanism of savings and investment is the process leads typically to a trickle-up in favour of the middle
engine of development. Accordingly, much emphasis was laid classes and the rich”.
on heavy industries and capital intensive technologies and
urbanisation. And, the development of a society was to be Philosophies
measured by the GNP. It is indeed interesting to observe that this approach assumed
not only a certain philosophy of development, but a philoso-
This line of thinking was endorsed by the development
phy of communication as well. The philosophy of
communication scholars in the 60s. Each social and economic
communication drew heavily on the Aristotelian model of
philosophy emerges out of a definite social and intellectual
communication. In Aristotle’s model of communication —
milieu. As Rogers rightly points out, this concept of develop-
which is perhaps the earliest model found in Western culture —
ment grew out of certain historical events like the Industrial
there were four components: communicator-message-receiver-
Revolution in Europe and the United States, the colonial
objective. According to Aristotle the communicator is supreme,
experience in Latin America, Africa and Asia, and the qualitative
and it is his function to persuade his potential receivers in a
empiricism of North American social services and capitalistic
manner that he desired. To him ‘manipulation’ was the primary
economic/political philosophy (1976).
concept. Indeed this model of communication survived into
The communication scholars who most strikingly emblematize modern times as is evidenced by Lasswell’s model as well as
this model are Wilbur Schramm, Daniel Lerner and Lucian W. Shannon and Weaver’s model. There were, to be sure, certain
Pye, Their books like Mass Media and National Development modifications effected. But, basically, these models operate
(Schramm 1964), The Passing of Traditional Society (Lerner, within the Aristotelian framework.
1958), Communication and Change in the Developing Coun-
The champions of the first approach to development commu-
tries (Lerner and Schramm, 1967), Communication and Political
nication more or less were guided by this philosophy of
Development (Pye, 1963), had a far-reaching influence in
communication. Hence, the emphasis on the communicator
winning recognition for this approach, both among academics
(mass media) and the notion of manipulation, and little regard
and laymen. These writers maintained that the mass media
for the receiver and the social structure in which he finds
could play a significant role in creating the climate conducive for
himself. With the formulation of the second approach, as we
development to take place.
shall presently see, this philosophy of communication was
According to this approach, the focus was on increased pro- superseded by a newer one.
ductivity through rapid industrialization. It was felt that
By the 70s, many development communication scholars began
productivity is the key to development and that the most
to criticise this approach for a variety of different reasons. Their
productive sector of modern society is the industrial sector. It
main arguments against this approach were;
was argued that an industry has built a great engine to produce
more and more with fewer and fewer workers, greater attention

60
1. It was ethnocentric: That it helped up the Western experience attempt to remedy the deficiencies discernible in the earlier

DEVELOPMENT
as a model to be emulated by the less developed countries approach. Everrette Rogers, who was initially identified with the
ignoring the uniqueness of historical background, cultural first approach, has laid out very clearly the central concerns and
matrix, etc. of the developing countries. preoccupations of the second approach (1976). He calls one the
2. It posited a unilinear view of history: This is closely related ‘old’ paradigm, and the other the ‘new’ paradigm.
to the first argument. It was maintained that there was not The first approach, stressed economic growth — capital
one, but many paths to development, and the paths intensive technology — industrialization — centralized

COMMUNICATION
traversed by the industrially-advanced countries was not the planning and endogenous factors of development. The second
only one. approach, on the other hand, called attention to income
3. It concentrated only on endogenous factors of development: distribution — labour intensive technology, decentralized
The critics expressed the view that we live in a highly planning — endogenous as well as exogenous factors of
interdependent world and that the problems and privations development. Along with this shift of emphasis was seen an
of the Third World countries could be meaningfully attempt to focus attention on the quality of life — the need to
comprehended only in terms of both endogenous and blend modern and traditional media of communication —
exogenous factors. They argued that the endogenous factors appropriate technology — popular participation in the decision-
were very largely the consequence of exogenous factors, making process.
4. It placed too much emphasis on the individual and laid the In discussing what he calls the ‘new’ paradigm, Rogers men-
blame at his door without taking into sufficient tions four world events which had a shattering impact on the
consideration the social structure: Advocates of the first validity of the old paradigm. They are the problems of
approach often accused the peasants in the less developed environmental pollution, the oil crisis, the expansion of the
countries of being too traditional — conventional — People’s Republic of China and the failure of the less-devel-
superstitious — fatalistic — and lacking skills of oped countries to develop (1976).
entrepreneurship and not being motivated by the ‘protestant During the 60s, there was an average annual increase of 5% in
work ethic’. The critics of this approach maintained that not the GNP of the developing countries. This was indeed a
only was this criticism misplaced, but that it totally ignored notable achievement. However, the important point was that
the social structure which would explain more cogently some the benefits of this economic growth was not reaching the mass
of these deficiencies. of people. In other words, there was a compelling need to
Looking back somewhat wistfully seventeen years after he wrote focus attention on income distribution. As a result, as Henriot
his seminal work Mass Media and National Development, points out, another view of how to define the problem of
Schramm said: I should have been more sceptical about the development began to emerge. It became more and more clear
applicability of the Western model of development. I should that the problem of development was not the degree of
have paid more attention to the problem of integrating mass capitalization, but the relationship any increase of GNP had to
media with local activity. Above all, I should have given more the poor — especially those poorest 40% of the population in
thought than I did to the social requirements and uncertainties the developing countries (1979).
of development and in particular to the cultural differences that Consequently, the new strategies of development communica-
make development almost necessarily different, culture to tion scholars began to centre on ways of meeting this challenge.
culture, country to country (1979). In this attempt, they had to address their minds to the
Perhaps the most productive way of coming to grips with the following questions:
second approach is to see it as a reaction to the first. 1. How can distributive justice be achieved? The old approach
The first approach to development communication came under seemed to favor the richer segments of society at the expense
very heavy fire from academics in the 70s. And most of their of the poorer.
criticisms are justified. However, in fairness to those who 2. How can the ideals of self-reliance, self-management, self-
favoured the first approach, three points need to be stated: development and popular participation be fulfilled? The old
1. Their’s was the first serious attempt to conceptualize the role approach seemed to advocate a top-down strategy, and as a
of communication in development. result, the generality of the people were not involved in the
decision-making process.
2. A sense of consistency pervaded their writings as they
emerged from a well-defined social philosophy. 3. How can the old and the new media of communication be
purposefully integrated? The old approach seemed to stress
3. They gave much thought to how these ideas could be
unduly on the efficacy of the new and cosmopolitan media.
realistically translated into practice.
4. How best can culture be made an ally and a facilitator of
4. Rather than talking in vague generalities and hiding behind
development? The old approach seemed to pay very little
impressive rhetoric, they sought to come up with testable
attention to the role of culture in development.
propositions.
5. How can one construct more history-conscious and society-
Approach II specific models of development communication? The old
Perhaps the most productive way of coming to grips with the approach was largely a historical and posited a universalistic
second approach is to see it as a reaction to the first — an model of communication based on the Western experience.

61
 6. How can one take into account the structural factors which
DEVELOPMENT
Approach III
constrain development? The old approach discussed this This approach is characterised by its insistence on the interde-
largely in terms of individual deficiencies. pendence of the developed and the developing countries, and
The problem of development was not the degree of capitaliza- the need to make this aspect its central concern. However, it
tion’ but the relationship any increase of GNP had to the poor. needs to be stressed at the outset that when the architects of
this approach employ the term ‘interdependence’, they are
Along with this shift of emphasis on the meaning of develop-
talking of a viciously asymmetrical relationship in which the
COMMUNICATION

ment was seen a parallel shift of emphasis on the meaning of

developed countries thrive at the expense of the developing
communication. Instead of the old mechanistic, linear, one-way
countries. Hence, a fundamental precondition for development,
model of communication, a process oriented, two-way model
is the elimination of this asymmetrical relationship.
began to take shape and gain currency. In the old model, which
I earlier designated by the term ‘the Aristotelian model,’ the The spokesman for this approach to development pointed out
communicator was supreme; it was a communicator-based the futility of discussing communication and development in
model. With the spread of the concept of the diffusion of an essentially national setting, without taking into consideration
innovations, the channel assumed a greater importance. the historical evolution of each society and the way in which the
However, it was still a model in which the receiver did not figure world economic system conditions and regulates its develop-
prominently. With the writings of scholars like Berlo (1969, ment. To do otherwise is to ignore the determining reality.
1979) and Barnlund (1970), the idea of communication being Nordenstreng and Schiller, while complementing the propo-
an interactive process where the communicator and the receiver nents of the second approach, make the observation that they
share an equal responsibility, was endorsed by many of the have not totally abandoned the old paradigm of the 60s (1979).
communication researchers. This newly-emerged philosophy of In the opinion of these two authors, the notion of a relatively
communication fitted well into the newer framework of isolated nation developing in accordance with the conditions
development. The birth of the so-called ‘new’ paradigm can be determined mainly within the society remains almost un-
attributed to these factors. touched. To them, this is a fundamental consideration that
The second approach to development communication contains cannot be overlooked. Nordenstreng and Schiller make the
within itself many useful insights and represents a definite step point that while advocates of the second approach to develop-
in the right direction. Many of its strengths can be studied in ment and communication like Rogers talk of ‘external causes of
relation to the older approach. However, one has also to take underdevelopment’ and ‘dependence theory’, such notions do
note of some of its deficiencies. It does not spring from a not significantly influence their conceptualization.
consistent social philosophy as does the first approach and Approach III is characterized by its insistence on the interdepen-
seems to present many conflicting trends of thought. Indeed, dence of the developed and developing countries.
the ‘new’ paradigm, the ‘second approach’ seems to represent Having commented on the first and second approaches,
not one, but many paradigms. For example, this approach on Nordenstreng and Schiller observe that: Another paradigm is
the one hand talks of the interdependence of the developed emerging, leading to what may be called the third generation of
and developing countries, and how they all constitute a world- communication and development research. Characteristic of this
system. On the other hand, great emphasis is placed on perspective is an emphasis on global structure, whereby it is in
self-management and self-reliance. However, these notions are precisely the international sociopolitic-economic system that
not developed in a sufficiently comprehensive manner that decisively determines the course of development within the
would enable us to come to terms with their full implications sphere of each nation. In this approach, the rational conditions
and take cognizance of the conflicting demands. — including class contradiction — serve as more or less
Role of Communication intervening variables on influences emanating from the
The role of communication, too, needs to be explained more historically determined global design (1979).
fully. The communication strategy urged by this orientation Reviewing the efforts of communication scholars who grappled
seems to be to make use both of the cosmopolitan and the with the problems of communication and development,
indigenous media of communication to effect a two-way Nordenstreng and Schiller maintain that which the second
communication process between the policymakers and the approach dispelled: the myth of a unitary Western model of
public. However, the problems and constraints that one would development within the society. The third approach is seeking
necessarily encounter in this effort needs to be analysed more to point out the error of conceptualizing development as the
deeply. interaction of an international system of sovereign states
These deficiencies, however, should not unduly detract from the operating without a basic structure which determines the
very positive achievement represented by this second approach. relations between countries.
It has paved the way for the evolution of a model of develop- The seminal works of a number of scholars served to crystallise
ment communication that would be useful in eliminating many this approach and gain wide recognition in the academic
of the problems that the less-developed countries encounter in community. Frank (1969), Don Santos (1970), Galtung (1971),
their march towards development. Amin (1974), Wallerstein (1974), Barnett Brown (1974),
Kaufmann (1975), and Petras (1978) are but some of them.
These scholars start out with the assumption that development
and underdevelopment are only two facets of the same process

62
and that one cannot understand the nature and essentiality of ment of society. In order to achieve, one has to think in terms

DEVELOPMENT
one in isolation from the other. of both national and regional efforts.
The colonial experience of the less-developed countries is central The vast majority of the people living in the less-developed
to this line of thinking. The factors that developed industrially countries need to be educated into a new awareness of their
advanced countries are said to be also responsible for the state plight.
of poverty in the less-developed countries. The gaining of The advocates of the first approach placed heavy emphasis on
political independence does not seem to have significantly

COMMUNICATION
mass media; those of the second on a mix between mass media
altered the picture. Writers like Galtung (1971) argue that the and interpersonal channels. The supporters of the third
colonial structures still persist, only that the systems of control approach to development communication emphasize the
are exercised in a subtler fashion. Economic aid, transnational interpersonal channels. The argument seems to be that the
corporations and the international monetary institutions are mass media systems in the developing countries are caught up
cited as examples of this subtler form of control. in the dependency relationship, and at times active supporters
Similarly, Frank, in discussing the development of underdevel- of it. Hence to rely on them would be an act of folly. What is
opment remarked: It is generally held that economic advocated, therefore, is a strategy of communication that would
development occurs in a succession of capitalist stages, and that serve the aforementioned educational and mobilizing func-
today’s underdeveloped countries are still in a stage, sometimes tions. It is only after a structural transformation of society has
depicted as an original stage of history, through which the now taken place that the mass media could be employed purpose-
developed countries passed long ago. Yet even a modest fully.
acquaintance with history shows that underdevelopment is not Once again, it needs to be stated that the role of communica-
original or traditional and that neither the past nor the present tion is not clearly defined as is the case with the first approach.
of the underdeveloped countries resembles in any important Another defect, which characterizes this mode of arguing, is the
aspect, the part of the now developed countries. The now propensity to exaggerate. At times, one gets the impression that
developed countries were never underdeveloped, though they Frank tends to overstate his case and ignore some crucial
may have been undeveloped. It is also widely believed that the distinctions that need to be made. Laclau makes the point that
contemporary underdevelopment of a country can be under- Frank does not adequately differentiate the two terms ‘capital’
stood as the product or reflection solely of its own economic, and ‘capitalism’. He asks.
political, social and cultural characteristics or structure. Yet
Did the structural conditions of capitalism exist in the sixteenth
historical research demonstrates that contemporary underdevel-
century when, according to Frank, the process of capital
opment is in large part the historical product of past and
domination started in Latin America? Could we consider free
continuing economic and other relations between the satellite
labour to be the rule then? By no means. Feudal dependence
underdeveloped and the now developed metropolitan countries
and urban handicrafts remained the basic forms of productive
(1972).
activity (1971).
Wallerstein in developing his world-system perspective says that
the modern world comprises a single capitalist world-economy, Approach IV
which had emerged historically from the sixteenth century The fourth approach to development communication that is
onwards and which exists today. Based on this premise, he currently gaining wide recognition is characterized by its explicit
asserts that national states are not societies that have separate, emphasis on the idea of self-reliance. This approach reflects the
parallel histories, but parts of a whole reflecting the whole desire to integrate strategically a host of ideas related to
(1979). development that has emerged in recent times. They are:
• popular participation
The dependency relationship is not one of merely economics.
Writers like Freire (1968) and Rayan (1971) have pointed out • grassroots development
that the ideologies, belief systems, value conglomerations, etc., • integrated village development
of the metropolitan countries are disseminated in the satellite • use of appropriate technology
countries as a way of legitimizing the existing power structures.
• fulfillment of basic needs
Moreover, the role of media in this endeavour too has been
amply demonstrated by Nordenstreng and Varis (1970), Schiller • productive use of local resources
(1969, 1973, 1974) and O’Brien (1974). • maintenance of the ecological balance
Role of Communication • development problems to be defined by the people
Firstly, it is a matter of education. The vast majority of the themselves
people living in the less-developed countries need to be • culture as a mediating force in development
educated into a new awareness of their plight. The vicious
The idea of self-reliance in development can be analyzed at two
nature of the world system and the stifling dependency
levels. Firstly, there is the self-reliance at the national level. Here,
relationship has to be unambiguously pointed out to them.
by self-reliance is meant the reliance on the natural and human
This is obviously an exercise in education.
resources available to a country, and the ability to define
And, the second component of the communication strategy developmental problems, set goals, devise strategies and make
would be one of mobilizing support for a structural rearrange- decisions independently and in accordance with one’s own social

63
 and cultural ethos. Self-reliance is seen as a way of eliminating or For the strategy of self-reliance to succeed, it must operate both
DEVELOPMENT

at least minimizing the exogenous political pressures and trade at the national and local levels. At the local level, people need to
patterns that are associated with exploitation. Self-reliance, involve themselves more closely in the process of defining
however, does not mean autarchy. There will be international problems of development and devising strategies based on
cooperation and interdependence, but according to a newer set local resources and in consonance with the cultural ethos.
of rules, that would guarantee a more symmetrical relationship Indeed, this is not something new. Some of the experiments
between the developed and the developing countries. of Gandhi in India point to this need. In more recent times,
COMMUNICATION

Galtung outlines the rationale for the strategy of self-reliance in the ‘ujamaa’ project of Nyerere in Tanzania served to focus
the development effort in the following manner: Self-reliance is attention on this aspect. In explaining the relationship between
not merely an abstract recipe, a way of organizing the economy his concept of ‘ujamaa’ (familyhood) to social development,
with heavy emphasis on the use of local factors, but a highly Nyerere said the basic assumptions underlying his concept are:
concrete fight against any kind of centre-periphery formation 1. respect — each member of the family recognizing the place
with the ultimate goal of arriving at a goal where “each part is and rights of the other members;
centre”. As the essence of centre-periphery formation is vertical 2. common property — acceptance that whatever one person
division of labor with exchanges across a gap in level of has in the way of basic necessities, they all have;
processing where trade is concerned, a gap in the level of
3. obligation to work — every member of the family, and every
initiative where politics is concerned and so on — the difference
guest who shares in has the right to eat and have shelter,
between the sender and the receiver, the leader and the led —
taking for granted the duty to join in whatever work needs to
the basic idea of self-reliance is to get out of this type of
be done (1968).
relationship (1980).
According to Maeda, there are eight main objectives that this
Self-reliance is a dynamic movement from the periphery, at all
strategy sought to achieve. They are establishment of self-
levels — individual, local, national, regional. It is not something
governing communities, better use of rural labor, taking
done for the periphery; basically it is something done by the
advantage of economies of scale to increase production,
periphery. Thus, control over the economic machinery of a
dissemination of new values, avoidance of exploitation,
country by national and even by local, state or private capitalists
increasing the standard of living of the peasant, mobilization
in order to produce for the satisfaction of basic needs is not
of people for national defence by using the villages as paramili-
self-reliance. It may be to “serve the people,” but it is not to
tary organizations and facilitation of national planning (1976).
“trust the people” — to use the Chinese jargon. Self-reliance
It is indeed true that Nyerere’s experiment is not totally
ultimately means that the society is organized in such a way that
successful. However it opened the eyes of development
the masses arrive at self-fulfillment through self-reliance — in
theorists to possible alternative pathways. Similarly, the
participation with others in the same situation (1980).
Sarvodaya Movement of Sri Lanka is also proceeding along an
Self-reliance is seen as a way of eliminating or at feast minimiz- analogous path.
ing the exogenous political pressures and trade patterns.
This, no doubt, seems an idealistic proposition. And, as
Galtung himself has
pointed out, there is as Ap
Communication Function of Communication
much economics as pro Main Emphasis Means
Channel Channel
there is psychopolitics ac
hes
involved in this
concept. This approach Capital Intensive
Economic Technology Mobilization of People for
to development I Mass Media
Growth -Industrialization- Development
communication
Centralized Planning
discourages the
common tendency
Labour Intensive
prevalent in the less-
Technology Integration of Facilitation of Information
developed countries to Mass Media and
II Social Growth Traditional and Modern Exchange Related to
imitate the goals and Interpersonal Channels
Systems -Decentralized Development
strategies of Western Planning
countries and engage in
an unreal battle of Structural Elimination of Mainly Interpersonal Education of Masses Leading
trying to catch up with III Transformation Dependency Channels to a New Awareness
them. Instead, it of Society Relationships
encourages a radical Forging of Common Identity
rethinking of the Mainly Interpersonal and Encouragement of
Self- Harnessing Local
implications of IV Channels with Support Participation through
Development Resources -Self-Reliance
development. of Mass Media Emphasis on Shared Values
Experience

64
For self-reliance lo succeed, popular participation is absolutely can be achieved in various ways. Might be by adopting all the

DEVELOPMENT
essential. It is indeed a self-evident truth that in the less- required vaccines for the infants of each family of the society.
developed countries the greatest resource for development is the Some countries might adopt techniques of producing enough
people themselves. Many of the efforts to bring about rapid food for the citizen. Some countries might systematically and
change in living conditions of rural poor have not met with scientifically break all the myths surrounding various religious
much success because of the highly centralised nature of the and social customs. And communication could be a marvelous
enterprise. The experience and the cumulative wisdom of the instrument to achieve these objectives.

COMMUNICATION
peasantry, their cultural ethos, their perception of problems, b) A socializing role, by seeking to maintain some of the
and solutions hardly entered the calculation of rural develop- established values of the society. In playing these roles,
ment. Therefore, it is hardly surprising that the new breed of development communication seeks to create an atmosphere for
development thinkers are paying more and more attention to change as well as providing innovation through which society
this vital aspect. A development strategy which stresses self- may change. Each and every society has some traditional values.
reliance must put the highest premium on popular These values give the people of each society an identity and a
participation. sense of belonging. The aspirations of a society sometimes are
The notion of integrated rural development is as central to this embedded in these values. Now, the values, customs and beliefs
approach as popular participation. A mistake made by the early of other societies might make inroads into other societies. If,
development thinkers was to conceptualize rural development the people are not careful, they might be taken off their
in terms of fragmented categories — agriculture, health, grounds by the new incoming sets of values. Communication
nutrition, etc. However, it is apparent that all these are inextrica- can play a very vital role by making the people aware about this
bly linked, especially in the village environment. pitfall. It can also help immensely by drawing the attention of
The new approach advocates a systems perspective where the members of a society to the richness of their own values,
attention is focused on the functional relationships existing customs, beliefs and, above all, aspirations.
between the various components of any development
programme. Coombs says: Many rural programme have low
Note
effectiveness because they are incomplete systems, much like an
automobile lacking spark plugs, or a wheelbarrow without a
wheel. A common example of this is when a visiting engineer
helps a village to install a safe water supply but no one explains
convincingly to the villagers what they must do thereafter to
keep it safe. A month later the engineer returns to find the fence
down and the bullocks once again polluting the “protected”
water supply. Another example of an incomplete system is the
health service — and unhappily there are many like this — that
concentrates on curative services and neglects preventive and
promotive health measures. Without attacking the root causes
of illness and disease, such a system can never catch up with the
mounting curative load (1980).
The changes in the approaches to communication and develop-
ment shifted the main thrusts of development.
1. From quantitative approach to qualitative approach.
2. Capital intensive to Labor intensive
3. Industry to agriculture
4. Strategies fitting to the environment
5. Basic needs of the people prime importance
6. Holistic approach
7. Structural changes as Land reforms
8. Self-reliance than depending on foreign aids.
9. Traditional culture for development.
[Link] communication strategies than development
strategies for development.
Primary Roles of Development
Communication
a) A transforming role, as it seeks social change in the
direction of the higher quality of life. The higher quality of life

65
DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 9:
INFORMATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected not a sufficient ingredient for development, that potential
contribution has provided a motive for continuing to search for
To know the power of information in development
more effective ways of relating communication processes with
To learn how information can be used for rural development development processes, and for justifying investments in
The relationship between information flows and national or information and communication ideas and practices. That is
local-level development have become better understood in why a policy approach is needed to support the integration of
recent years; as has the role of communication processes in information and communication thinking and practice into
mediating social and individual change. However, in most national development and governance plans.
African countries these relationships are not widely discussed or Information Environment of the Rural
easily accepted, especially by development planners. Poor
Basically, communication is a social process that produces Among the interpersonal forms of communication through
changes in the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of which rural people will be likely to receive and give Information
individuals, and groups, through providing factual and technical are the family sad neighborhood, markets and washing areas*
information, through motivational or persuasive messages, and and festival gatherings for the village. Institutional networks
through facilitating the learning process and social environment. would involve the church or religious network, the administra-
These results might then lead to increase in the mastery of tive structure, the political party, the school, police or army, and
crucial skills by the individual, and to enhancing the achievement such government service agencies as agricultural extension,
of various instrumental goals. Other possible consequences of health, and family planning— among others that might operate
communication include enhancement in self-esteem and well in the village.
being through participation in community and social life, For the mediated forms of mass communication, there are
increasing the individual’s perceived efficacy in dealing with other radio, film, posters, printed materials (such as newspapers and
people, reinforcing mutual respect and enhancing confidence pamphlets), and television. Among the person-to-person
among social groups and building trust within communities. media there are the telephone, telex or telegraph, and mall
These outcomes are the ingredients that contribute to the systems.
creation of those positive individual, community and societal
There are two sets of questions concerning these forms of
changes that together are often referred to as development.
communicating information in the rural environment. What
Communication can thus positively influence development.
functions do the various kinds of media perform in different
But using ‘communication for development’ means different rural environments? and How widespread are the various
things to different people. It has even been viewed differently in communication structures? There is no empirical evidence to
different eras, considered variously as «social engineering» or make any useful generalizations about either of the questions,
‘giving voice to the voiceless’. Both as idea and as practice, the so the form information takes in rural environments must be
relationship of communication to development has been speculative, for the most part.
problematic, as it has raised many questions. Can we show that
On the interpersonal level the communication of a variety of
communication has a place in the development process? What
information can be traced through social networks. The role of
kind of communication has what kind of effect on what
networks in the study of communication is increasingly
aspects of development? The questions are intriguing and
recognized by scholars (Rogers 1977). A number of social
intractable. Often the gains from communication become
networks—such as neighborhoods, traditional markets, and
apparent only when something goes wrong in society.
wandering merchants or performers—are part of the traditional
Although the relationships are not clearly established, the structure of rural communications and still function, for the
Human Development Index, HDI, shows marked differences most part, as they always have. They serve as communication
in the communication profiles of countries of high, medium networks for the kinds of content that usually flow in each
and low human development. The indicators generally em- neighborhood, such as news and gossip, cultural information
ployed in the HDI are mostly infrastructural and technological, reinforcing traditional values, and price information on local
e.g. «access to: radio; television; book titles published; post goods. Although such networks, as well as folk media, could be
offices; main telephone lines; fax machines; mobile cellular used to transmit other kinds of development information, no
telephone subscribers, Internet users, personal computers». It is successful formula has yet been devised to tap into this
probably the case that the opportunities that these channels potentially rich resource on a large scale.
provide for carrying information and messages and for allowing
The social and political institutions typically serving rural areas
multiple social interactions, that «drive» social progress, are a
have important communication functions to perform. Usually,
crucial contribution to the level of socio-economic development
the information serves to promote the continuation of the
of societies. Yet even if communication is only a necessary and

66
 able to make any significant impact on the productivity of very

DEVELOPMENT
structures of society (one thinks of such institutions as schools,
churches, armies and political administrations in many rural small farm holdings, already at almost a maximum of efficiency
areas). However, there are some types of information that (Dames 1975; O’Sullivan l978b). Another structural problem
directly benefit people—as, for example, information to farmers related to land tenure is the increasing number of landless
concerning available credit or to rural women concerning health laborers in rural areas. For them much information concerning
or nutritional practices. agriculture may be useless. They are act needed on very small
farms, where the owner and family do the work; and they

COMMUNICATION
The mass medium that one is most likely to encounter among
cannot be absorbed into larger farms, where investment is in
poor rural people is radio. There may be a few printed materials,
more technology rather than more labor. Even if they are not
such as the Bible or the Koran and perhaps a pamphlet or two.
pushed toward the city, the usual kind of agricultural informa-
It is unlikely that newspapers come regularly to the Isolated
tion is irrelevant because any Increased productivity that may
village, at least to more than a few households; nor is it likely
result from applying new knowledge will go to their employer,
that there is a cinema, television, posters, telegraph, or tele-
not to themselves.
phone available (although some form of mail service may bring
letters to local officials). The third problem is that of the credibility of the source of
information. If the poor are at the bottom of the social system,
Looking at the hypothetical rural information environment,
they will have a built-in bias against information from a
then one can conclude that probably there are not many
government source, unless that government has taken some
channels functioning to bring development information to
clear steps to improve their situation. The danger that the poor
rural people. There are a number of traditional networks, but
may see in government information is that it can be self-serving
these Sanction for traditional purposes. Modern media, with
and political and may simply be a device to substitute words for
the exception of radio, are almost nonexistent This leads
concrete actions in helping rural people.
analysts to one of several strategies in efforts to help the rural
poor: (1) an attempt to use traditional media and networks to These first three constraints suggest that the approach to a
Introduce new information and behavioral change; (2) an ‘solution’ to the problem of the rural poor is a political one,
attempt to place more information agents in the service rooted a-the history of the country and the structures that
Institutions of agriculture, health, education, and community continue to support the status quo; however, the political
development; and/or (3) an attempt to increase the availability solution is not the only aspect of importance, and a look at the
of information through radio or other mass media, if they can technical constraints must be considered as well. How much of
be more widely and equitably distributed. a technical solution is possible within a given set of political
constraints is what has been referred to above under the
Constraints on an Information / assumption of the change ratio. How much room for maneu-
Communication Approach ver is there in a situation?
The problems or constraints that face attempts to improve the
economic and social levels of the rural poor are numerous. Only Technical Constraints
a few of the more general ones can be alluded to here. It is correct to assume that the government is willing to invest a
reasonable amount of money in rural areas, but is unable or
Political Constraints
unwilling to make basic structural changes, there are some
One very good indicator of a government’s priority for a social
technical constraints that can hinder even the relative amount of
program is the size of the budget it allocates to the effort. The
change possible. These constraints are primarily internal to the
rural poor are not often high on anyone’s priority list, but when
project and concern the efficiency and effectiveness of its
they are, they are so numerous that projects, which are often
operation, whereas the constraints discussed above are external
pilot programs, have little impact on the overall problem. They
and concern not the short-term objectives but the longer-term
are, by definition, that proportion (whatever the percentage one
goals of projects.
wishes to choose—30, 50, 70. or 90 percent) of the population
that is the hardest to reach and has the least education, the At the level of planning, developing communication projects
worst health conditions, the least cast income, and the least often ignore the most elementary principles in defining their
number of material resources, such as land. This immediately goals as based on the objective needs of the people. Moreover,
makes it not only much more difficult to communicate with the the goals are often unrealistic to their ambitions. There are often
rural poor but also—though politicians often do not wish s to a series of empirical assumptions underlying the ultimate goal
recognize it—much more costly. For most governments, the of a project for which there is little empirical evidence. Thus, a
first problem encountered in serving the rural poor is the radio project in agriculture may assume that the rural poor own
dilemma of cost. Communication projects for these people sufficient radios to listen in great numbers to radio messages,
may promise to save money, but often these costs are based that most people speak the language of broadcast well enough
upon comparisons with delivering information to urban to receive the messages, or that the information, once applied,
audiences or the highly motivated rural elite, not to the hard-to- can lead to increased productivity regardless of the land size of
reach mass of rural people. most of the farms in the area. With careful planning, many of
these assumptions can be checked before going ahead with
The second problem is knowing how much difference informa-
implementation, but such planning research is frequently not
tion can make on the structural constraints of rural areas.
done.
Agricultural knowledge, as has been mentioned, may not be-

67
 Lack of significant leadership within a project may be an The bureaucratic constraint is a significant one for the adminis-
DEVELOPMENT

important constraint hindering both planning and implementa- tration of rural projects and may account for a large part of the
tion. One project in Guatemala, which lost its original leader, inefficiency and failure that is reported in the literature of rural
failed for two years to clearly decide on the objectives it wished development projects. How this might be avoided or improved
to pursue. In contrast, the success of Columbia’s Accion has no easy answers. The size of the project may be one aspect
Cultural Popular (ACPO) radio project during the 30 years of of the problem, but commitment to a set of common goals
its existence is in large part due to the leadership of its founder. may be a significant element as well. Such commitment is rare
COMMUNICATION

At the institutional level, communication projects often cut across government bureaucratic structures.
across a number of rival bureaucracies—such as broadcasting, A final constraint is one already touched upon above but worth
education, agriculture, and health, to mention only the most mentioning separately; this concerns the participation of rural
common. Attempts to get coordination have not worked well people in projects directed toward them. There are a number of
in rural education in projects in Brazil and Guatemala (McAnany policy statements by lending institutions, as well as by politi-
and Oliveira, forthcoming; O’Sullivan 1977) and in the Ivory cians from third world governments, concerning participation
Coast (Lenglet, 1976). It seems easier to define goals narrowly of rural people in their n development. There are many
under the jurisdiction of one institution than to broaden the meanings and degrees of participation and ways to measure it.
scope of rural communication and risk the problems caused by But the basic starting point concerns who and how many of the
shared responsibility sad bureaucratic rivalries. Yet, the inte- target audience take part m the project. Many rural projects
grated approach to rural development could have important simply have reached too few of the right people to have made
benefits if institutional constraints could be overcome. Some any significant impact on the problems of the rural poor. Self-
small, self-contained private groups often can achieve a more selection is the problem with most projects of this kind. Where
integrated approach, although on a more limited scale (White information is available, those who are most likely to take
1976). advantage of it are the relatively better off. This phenomenon is
Carefully planned and executed teaching/learning strategies that clear in communication projects where information or education
have had success In formal schooling have not had comparable may be freely available to all, but taken advantage of by few; the
development for rural adults in the less formal learning areas of result is a widening of a knowledge gap among different social
agriculture, health, nutrition, and the like. There are questions classes. The same thing happens in other kinds of interven-
of sequential versus nonsequential programming, organized tions where services or other public goods are offered, as is the
versus open audiences, motivational versus didactic approaches adoption of innovations (Roling, Ascroft and Chege 1976).
and active versus passive response modes of reception that all Unless some way is found to overcome the structural bias
need testing among rural adult audiences. against participation of the rural poor, by some-carefully
planned strategy to diminish the self-selection bias, the result of
How best to organize the audience for reception and follow-up
programs for the rural poor win be not only unsuccessful but
action is both as obvious need, in most cases, and a basic
often even counterproductive, making the poor relatively worse
constraint. Esman (1974) sees the organization of small
off than before.
farmers into cooperative groups as an essential element in
successfully helping them to increase their agricultural productiv- A good deal of space has been devoted to constraints, here,
ity. But organizing the rural poor runs into the technical because the topic is focused on poverty, which is the underlying
problems of creating a structure, where none has existed, and constraint in the situation. Also, a balanced emphasis on the
financing it, as well as winning the trust and loyalty of persons constraint side of the picture will help keep the effectiveness
long suspicious of external agencies. But there is a major side, which follows, in proper perspective.
political problem, as well, of organizing a group—the rural Impact of Information: Potential and Real
majority —that is usually very sensitive. There is a fear of Education is sometimes thought of as training in how to
widespread mobilization of the rural poor. Elliot (1974) speaks process a wider spectrum of information. One problem with
of the difficulty that creating animation groups in the rural simply making more information available in rural areas is that
Ivory Coast caused the government, and of their eventual the rural poor are generally illiterate or without much formal
elimination. education, and their ability to take advantage of new informa-
Many rural projects are constrained by a lack not only of tion may be limited. With the spread of the nonprint mass
leadership but also of trained persons in such areas as educa- media, such as radio and television, however, information can
tional planning and broadcast production and evaluation. This be made more accessible in verbal and audiovisual-based
i3 in part due to the general scarcity of trained persons for any messages, instead of those coded to printed language.
kind of rural development project and, in part, to the special- A second consideration is the possibility of substituting mass
ized skills in broadcasting and communications that are media for expensive extension agents in rural areas. Agricultural
demanded in this case. Once people have received some training productivity, for example, could be significantly improved by
in these areas, they often are hired away by the private sector or the regular visits of an extension agent to farmers; but when
other government agencies. It is also clear that unless people are the agent can visit only a small fraction of the potential clientele,
personally committed to the work, they are less likely to want to as often happens, radio might provide the Information more
stay in rural, rather than urban-oriented, projects. widely. In health or nutrition education, information vital for
preventive medicine may be substituted for health educators,

68
who are in chronic short supply. The same analysis can be made information-weighted practice. There have been a number of

DEVELOPMENT
for nutrition, education, and community development. efforts to use low-cost communication technologies, especially
As a support to field agents, information in the form of non- radio, in the education of rural people (Spain, Jamison, and
formal didactic messages, appropriately organized and McAnany 1977; Jamison and McAnany 1978). There are several
presented, can supplement a poorly trained group leader or field examples in the Dominican Republic (White 1976), Nicaragua
agent. This is especially true in educational programs where a (Suppes, Searle, and Friend 1979), and Tanzania (Hall 1978)
teacher’s skills may be limited yet the teacher can guide the where results nave been encouraging.

COMMUNICATION
students in a form of self-education that can be quite effective. Some examples of rural projects nave been mentioned that
These two strategies of substitution for development agents or have had success in providing better information to rural areas,
support of development agents with added media messages are but there is a need to review the circumstances of each project
important to consider seriously because their successful carefully and to estimate the potential impact it has for improv-
application could mean a substantial saving in the cost, as well ing the lives of the rural poor. The structural context is
as in the unproved effectiveness, of rural projects. something that enters into the outcome of any communication
strategy and considerably modifies the potential benefit of
It must be asked what evidence there is, or might be developed,
most projects. For example, Spain (1977) argues that even if we
to test the validity of either of the two strategies of substitu-
could educate rural children in Mexico to finish primary school,
tion or supplementation suggested above. In agricultural
the rural environment would not provide employment for
productivity, we find in Lockheed, Jamison, and Lau (forthcom-
those graduates. The positive impact of education and informa-
ing) and Ashby et al (1977) evidence that there is a consistent,
tion on agricultural productivity may be considerably lessened
although small, positive relationship between education and
when we look at traditional subsistence farms separately and
agricultural productivity. The same is true, to a lesser degree, for
not lump together large and middle-sized farms with very small
information, extension agent visits, and some forms of
plots. Mexican researchers found that in a second trial of the
nonformal education (for example, literacy). If projects can
impact of their version of “Sesame Street” in rural Mexico, there
massively provide appropriate agricultural information via radio
was no replication of the positive findings among the poor of
to a significant number of rural listeners, then some benefits
Mexico City (Diaz-Guerrero et al. 1976). Grunig (1971) found—
may accrue from this exposure. Some evidence for this appears
among Colombian peasants—that although information can
in a rural project in Guatemala (Academy for Educational
help an individual adapt to a changing situation “it can do little
Development 1978).
to change the situation.” The small subsistence farmers may not
In the field of health care, health and nutrition education, and lack for information but often cannot use it in any productive
family planning, there is much less evidence, although the way because of structural constraints such as land size or lack of
potential would seem greater than for agriculture. This is true credit. The principle for planning information strategies that pay
because health practices may be adopted without as many off for the poor seems to be a careful estimate of the ratio for
resource inputs as in agriculture, where results depend not just potential change in the target area of each project.
on practice but resources (credit) to buy fertilizers, seeds,
pesticides, tools, and the like. White (1977), for example, found Policy Alternatives For Information’s Role
that in a group of Honduran villages that received health and There are, as have been pointed out above, two ways to analyze
agricultural information from a local radio station, the health the problems of the rural poor—a political analysis of the
practices were employed significantly more often than were the factors that have caused and continue to help keep the poor “in
agricultural practices—presumably, as the author believes, their place”, and an analysis of the problem that looks for a
because it cost little or nothing to adopt the health practices. technical solution to the situation. In neither case is the author
satisfied with the solution offered in isolation from the other.
Nutrition and environment education (concerning latrines,
It has been suggested that both kinds of analysis be made and
water supply, and the like) are two high-potential areas where
that, ultimately, the problem demands an integrated solution,
slight improvements would have much wider consequences on
both political and technical. Thus, for countries that, politically,
the quality of life than may appear. Improved nutrition practice
have made serious choices to put equity into practice, the
may have an indirect but significant impact on size, mortality,
technical analysis may be a help in carrying out such develop-
and cognitive growth of children, while improved water and
ment goal more effectively. Tanzania, for example, has tried to
latrinization can help improve health, as well as raise agricultural
further the benefits of its equity principle for the rural masses
productivity and the level of employment. Hall (1978) provides
through radio mobilization campaigns. For those countries that
a case study of a massive mobilization of almost two million-
do not pot priority on equity, there may be some benefit for the
rural people in Tanzania for a public health radio campaign, the
rural poor in a careful technical approach to an information
short-term benefits of which Included an estimated 750, 000
strategy. Thus, at given historical moments even status quo-
latrines built. Experimental efforts to use radio spot announce-
oriented governments may allow their own agencies or private
ments in several Third World countries (that is, Ecuador, the
groups to promote programs that try to mobilize rural people
Philippines, and Nicaragua) to get mothers to adopt simple
for development. But contents of the campaign may make
nutritional practices also seem to have had some success (Cooke
political differences, so that a rural health and nutrition
and Romweber 1977).
education campaign might clash less with vested interests in
Finally, in the area of nonformal education for agriculture,
health, literacy, and the like, we come closer to a relatively

69
 rural areas than an agricultural campaign that may quickly arrive forming their communication infrastructure into a system that
DEVELOPMENT

at the fundamental necessity for land reform. will, in turn, help to create a better economic base for their
There are two sets of policy recommendations that must be people. A major task that confronts most countries is to try to
briefly mentioned m this context—those that help ensure IEC equalize the difference between their urban and rural popula-
projects of benefiting the right people in rural areas (that is, the tions. The role that information might; play in this task of
poor, not the relatively better-off farmers) and those that helping rural people to lead more productive, healthy lives
ensure IEC projects of achieving a more effective outcome, depends not only on political decisions concerning the struggle
COMMUNICATION

regardless of selection. to eliminate structural blocks to growth but also on a decision

to use their own information resources in the most appropriate
At the political and administrative level should be placed certain
way in that struggle.
preconditions for the planning of IEC projects:
1. There should be a serious political commitment of the Characteristics of Development
government to improve the conditions of the rural poor (an Communication
important but not exclusive measure is the budget Ever since the third world countries gained their independence
commitment). from their colonial powers, media played a vital role in the
development of these countries. The revolution started by the
2. The project should not be a pilot project but involve enough
developing countries in the sixties accelerated the pace of
people so that it will be more difficult, if the project
development, in all fields as agriculture health and nutrition,
succeeds, for a future government to cut it off.
education, family planning, environment. Lerners, in his “The
3. There should be a clear-cut mechanism for involving the passing of the traditional society’, wrote, “The quickest way to
target audience itself (participation in planning, change traditional societies is to is to introduce and use mass
implementation, definition of needs, and sharing in media.”
benefits).
Purposive
4. There should be an integrated approach covering several areas
of rural need (for example, health education, agricultural
practice, nutrition education, environmental hygiene) so that
a broader participation of rural people is encouraged.
All of these provisions are applicable to governments that have
sought political and technical solutions to rural poverty and
those that seek only a technical solution. At the technical
planning level, there are several recommendations to be made:
1. There should be an analysis of different substantive areas for
rural change projects (for example, health and nutrition,
Communication for development or development communica-
agriculture, literacy, small industry, and the like) in which the
tion is purposive communication. It is the purposeful sharing
physical resource/information trade-off is most clear.
information to bring about desirable change. Desirable means
2. There should be a careful task analysis within those areas that the greatest good of the greatest number of people in a society,
hold the most promise for an information substitution or and for the individual, the fulfillment of the human potential.
supplementation strategy to see what part may benefit most The whole communication activity is aimed at social economic
from Information (for example, in health, information may political and cultural development.
help more in reducing infant diarrhea than river blindness).
Development communication disseminates useful and crucial
3. There should be a study of the self-selection mechanisms of information to people which will inspire, encourage, support
rural audiences and a subsequent monitoring of the and lead in their decisions in their path to development. It alters
Information/ resource delivery to assure the project planners according to the feedback, The messages are prepared in a
that not only the right people are selected but also that they participatory manner.
continue to receive the services.
The message must not be dull and boring but show clearly how
4. There should be a policy study to decide whether investment the information transmitted will make a difference in the life of
in a greater number of smaller, private projects or m fewer, the recipient - it must not instill doubt or disbelief, but trust
large-scale government projects in rural development would and confidence (look for local adopters). Development Com-
be more beneficial. munication workers should, however, balance creativity with an
5. There should be an evaluation not only of the shorter- but understanding of what communities would be prepared to
also of the longer-term benefits of IEC projects for their accept and where consideration has been given to the norms
impact on rural equity. and prevailing values of that community.
Currently, there is much attention being given to the question It never dumps information in a community. Development
of a new international economic order and to a new informa- Communication has specific behavioral objectives, such as
tion -world order. If Third World countries succeed in freeing getting farmers to go in for a specific variety of seed, pesticide,
their communication systems from undue influence and control etc.
by metropolitan countries, they face the vital stage of trans-

70
 critical self-awareness and help people to empower their

DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable
Therefore the role of development communication is to work situation.
for sustainable development, “Which involves benign designs Participatory approach builds up self-confidence of the people.
and management procedures that work with natural processes Human development, empowerment, self-reliance and
to conserve all resources, minimize waste, and environmental participatory development are very closely connected. It develop-
impact, prevent problems and promote agro-eco-system ment implies that people must get the opportunity to shape
resilience, self regulation, evolution and sustained production

COMMUNICATION
their own development, it means that target beneficiaries of
for the nourishment and fulfillment of all.” Mac Ray. development should have control over the planning and
People Participatory execution of development activities as well as the resources.
In the process of development, the main participants and the This leads to participatory action programs in which land
beneficiaries are the people. Rejection or acceptance of develop- reform, redistribution of assets etc. get the change for the poor
ment messages depend on the patterns of socialization and to take control of their own development.
cultural context of the people. Though beneficiaries may not In participatory development and self-reliance, communicator is
have the ability to articulate their views as concretely as the expected to stimulate and to contribute to the process of
thinkers could, they can provide much to the planning, empowerment. Communications has the role of making
implementation and monitoring of the development project. people aware of their own situation and potential and pave the
Further, possibility of the abuse, misuse and unjust dispersal way for action. Priority is given to interpersonal communication
of the fruits of development is likely to decrease. channels and horizontal flow of ideas.
Development programmes which plan for communities or Holistic Approach
supply information which planners feel communities need, fail For integral development it may be necessary to adopt a holistic
to be relevant initiatives and more often than not fail to be approach. The society functions as a mega system, where every
sustainable. A primary emphasis of this approach is to plan sub system affects and gets affected by the other. Therefore an
with communities, create structures which offer communities integral or holistic approach is needed.
and developers equal power, and use communication methods
Dr. Jamias in her book “Readings in Development Communi-
which are fundamentally participatory in nature. This often
cation” says, “To achieve agricultural development objectives,
requires that government planners, developers or community
communication should not be viewed as a lone, self-actualizing
workers have to listen to the advice of communities and change
factor but as a part of a larger system, composed of multiple
the views they themselves hold.
interacting factors in development.” “The intended outcome of
The economical strategies and plans before the 70’s were a communication act may fail or at most succeed only in a
hierarchical or top down planned. The voice of the majority limited way due to a crucial weakness in one or more factors in
poor were not listened to. ‘People above’ decided everything for the system.”
them. They were never consulted. This made the plans theoreti-
Various disciplines like, psychology, sociology, political science
cal and far away from the actual needs and practicability.
and anthropology has to work side by side to ensure develop-
But by 70’s a new era was rising. Communication scientists and ment. The help from all these branches may be necessary to
development activists began to receive a new view. People’s bring in essential changes or groundwork to execute the
participation in the decision making and executing became development plans.
unquestionable and unavoidable.
Stover opined that human development must aim at creating
Development communication is people oriented, and enable to the “whole man and woman and deal beyond economic needs,
people to design their own pace of development. It believes in with the human necessity for expression, creativity, conviviality.
the people’s ability to change and to participate. The people are It must begin by meeting basic needs, particularly of the poor.”
more aware of the problems they are facing, but often fail to
Therefore, changes in the individual, structural changes, and
tackle it. The change agent’s role is to make them find out
organizational changes must go side by side in economic
methods by themselves and to assist them in this process.
development. For example, a farmer will be affected both by
Further people oriented development brought out the inborn
internal structural changes such as land reforms, and also by the
talents and abilities of the people that could be utilized for the
external structural changes such as trade relationships. To have a
development programs. The early concept, education for
certain socio economic equality, equitable distribution of social
employment was extended to education for self-renewal and
product was necessary.
self-reliance.
Local Culture Bias
People Empowerment
Culture is the expression of the collective mind of a society.
Abraham Maslov in his Transpersonal Psychol-
ogy said that the goal of all human beings is In the early decades all the communication scientists headed by
self-actualization. Development communication Daniel Herne believed that culture is an obstacle to develop-
makes it possible through mutual sharing of ment. So they taught that traditional cultures must give way to
ideas. Since the goal of communication is the full the western culture which created faster economic development
realization of the human being, the chief in the developed countries. As all the early scholars belonged to
function of both interpersonal and mass media is to promote US, they taught that only capitalist model of development is

71
 desirable and promotable. As a result, profit motive and build, using their own resources and appropriate or intermedi-
DEVELOPMENT

individualism became guiding factors for development. ate technology espoused in Schumacher’s notion, “Small is
However by the 90’s it was proved that capitalist ideal was beautiful.” Rogers in 1976 viewed development as a participa-
neither desirable nor even attainable. Tendency to “romance tory process of social change in a society intended to bring
with traditional cultures” started. about social and material advancement (Involving greater
equality, freedom and other valued qualities) for the majority of
Traditional cultures had within themselves the paths to
the people through their gaining control over their environ-
COMMUNICATION

development. Folk theatre, dance and music began to play key

ment.
roles in disseminating development plans. They did not need
expatriate expertise to operate and they were locally available.
The thinkers agreed that the ‘Small and local are also beautiful.’
The use of local media is stimulated because people are familiar
with them and it strengthens cultural tradition and can be
managed by people themselves.
But a problem with traditional culture is, left to themselves,
they do not promote material well- being. But they can be of
good use to support communication strategies of DSC plans.
They are not an alternative but a support.

Communication as social service

Development Communication is philanthropic. It seeks no
profit but only development for the target beneficiary. Take the
example of the high yielding variety of seed. Once adopted, the
farmers can increase their harvest manifold. This means more
income, which can be utilised to buy land, cattle or equipments.
This is what we mean by positive value attached to develop-
ment communication.

As each culture enjoys a monopoly of shared experience, Note

customs, traditions and belief systems, their receptivity can be
shaped by them. If not careful the effect can be just negative
compared to the intended effect.
There lies a danger in synthesizing local culture to western
culture. The richness and beauty of the culture, when come to
horns with the capitalistic and modern culture of the western
people, either it gets annihilated and undergo a cultural
domination or cultural synchronization. The beauty of the
humanity lies in the variety. When this goes and a single
capitalistic culture grows, this sudden change will make life dry,
immoral and ego-centered.
Mass media opened the doors of the third world ‘forts’,
welcomed the western capital, expertise and technology and let
loose their possibility of self-reliance and valued cultural
heritage and values.
The role of development communication in cross boarder
development project is to preserve the rich heritage of different
cultures and to make use them as development support
communication tools to disseminate the new information. It is
possible through participatory process.
Self Reliance Oriented
Self-reliance and public participation are musts for the planning
and implementation of the development program. Self reliance
also implies the determination of a people or a country to

72
 DEVELOPMENT
LESSON 10:
GENDER DIMENSION OF DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNICATION
Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to remedies. The Organization has now committed itself to
integrating a gender perspective into all areas of United Nations
To understand why gender concerns are necessary
work, including development.
To know the situation of women in India
In resolution 2000/5 the Commission on Human Rights
To learn the role of women in development affirmed the need to apply a gender perspective in the imple-
To study the need for women empowerment mentation of the right to development, inter alia by ensuring
that women play an active role in the development process. It
Rights-based approaches to development emphasize non-
emphasized that the empowerment of women and their full
discrimination, attention to vulnerability and empowerment.
participation on the basis of equality in all spheres of society is
Women and girls are among the first victims of discrimination.
fundamental for society.
They are the most vulnerable and the least empowered in many
societies. At its fifty-fifth session, the Commission requested all human
rights treaty bodies, special procedures and the Sub-Commis-
To protect women’s rights, the international community has
sion on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights to
created specific standards. In 1979, the United Nations General
adopt a systematic gender perspective when implementing their
Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All
mandates (E/CN.4/RES/1999/41).
Forms of Discrimination against Women.
In accordance with this resolution, OHCHR is endeavouring to
The Convention, which entered into force on 3 September
mainstream gender issues both within and outside the Office.
1981, establishes women’s right to non-discrimination on the
Gender concerns will be reflected in the conceptualization,
basis of sex and affirms equality in international law. The
implementation and evaluation of human rights policies,
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against
strategic planning, and the setting of priorities and objectives.
Women (CEDAW) monitors it.
Recent world conferences, including Vienna (1993), Cairo (1994) Development and Gender Related Crime
and Beijing (1995), have confirmed the strong link between the Crimes by and against women attracts focused public attention
gendered nature of violations of human rights and the due to the special status of women in the Indian social
advancement of women’s rights. structure, and needs to be scrutinized against the backdrop of
their socialization in our society. The subject of women and
The 1993 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action
crime also needs to be discussed in accordance with the changes
affirmed the human rights of women as an inalienable, integral
that Indian society has registered in the last four decades The
and indivisible part of human
conflicts generated in the values and norms, roles and responsi-
rights and demanded that the
bilities, expectation and reality, etc., have further complicated the
equal status and human rights
issue of women and crime Both, crimes by and against women
of women be integrated into
may have various dimensions with a resemblance to the general
the mainstream of United
crime trends of a society. However, the crimes against women
Nations system-wide activity.
must not be judged in accordance with their intensity but
Gender mainstreaming has against the background and status of the victim or perpetrator
been defined by the United in the social order.
Nations as the process of In India, where the almighty is worshipped in feminine form as
assessing the implications for Shakti by many, crime against women is becoming common
women and men of any place and is on the increase. Crime statistics - with all their
planned action, including imperfections - paint a dismal picture. They point out that in
legislation, policies and this country, a rape takes place once in every 54 minutes; eve -
programmes, in any area and at teasing once in every 51 minutes; molestation once in every 26
all levels (ECOSOC Agreed minutes; and a dowry death once in every hundred minutes.
Conclusions 1997/2). Crime against women reported to police has increased by over
In 1998, the Economic and 37 per cent in the past seven years. ([Link], IPS
Social Council (ECOSOC) (Retd.)
adopted resolution 1998/11
Given the well known fact that only few crimes get reported to
on mainstreaming a gender
the police and that official statistics do not take note of less well
perspective into the policies and programmes of the United
known and yet frequent crimes of foeticide, infanticide, sati,
Nations system, and decided to pay particular attention to what
with hunting, indecent overtures, verbal and physical abuse
has been called the “feminization” of poverty, its causes and
within the family, these statistics indicate only the tip of the

73
 iceberg. Added to this, the fatalistic attitude of Indian women bility of police in India are onerous. Much of their time and
DEVELOPMENT

who suffer silently all abuses and hardships as part of their energy are consumed in order maintenance duties. Crime as a
karma, and the social taboos which look down upon the victim rule is now receiving a low priority in police activities and it is
of a sex crime, prevent many instances coming in the open. unrealistic to expect the police to concentrate on this areas as the
While the ‘cases known to the police’ represent only a fraction focus of the public is on order maintenance. Therefore, there is
of actual incidence, the tardy disposal given to them both by the need to set up special police units to exclusively deal with crime
police and judiciary undermines the confidence of the women against women. To begin with, these special units could be
COMMUNICATION

in the criminal justice system. established at all towns and cities having a population of over a
Women, who constitute about half of our population are lakh and in rural areas with a history of such crime.
entitled to a fair deal from the society and the criminal justice Crime against women are of personal and intimate nature. To
system to save them from these crimes. While the feudal past investigate the same, the police officer should have the confi-
of our society and societal values create an atmosphere of dence of the victim. In our social conditions, a woman is
tolerance for crime against women, the course of justice is unlikely to confide to a male, intimate details of the crime
deflected and made ineffective due to the indifference and lack against her. Therefore, these special units to deal with crime
of cooperation from the public; inadequate law enforcement against women should be staffed with women police officers.
efforts; a sluggish and unresponsive judicial system resulting in As the work will be primarily of investigation, these units
delayed trials; and the consequent pressure on witnesses to turn should be officer-intensive i.e., they should have more inspec-
hostile. Remedy lies in implementing a multi-pronged strategy tors and sub-inspectors than the constables.
aimed at sensitizing the public, police and judiciary to gender
justice so that prevention, detection and investigation, speedy
and effective trials and deterrent punishment for crime against
women become more effective and result-oriented.
Prevention of crime against women calls for a general awareness
in the population to give the women their due. Massive
educational campaigns and propaganda efforts to highlight the
need to eradicate the existing social evils which lead to the crime
against women are to be launched. Eve-teasing, a precursor and
a catalyst to many types of serious offences against women,
takes place due to adolescents picking up wrong signals and
ideas from the media and the films. They are in an age where
they can not shift the facts of life from friction. Demystification
of sex and proper sex education are likely to remove the urge
and impetus for the adolescents, will ensure that sexual
harassment of women do not take place and if it does, severe
disciplinary action is initiated against the guilty. The need to
educate women to realise that their lot is not to suffer in silence At present women police officers are recruited on almost on the
but they should fight for justice can not be over-emphasized. same criteria as their counterparts. When entrusted with work
Measures to protect them against social ostracisation and relating to women and children, they are given some training in
harassment are to be conceived. Psychological support, guidance a capsule form, the rationale being that there should be no
and counselling are needed for the victims of crime and many discrimination on sex at the stages of recruitment and training.
women may need shelter and sustenance in their hour of Since, there is need for specialist officers to deal with crime
distress. Women social service organisations with the active against women, ladies with a degree in psychology should be
support of the government can play a vital role in the area of recruited and given specialised training in the nuances of
prevention. investigation of crime against women and also in counselling,
To protect themselves against physical attacks women students, guidance etc.
working women and housewives are to be given training in In addition to dealing with women as victims of crime, police
elementary steps of unarmed combat for self protection. Safety also deal with women as accused and criminals. Often one hears
gadgets like miniature tear smoke canisters that can be carried in complaints of custodial violence against women perpetrated by
hand bags and whistles to draw attention are to be supplied free male police officers. To eliminate this possibility, the special
of cost. These are standard practices in advanced countries. Law units dealing with crime against women could also handle all
enforcement agencies, by organising beats, patrols, escorts etc. in women accused of crime and assist in the interrogation of
areas prone to crime against women, can promote the cause of women suspects and witnesses. These special units could also
prevention. serve as pre-trial detention centres for women under-trials and
The criminal justice process is initiated by the police. Unless suspects in the police remand. This would help in minimising
police are sensitised to gender justice, they are not likely to give custodial violence against women.
high priority to the crimes against women and consequently The need to have more women in police cannot be overempha-
criminal justice system cannot swing into action. The responsi- sized. ‘All women police stations’, particularly in urban areas is
the crying need of the day.

74
While the higher courts have displayed commendable initiative Incidence and Rate of Cognizable Crimes under Special and

DEVELOPMENT
to render justice to women victims of crime, the same is Local Laws (SLL) by Crime Head, India - 1989 – 94
unfortunately not true of lower courts. Law is not justice.
Quinquennial Avg.
Justice is dispensed by courts in a humane and fair manner in Crime Head 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
1989-1993
accordance with the spirit and letter of law. Judiciary has an
Dowry
important role to play in preventing the crime against women. 1918 2155 1841 2102 2679 2709 2016
Prohibition Act
Without prejudice to the sacred principles of natural justice and

COMMUNICATION
due process, it can play a pro-active role. Justice delayed is justice Incidence of Crimes Against Women by Crime Head 1990-94
denied and it is within the powers of judiciary to expedite trials,
Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
protect women witnesses from harassment by the counsel.
Deterrence lies in the certainty of punishment and not in its Torture 13450 15949 19750 22064 25946
severity. Acquittals on flimsy grounds of procedure embolden
Number of suicides by sex and cause, India 1994
the perpetrators and demoralise the victims. Special courts are to
be set up. Cause of Suicides Male Female

Though, there have been some legal reforms pertaining to the

Cause Male Female
crime against women, due to the initiative of women’s
of
organisations and the law commission, there is much remains Suicides < 18- 30-
>50 Total
< 18- 30-
>50 Total
to be done to amend procedural laws, prescription of mini- 18 30 50 18 30 50
mum punishment for offences etc. Dowry
10 47 11 6 74 149 1267 194 3 1613
Dispute
Role of women NGOs
Women NGOs should realise that crime against women to a Source: Women in India: a statistical profile - 1997. New Delhi:
large extent can be Department of Women and Child Development, Ministry of
prevented by educating Human Resource Development, Government of India, 1997.
the possible victims.
Domestic Violence
They should concentrate
on pro-active steps to Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
make women aware of No. of
13450 15949 19750 22064 25946 31127 35246 36592
their rights and the fact Deaths

that their person can not

Disposal of Crimes Against Women cases by Police
be violated with impu-
during 1996 & 1997
nity by men; train them
in self defence; establish Total No. of
cases for Percentage Percentage
Percentage No. of cases
legal aid cells run by Crime Head
investigation
of cases
of cases
pending
of cases
including charge- pending
women; provide pending
investigated
sheeted
investigation
investigation
counselling and advice, cases
Year 1996 1997 1996 1997 1996 1997 1996 1997 1996 1997
make their services
Rape 19963 20736 72.5 71.7 63.4 62.4 5463 5828 27.4 28.1
available to police
Kidnapping
stations to deal with women-complements, witnesses and and 21765 23448 64.0 62.8 37.1 36.1 7761 8586 35.7 36.6
victims. They should also follow up cases in courts. Mere Abduction
Dowry
agitational approach may give publicity but seldom enduring Deaths
6758 7543 77.5 72.3 69.9 63.5 1430 2048 21.2 27.2

results. Molestation 32479 34937 87.1 86.8 78.8 79.0 4148 4528 12.7 13.0

Crime against women is not a mere gender issue. It is a slur on Sexual

5879 6131 94.1 92.4 91.0 89.3 347 461 5.9 7.5
Harassment
the good name of this great democracy. It is incumbent on
everyone of us - Indians - to see that effective steps are taken to Cruelty by
Husband 40197 43130 83.4 80.5 71.0 67.9 6422 8268 15.9 19.2
prevent and control the same and ultimately eliminate them. and relatives
No effort can be considered excessive to achieve these.
Immoral
Traffic
Dowry: Statistics (Prevention)
8189 9076 90.8 86.8 90.7 96.5 748 1198 9.1 13.2
Act
Dowry Deaths Dowry
Prohibition 3863 3853 67.7 70.8 58.2 59.3 1216 1100 31.5 28.5
Act
Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Indedent
No. of Deaths 4836 5157 34962 5817 4935 5092 5513 6006 Rep. of
113 96 79.6 85.4 77.0 81.3 23 14 20.4 14.6
women(P)
Act
Incidence of Female Suicides Cause: Dowry Dispute Sati
Prevention 0 1 - 100.0 - 100.0 0 0 - 0
Act
Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
No. of Suicides 1298 1310 1370 1486 1613 Source: Crime in India 1997 /by National Crime Records
Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.

75
 Table 3: Disposal of Crime Against Women cases by courts representations of women are on television and how this
DEVELOPMENT

during 1996 & 1997 affects the attitudes of those who watch.
Total No. of Some of the most watched, and perhaps influential genres of
cases for
Percentage
Percentage
No. of cases
Percentage television viewing are advertisements and soap operas, and it is
investigation of cases of cases these two forms of television that I will be largely focusing on
Crime Head of cases pending
including charge- pending
investigated investigation throughout this essay.
pending sheeted investigation
cases
COMMUNICATION

In a world where women are numbered greater than men, can

Year 1996 1997 1996 1997 1996 1997 1996 1997 1996 1997 television be said to reflect the world as it is, or dictate to it?
Sexism is the systematic oppression of women by men, and so
Rape 51734 55863 16.3 17.4 4.5 4.9 43016 45955 83.1 82.3
the amount of sexism, if any, will be investigated as various
Kidnapping representations of women are investigated.
and 42978 44262 13.9 14.7 4.0 3.9 36470 37254 84.9 84.2 As mentioned above, there is a higher number of women in
Abduction
the population than men, so if television is more realistic, this
Dowry should be reflected. Yet women are typically seen less often than
16517 19435 13.8 14.8 4.8 5.2 14133 16455 85.6 84.7
Deaths men on television and much less frequently in central dramatic
Molestation 92398 100654 15.3 17.1 4.7 6.3 72539 78200 78.5 77.7 roles. For example, figures show that in television drama
women are outnumbered by men 3:1 or 4:1, in cartoons
Sexual women are outnumbered 10:1 and in soaps women are
13327 14130 31.1 29.5 22.1 18.0 8656 9437 65.0 66.8
Harassment outnumbered by as much as 7:3 which is quite surprising when
one considers that this genre of television viewing has a very
high proportion of female audience. Even children’s television
Cruelty by is dominated by males: 70% - 85%. Men also dominate the
Husband 99542 113181 12.2 13.0 2.3 3.1 83195 95409 83.6 84.3 production side of television, so it is hardly surprising then,
and relatives
that the masculine or patriarchal ideology is presented as the
norm, when women are so outnumbered by men on screen ,
Immoral
Traffic and behind the scenes in television.
13407 12660 61.3 54.1 54.2 49.4 4799 5505 35.8 43.5
(Prevention) So we can see then, that television presents its audience with a
Act
very masculine perspective.
Dowry Gunter argues that televisions sex stereotyping occurs in relation
Prohibition 7856 8295 19.6 22.7 6.9 8.3 6175 6186 78.6 74.6
Act to various roles in which men and women are portrayed and
which have a connection with the personality attributes they
Indedent
typically display. He therefore divides stereotyping into sex role
Rep. of
625 578 19.8 13.3 9.4 6.2 500 499 80.0 86.3 stereotyping and sex trait stereotyping.
women(P)
Act Sex role stereotyping reflects the changes in beliefs about the
Sati value of family, child care, the role of the woman in marriage
Prevention 3 4 0 0 0 0 3 1 100.0 25.0 and the possibility of self-fulfilment through work. Generally,
Act
in the world of television, women tend to be confined to a life
dominated by the family and personal relationships far more
Definition of Torture (Cruelty by Husband and Relatives): than men, outside the home, as well as in it. For example,
It is covered under the Indian Penal Code (IPC) along with according to a study by McNeil, about 75% of men are depicted
Crimes Against Women: Dowry Death, Cruelty by Husband or as employed whereas less than 50% of women are (Gunter,
Relatives, Molestation, Sexual Harassment and Importation of 1986: 11).
Girls. [The Indian Penal Code /by Ratanlal and Dhirajlal, p.677. Sex trait stereotyping, on the other hand, Gunter argues as
(28th Edition 1997)] reflecting more commonly held stereotypes about women’s
characteristics; for example, that women are more emotional
Media Portrayal of Women
than men. But the word ‘emotional’ isn’t used in association
Television with aggression or dominance, it is more often than not used
Television is widely known to represent and reinforce the in association in reference to the neuroticism commonly
mainstream ideology of contemporary western culture: associated with women and femininity. Examples of these
patriarchy. While television representations of women have forms of stereotyping will become apparent as various genres
changed greatly in the last twenty years alone, in order to of programming are investigated.
accommodate the changing role of women in society, one is led
Advertising is probably one of the most important and
to ask how much the ideology has changed behind the more
influential products of television. Indeed, the average adult
modern representations of women. Television is regarded by
spends one and a half years of his or her life watching television
many viewers to be the most ‘real’ form of media. If this is the
adverts. For the amount of time we spend watching adverts, it
case, then it is important for us to question how real the

76
stands to reason that it will have some kind of effect on those In both of these adverts, men are portrayed as not often using

DEVELOPMENT
who watch. a kitchen. The first demonstrates this as the young man makes a
Paul Trowler sites a study of women in advertisements, which mess and even blames his mother for not being there to clean
found that women were seven times more likely to appear in for him. The second represents this in the way we see the
personal hygiene product adverts than to not appear; 75% of all husband sitting on a chair, sweeping the mop across the floor,
adverts using females were for products used in the bathroom and the way in which his wife rewards him with affection for
or kitchen, 56% of women in adverts were shown as domestic doing something which is more often than not seen as her task.

COMMUNICATION
housewives and only eighteen different occupations were The second even goes so far as to imply that women are gullible
shown for women, in comparison to forty three for men and not as intelligent as men through the way that the wife is
(Trowler,1988: 96). Behind these figures then, we can see how scrubbing the floor and how in contrast, the husband uses a
advertising is prescribing the role of a woman as being very mop and Flash. It portrays that the wife is ignorant of modern
much a family and home orientated one. products that can make the job easier, but the husband doesn’t
tell her , because he can use it to manipulate her into giving him
When a mother and wife goes out to work leaving her family to
affection for a task which she thinks he has worked as hard as
fend for themselves, she is often punished. For example, an
her on.
OXO advert, where we see the mother just come in from work
to find that her family has eaten all the dinner without leaving The sex object, according to Kilbourne, is a “mannequin”
her any. She looks into the camera with a resigned smile, whose only attribute is conventional beauty. She is tall and thin,
portraying that she knows that this is her punishment and she’s with very long legs, perfect teeth and hair, and skin without a
accepting it. Even when women are shown in a position of blemish in sight. Underneath the surface, there is nothing. The
power, it is still shown through a very patriarchal ideology. If mannequin’s beauty is merely superficial. She is used to
we use the Kenko advert as an example; a woman is looking at advertise cosmetics, health products and anything that works to
the quality of coffee beans and says to the man (seller) that improve the appearance of the body.
she’ll take them all. Seeing her (male) assistant, he says; “I’d Often, these mannequins are dismembered in adverts showing
better o.k it with the boss.” to her reply of; “You just did.”. the parts of the body that are in need of change or improve-
Often when women are shown in a position of power, it is ment. An example of this is in the Neutralia shower gel advert
portrayed as being unnatural, because from the dominant where a young blonde woman is portrayed running along a
ideology, it is the men who are the most powerful and so deserted beach naked representing the ‘naturalness’ of the
having a male working for a female is made an issue of because product, and then different parts of her body are shown at a
it goes against the grain. This is one of the reasons why so time, being washed. The woman has an expression of pleasure
many women are shown in domestic situations. on her face as if she knows that this product will bring out her
natural beauty. She is made to look somewhat virginal, with
Jean Kilbourne in “Beauty and the Beast of Advertising”,
little obvious make-up, blonde hair, blue eyes and in a state of
recognises that a number of studies have reached the same
nudity, but seemingly unaware of it, like Eve, before she took
conclusion in that a large number of advertisements portray
the apple. This advert emphasises the naturalness of the
women as housewives or sex objects. The housewife is married,
product and the woman, and implicitly reinforces the ‘natural-
usually with children, and is shown to be obsessed with
ness’ of a woman being a virgin, which is very much a part of
cleanliness and alpine fresh scents. Indeed, the housewife’s life is
the dominant ideology, but does not apply to men.
shown to revolve around products which will make her house
dust-free, germ-free, and dirt-free. Knowing that cleanliness of In contradiction to this, women in adverts are also represented
the house is her job, she usually does it with a smile, providing as sexual objects used for the sole purpose of giving men
that she has the latest product to give her a helping hand. pleasure. If we look at the most recent Lion Bar advert, we see a
young man in his early twenties get up and get dressed, noting
When men are shown in domestic situations, they are usually
that his jeans and T-shirt have large rips. He goes out to buy
portrayed as being incompetent or are shown to be manipula-
some Lion Bars, and as he returns, the camera pans around the
tive: smarter than the female. Examples of this would be in the
room to reveal claw marks on the walls and furniture. It is then
Persil advert, where the young man has no clean shirts and has
we see a beautiful young woman lying on the bed, and as the
to wash one. First, he has problems discovering which of the
camera zooms in, she opens her eyes, revealing cat-like pointed
kitchen appliances is the washing machine, then, while he’s
irises. At the end of the advert, when she sees the Lion Bars,
reading the instructions on the side of the Persil packet, the
she roars (like a lion).
powder spills all over the floor, to which his reaction is
“Mum!”. Finally we see him walking along wearing a whiter This advert, one might find particularly derogatory towards
than white shirt. women in the way that it likens them to animals and posses-
sions; and the way in which the woman is placed on the bed in
The second advert is for Flash multi-purpose cleaner. The husband
the advert portrays women as being only objects used for sex;
offers to take over the scrubbing of the floor, much to the
void of any personality or feelings. Both these adverts succeed
surprise of his wife who leaves him to it. The husband then
in dehumanising women in that the first divides the woman up
uses Flash in order to show how ‘effortless’ cleaning can be.
into parts of a body, implying that she is nothing more than
When his wife returns, he grabs the scrubbing brush again so
say, a car, something which is only a number of parts put
that it appears that he’s scrubbed the whole floor. In response,
together. The second advert dehumanises the woman by
his wife congratulates him and starts rubbing his back.

77
 showing her as an animal with little control over herself and led It used to be the case that such women were presented as
DEVELOPMENT

by sexual instinct. It also shows her as being a possession, as is sexless, that once they have had a family, they lose all sexual
a cat or dog, through the way the man has to feed her with Lion desire and attraction. This is still the case in much of prime time
Bars, and as we see from their room, if she doesn’t get her Lion television, but in recent years, has changed to accommodate the
Bars, She’ll destroy it, just as an ill-trained dog might, if left un- housewife’s sexuality. A good example would be Cheryl from
fed. Neighbours. But while the subject is spoken about openly
We can see then from these two examples the contradictory between herself and her husband, she comes across more as a
COMMUNICATION

messages that women are given. They are expected to be sexy bimbo owing to the way she seldom speaks of much else
and virginal, experienced and naive, seductive and chaste. They except for that and her baby. However, in domestic soaps, there
are made to feel that they have to achieve this ideal, by con- are still women who are shown as being sexless because they
stantly being presented with these images and are made to feel have a family. If we take the example of Pippa again, this is
guilty and ashamed if they fail. Rita Freedman found that: shown through her appearance (she always looks as if she’s
wearing maternity dresses), and how infrequently the subject is
“When Glamour magazine surveyed its readers in 1984, 75% felt
raised between herself and her husband. It is very rare for these
too heavy and only 15% felt just right. Nearly half of those
main characters in such soaps to mention sex, and the viewers
who were underweight reported feeling too fat and wanting to
often see little more than a rare hug and a peck on the cheek
diet. Among a sample of college women, 40% felt overweight,
between them, yet with the young single women characters, we
while only 12% were actually too heavy” (Dines, Humez, 1995:
often see them initiate what we are led to believe will lead on to
346).
sex, and the subject is broached much more frequently.
It can thus be concluded that adverts create a climate in which
The young, single woman characters tend to conform to the
sexual sell and dismemberment teamed with impossible body
mannequin image, being tall, slim, conventionally beautiful, and
images is seen as acceptable.
usually they are portrayed as being the ‘girl next door’ type
In the world of soap operas, on may be inclined to feel that character, friendly, happy, not very intelligent, and seldom
women are represented more fairly, as this is a genre of aiming high in a career. Examples would include; Annalise -
television watched mainly by women. With soaps, production Neighbours, Donna - Home and Away, Fiona - Coronation
is created cheaply because no other competition incorporates street and Samantha - Eastenders.
women’s perspectives and is seen as accessible, costs as little,
When these characters do try to further themselves in a career,
doesn’t take women out of their homes, and could later be
they invariably seem to fail; for example, Samantha from
shared with friends.
Eastenders left her husband to pursue a career in modelling,
The majority of soap operas are set in a domestic situation, but was unsuccessful. In this way, women are often punished
because the home is a place where women’s expertise is for pursuing their careers at the expense of their men. There is,
supposedly valued, and is also a place of comfort. Often, the however, a lot of images of men and women working together
central characters are female, and the ultimate achievement for to achieve things, usually a husband / wife, girlfriend /
these women in soaps is to get married and have children. So it boyfriend relationship. In fact, men and women in soaps are
could be argued that the myth of never ending maternalism probably more equal than in any other genre of television
actually conceals the subordination of women. In fact, the programming. By playing down male domination, soap operas
subliminal messages often tend to be male dominated. In one make the family more palatable.
episode of Home and Away for example, there was a disagree-
In the more glamorous American soap operas, women of all
ment about Jack and Sam having to share a room. Sally says to
ages use their sexuality to gain power and the middle-aged
Sam, who is about ten years old; “So what? Me and Shannon
women are presented much more frequently as being desirable
share a room all the time.”, to which he replies; “Yeah, but you
sexually in comparison to those in the more domestic soaps.
girls like sharing rooms, trying on each others clothes. Us men
We also see women in a position of power more regularly,
need our space.”. This implies that women always need other
although these characters tend to be invariably aggressive, and
people, compare themselves with others, and cannot cope on
are often portrayed as the villainess; a woman who turns her
their own like ‘men’ can. Even though this line came across
traditional feminine characteristics into a source of strength.
somewhat humorously, being delivered by a ten-year-old boy, it
Often she will use pregnancy and / or insight to manipulate
still portrays the patriarchal ideology that women have a need
people. She uses her sexuality for herself, and not for the
for companionship that men don’t. Indeed, it is companion-
pleasure of men. An example of such a woman would be
ship and relationships which are emphasised in soaps, with
Alexis from Dynasty. She is a reversal of male and female roles.
relationships being portrayed between women as important,
Indeed, Modleski argues that the final control the villainess
but not as important as the relationship between a woman and
strives for is control over passive femininity rather than control
a man. This is often portrayed through the central female
over men.
character being a wife and usually a mother, if not wanting to be
one, for example, Pippa in Home and Away fills the role of the In soaps the more positive features that the villainess possesses
selfless mother and wife; the good wife who, according to are portrayed in a morally disapproving manner, and so
Meehan; “is domestic, attractive, home centred and content. She ultimately, success is denied. The female viewer both loves and
does not wish to become involved with the world outside the hates this character, sides with her, yet at the same time, desires
home, leaving this to her husband” (Trowler,1988: 96). her downfall. As John Fiske argues;

78
“The contradictions in the text and its reading position reflect wholly representative, these portrayals still have some effect on

DEVELOPMENT
the contradictions inherent in the attempt to assert feminine the views that the respondents hold about women.
values within and against a patriarchal society.” (Dines, Therefore we can see the different roles that women are shown
Humez,1995) to fill, and in some aspects they are representative; there are
So the villainess is portrayed in both a positive and a negative domestic women, career women, single mothers, beautiful
light at the same time; positive because she does things for women etc. While television can be said to reflect the changing
herself rather than men, and negative because she is shown to roles of women, it seems to portray them in a light of approval

COMMUNICATION
ultimately fail, which implicitly warns women not to follow this or disapproval, positive or negative according to the roles that
example of a woman. patriarchy favours: the housewife is favoured, whilst the woman
Therefore, while soap operas do portray women in a more in power is often shown to be the villain. More importantly,
positive way than advertising and other forms of television, it women are often represented as not being so intelligent as men,
still ultimately respects and conforms to the broader main- and having to rely on them. It is also shown that a woman is
stream cultural demands, through the way in which it still tends either intelligent or beautiful; but rarely both. It is important to
to put women in a domestic setting, especially if she has a note also, the effects that these portrayals have on people, and
family. Soaps often show women as having jobs, but rarely while these interviews are by no means representative of the
pursing their careers, and if they do, more often than not, they population, it proves that they do affect peoples views of what
are unsuccessful. Thus we can see how even a form of television women are really like.
programming aimed at a majority female audience contains Women in Advertisements
subliminal messages reinforcing the dominant male ideology. Short skirts and noodle-strap tops, see-through shirts with
One point of interest would be how people respond to the shorts that barely cover her derriere, hard drinking and hard
representations of women embodied through television. I have partying. Impossibly slim and dizzyingly tall, a go-getter career
interviewed four people concerning their personal opinions of girl with snazzy mobile phones to match every outfit. Any-
how fair these representations are. thing-but-black hair colour that comes out of a bottle, green
Person A is female and nineteen years old, person B is female and blue eye lenses.... And she’s selling soap, jeans, shoes, cars,
and twenty-years old, person C is male and fifty years old, and mobiles, washing machines, skin whitening creams and lotions,
person D is male and twenty-four years old. perfumes and watches.
When asked to think of five stereotypes for women, the one There’s a revolution “happenin” and we barely notice. Slowly
stereotype that all respondents gave was the bimbo, a conven- but surely, our advertising industry is fashioning out a new
tionally beautiful young woman with little intelligence and who woman for us. In the war of the image between Tulsi (of the
they considered would usually be found on soaps and quiz serial ‘Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi’) and the Nokia girl, the
shows. All the stereotypes that the respondents gave were from latter is clearly everywhere. Advertisers have found it far easier to
soap operas, dramas and adverts. None of the respondents felt clone the young and ‘mod’ party-happy girl. “If you look at
that women are represented in a wholly accurate manner. only one advertisement or two, it doesn’t hit you,” says Bishaka
Datta, head of Point of View (POV), a Mumbai-based NGO
But what is interesting, however, is the fact that C and D
that works to promote the points of view of women, through
thought representations to be more true than A and B. A and B
creative use of the media. “But if you look at advert after
both rejected the majority of images they spoke about, and
advert, the pattern emerges clearly. There’s no doubt that the
even said they felt angry at what television portrays as a woman.
advertising industry is aiming to create a different look - that of
The messages that the men and women received were different,
a westernised, fair, blonde, light-eyed, slim and high-cheek-
but still not constructive. A and B both said that they felt
boned young woman.”
television telling them that their place is behind men and that
there is a pressure to always look good. Respondent D said he However, it isn’t only the look that bothers the members of
felt that television dictates what type of woman he should be POV. It is also the messages implicit in advertisements. In a
attracted to, but despite that, he felt that the representations of major exercise, members of the NGO began collecting adverts
women are getting better all the time. C Thought that the in which women have been used to sell different products or
numbers of women involved in television programmes are those in which they appear as mere appendages.
representative of the number of women in the population. On The idea was to design an interactive curriculum that young
referring to the roles of men and women, he states that; college students would use, to critically explore the relationships
“..generally, the men are the hunters and have to provide, and between women, beauty and advertising. Entitled ‘The Beauty
women are the carers.” He also stated that he tends to associate Spectrum’, the multimedia curriculum has been developed by a
shallowness with beautiful women (the mannequin), but POV team. The team includes Datta, Shilpa Phadke (a sociolo-
denied that this view came as a response of the women gist currently working on a PhD on media and sexuality), and
portrayed on television. Alexis Kort (a student of Middle Eastern Studies from Canada
One might argue from these interviews that men consider who did an internship with POV).
television representations of women to be more true than do According to Kort, their purpose was to show that there is little
the women. Even though everyone admitted that they are not diversity in the image of women’s beauty. “These women are
often portrayed in stereotypical roles (mothers, wives, or just

79
 something pretty to look at). We gathered adverts from a range a heated debate. One young man said a girl walking around
DEVELOPMENT

of English magazines available in Mumbai, mostly Indian dressed ‘sexy’, was like going into a fireworks store with a book
publications and a few international publications (like Cosmo- of matches.
politan). We had about 200 ads of a huge variety of products, But most women students felt the culture they lived in
from cosmetics to cars.” provided a permissive environment for men to sexually harass
The basic criterion was simple: Anything that used an image of women. This, they said, needed to be changed and that they
a woman to sell the product. The ads were categorised into should be free to wear whatever they wanted wherever they
COMMUNICATION

those that used women in traditional roles (mothers and want. They also pointed out that they could be victims of
wives); ads that used the image of a beautiful woman some- sexual harassment whether they were wearing a miniskirt or a
what out of context (like a bikini clad young woman selling a conservative salwar kameez.
car); and of course, a category specifically selling beauty products. The students, Phadke adds, felt a sense of identification with
What came across was the insidious change in the overall ‘look’ the themes in the curriculum. They had a forum to discuss
of the women in the adverts. Both Kort and Datta were struck issues, articulate confusions and be provocative without the fear
by the preponderance of the ‘westernised’ look of the women of being ridiculed. In this sense, she said, the exercise was a
models. Besides, says Phadke, ‘contradictory messages’ continue rather successful one.
to co-exist - the sari-clad, large bindi, magalsutra and sindhoor The POV team did not intend a watertight agenda of indoctri-
sporting women, and the sex symbol images in which the nation. The aim was to expose the changing visions of ‘beauty’
bodies of motorcycles and women are placed side by side in a and the inconsistencies that operate across time. The hope was
comparison of curves! to encourage reflection on the constructed nature of ‘beauty’,
There is little diversity in the image of women’s beauty. The and to illustrate how much it is dependent on imagery within a
message seems to be: be Indian, be sexy, be thin, be glamorous patriarchal culture. The team did not tell the students “what to
even when your back aches, be a superwoman but what ever think”, instead they created a space where they could think for
you do - don’t think! themselves and arrive at perceptions that were informed.
There is little diversity in the image of women’s beauty. The Phadke herself is anxious and concerned about the prevailing
message seems to be: be Indian, be sexy, be thin, be glamorous culture among youth today - when visions of modernity and
even when your back aches, be a superwoman but what ever liberation are being increasingly tied to looks rather than other
you do - don’t think! kinds of achievement. However, the POV curriculum sought to
For the advertising, film and television world, the sari-clad show students the advertising industry’s monolithic image of
image has - weirdly enough - become a pan-Indian symbol of women and beauty and the stereotypes used to sell products.
marriage for women. Some details connected with the sari-clad As the POV team said, “We wanted students to think more
image don’t conform to the traditional image in certain about beauty and power and how they can shake up the status
communities. For instance, says Phadke, Gujaratis don’t wear quo. They were receptive to our ideas and most important, we
the mangalsutra traditionally. But in all the ‘saas bahu’ (mother- gave them a forum to discuss their feelings and perceptions
in-law, daughter-in-law) serials on TV, the women wear huge about the image of women used by the mainstream media in
and conspicuous mangalsutras in Gujarati families. India.”
The message, she said, seems to be: be Indian, be sexy, be thin, Development Communication and
be glamorous even when your back aches, be a superwoman Women Empowerment
but what ever you do - don’t think! (Declaration to UNGASS of the NGO Caucus on Women and
The curriculum is being tested in a few colleges in Mumbai Media, New York, June 7, 2000)
(beginning with St Xavier’s College in July), primarily with A mind-boggling revolution in communication is taking place
students of media courses as POV felt that it would help to across the world. Much has changed even in the five years since
work with students undergoing training as media professionals. the adoption of the Beijing Platform for Action.
In eight parts, the curriculum covers a gallery of beautiful
These changes have huge potential, both negative and positive,
women, clocking the changes in images of beauty over the years.
for furthering or impeding a more just and equitable gender
Besides this, there is a body image survey; a fun board game
order. Depending on how they are deployed, they can become a
called the beauty challenge; films that examine the body and
key factor for women’s empowerment, for they could drive an
look at alternative images of the body; and a debating session
irreconcilable wedge between the digitally powerful and the
to confront one’s own myths and gain other perspectives. The
digitally deprived multitude of women and other marginal
curriculum also includes an examination of implicit statements
groups.
made in advertisements; attempts to devise creative but non-
sexist advertisements; and a case study of adverts like the Fair Communication is fundamental for achieving the objectives in
and Lovely series. the Platform for Action. How can women better the develop-
ment of their communities or play an informed role in public
According to Kort, the students enjoyed the curriculum very
life, without access to pluralistic information, the means of
much. There was a debate in which students had to agree or
public expression and sharing knowledge? How can women
disagree with a given statement. The statement ‘women who
work towards a new geo-political order governed by norms of
dress provocatively are asking to be sexually harassed’ generated

80
peace and mutual respect without channels of communication

DEVELOPMENT
Information and Communication
for dialogue and exchange of information? Technology for Women Empowerment
Yet the booming communications industry—the fastest In today’s world, information means power. Because ours is a
growing sector of the economy—is becoming increasingly so-called Information Society, where the influence of informa-
concentrated in national and transnational monopolies, which tion and communication technology (ICT) is predominant and
are driven overridingly by profit. Information becomes a influential, much power lies in those with access to information
commodity and the function of media as a public service is and control over the channels of communication.

COMMUNICATION
swept aside. Under the sway of the mass media, women are However, many of these channels of communication are
portrayed to the public view in a highly selective and controlled by organizations whose prime motivation is profit,
disempowering manner, and a majority of the world’s women with nary a care about the concerns of developing countries and
are simply invisible. Their viewpoints and concerns are grossly the marginalized sectors of the society.
underrepresented. Isis International, a woman liberation movement, started in
Meanwhile, international communications regulation and policy 1974 in Rome, Italy, primarily to create opportunities for
are concentrated in bodies such as the World Trade Organiza- women’s voices to be heard, strengthen feminist analyses
tion and International Telecommunications Union, which are through information exchange, and promote solidarity and
dominated by business interests. Women’s access to the means support feminist movements across the globe. Rome office
of communication is not represented in their decisions and is eventually moved to Manila in 1991. It is named after the
given little weight. ancient Egyptian goddess Isis who symbolizes wisdom,
As codified in Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of creativity and knowledge.
Human Rights, all people have the right to “seek, receive and Isis believes that information and communication are vital to
impart information and ideas through any media regardless of bringing about awareness. “Information provides knowledge,
frontier.” This implies that it is essential for women and and communication allows knowledge to be shared. Together,
marginalized groups to gain access to all means of communica- they enable the exchange of experiences, analyses and strategies
tion and public expression, including the mass media; and the building of networks and movements. Together, they
noncommercial access to broadcasting spectrum and communi- make possible individual and collective action for social
cations technology; and a say in the direction of technology transformation.”
development. As a feminist communication organization, Isis is “committed
To guarantee women the fundamental human right to commu- to challenging this elitist and patriarchal control of information
nicate, civil society must be empowered to hold national and and communication by creating and strengthening alternative
international media accountable. Full, gender-balanced partici- networks and channels for women’s advocacy.” The organiza-
pation of civil society in regulatory bodies must be ensured. tion states that “Having access to and control over information
Codes of ethics must be articulated that respect the vital norms and channels of communication can mean a survival difference
of pluralism, human rights and gender balance. Both gender in today’s globalised societies. Yet, many women do not have
mainstreaming and special programs are required to create an access to even basic services, let alone these new technologies.
enabling environment that fosters women’s equality in the What information we do receive is largely biased, promotes
media professions. hegemonic norms and values, and does not consider our
Any serious review of Section J (Women and Media) of the perspectives and needs. Similarly, while more and more women
Beijing Platform for Action has to address the emerging are creating or maximizing opportunities to utilize communica-
scenario at the global, regional, national, and local level. It must tion tools, most remain excluded.”
recognize the strategic weakness of Section J, which failed to Isis maintains database of over 4,000 women’s groups and
articulate the structural constraints and impediments that networks, individuals and institutions supporting women’s
women and other marginal groups face due to commercializa- activities worldwide. The group also provides ICT training at
tion and globalization of media and the concomitant decline of least twice a year to women belonging to different organiza-
public broadcasting media in societies with democratic and tions. “ICT allows for fast networking and distribution of
pluralistic traditions. information. Mobilization of people is also easy nowadays. The
Not only has the Beijing Plus 5 review failed to meet this response is also quick”.
challenge, but the Outcomes document scarcely refers to media Women Empowerment through
and communications at all. We call upon the United Nations to Panchayati Raj
create the conditions for a broad and inclusive debate on Women face multiple hurdles and find it difficult to participate
communication issues and their implications for democracy and in the political process that has hitherto been a male bastion.
social justice. We also call for a World Conference on Commu- The reasons for this are gender specific. Women are less mobile
nication with 50% female participation — in which women and than men are. They have domestic responsibilities, which puts
other marginalized citizens must have an equal voice with limits on the time they can spend in such processes. There are
governments and the private sector, as a fundamental contribu- historical prejudices. Consistent efforts will have to be made
tion to gender equality, development and peace. over a period of time to engender the political process and
institutions and issues that are critical to this process. This paper

81
 explores some aspects of this process in the context of
DEVELOPMENT
Case Study
decentralised governance ushered in by the 73rd Constitutional Haleuru gram panchayat is located between Malgudi, the district
amendment in India in the last five years. headquarters, and Balgudi, the taluk HQ—it is 17 km from each
Recognising this limitation where gender is concerned, India has on the main highway. The total population is over 4000. There
passed laws that make it mandatory for local governments to are 490 houses and 580 families. The GP is divided into 7
include women. [These laws do not apply to state and national wards, and has 8 members. Two positions are reserved for SCs
level legislatures.] One third of the seats in local bodies—gram and one for STs. Out of the 8, 4—four—are women.
COMMUNICATION

or village panchayats, municipalities, city corporations and When the elections to the GP were held in 1993, there was
district bodies—are “reserved” for women. This means the considerable discussion in the village. Under the guidance of the
contests can only be between women in these constituencies. elders of the village, it was decided that only one candidates’
The first step in enabling women to participate has been taken. name would be proposed for each post. So each member was
This reservation of seats, in the 1993-94 elections, has brought declared elected without a contest.
in about 800,000 women into the political process in a single After the election, the post of GP President was reserved for an
election. They are now just about completing their first term [of ST woman. Smt Gangamma Jayakar, the only eligible candidate,
five years] in elected office. Elections for the second round will thus became the President. She has passed her 4th standard.
soon have to be held. What has been the experience with this
The other members who did not mind her being an ‘ordinary
experiment in social engineering?
member’, could not accept her in the role of the President of
As may be expected, the experience of women in panchayati raj the GP. They asked her to resign, so that one of the others
has been varied. Many are surrogates for husbands and fathers could take over as President. This she was not willing to do.
who could not contest because of the reservation. Some were The others refused to co-operate with her.
put in place by the wealthy and powerful, for their malleabil-
She sought the advice of the officials at the taluk and zilla levels.
ity—a kind of puppet to serve the vested interest while
She was told that she need not resign: the post was hers by
appearing to be an elected representative. This has led to many
right. She was also told that the quorum for meetings was 3
problems that have been extensively discussed in the literature
members, and that she and two other members could take
and form the basis for an excellent film, sponsored by
decisions. With the help of the two SC members, she con-
UNICEF, called Shansodhan.
ducted the meetings. When the others protested against this, as
There have also been many efforts to train the women who advised by the officials she went to the High Court in Banga-
have been elected. Interestingly enough, the state government lore, which ruled in her favour. After that, the three members
has undertaken some of these. In Karnataka, the Department have been conducting meetings for the village. The others
of Women and Child Development co-operated with profes- attend every third meeting, sign the register and leave (just to
sionals in what has come to be known as the Gramsat retain their membership]. They refuse to co-operate in the
Programme. This had two parts. The first was an interactive running of the panchayat so long as she remains President. She
session, using satellite technology to link the different district can be a “number”, but not a “member”!
headquarters to Bangalore. This session used material generated
These members also argue with the GP secretary, who therefore
through meetings of women elected to gram panchayats. The
seeks an excuse to ask for a transfer. The present Secretary is the
impact was immediately visible, and even today, its role in
third one in this term. Gangamma is not happy with him.
giving these women self-confidence to face a big challenge
cannot be underestimated. Ms Jayakar feels that she could have achieved a lot more if the
others co-operated. As it is, in getting works like gutters dug,
The second part was training material developed as an extension
she has effectively to work alone. But she is proud that she
of the first, including issues of concern to women—nutrition,
could get a bus stand constructed. She could do all this because
water, primary education, basic health services, immunisations,
of the support of officials at the TP and ZP levels.
common property resources, etc, which were used in training
programmes across the state. The objective here was two fold— Discuss
to raise certain questions in their minds on these issues and also Does a mere reservation for women bring in social change?
to provide them with some basic information that would What is the relation between caste and class?
enable them to play their roles in the GPs. The impact of this
Here, reservation has brought to prominence a person who
so far as we know, has yet to be assessed.
would never have attained such a position under “normal”
Yet, it must not be forgotten that this experiment in local self- conditions. Would a man have fared differently in this situa-
government is being undertaken in a society that is tion?
predominantly illiterate. Many of the people elected, especially
Can officials make the difference to the functioning of local
those in the reserved categories are very poor. In attending
governments to this extent? If so, under what conditions will
meetings of the GP, they often have to give up a day’s wages.
they play a positive role, as in this case?
To use terms popularised by Amartya Sen, the entitlements of
the actors in this great drama of democracy are way below what A Conclusion
they should be. As a result, their capabilities to play these roles One, the grinding poverty in which most of the people live
are low as these are in uncharted territory. makes abstract notions of democracy and ethics rather distant
concepts. Exploitation of different sorts is a reality. Corruption

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is a matter of routine, where payment of a bribe is at best seen It is enough to note that many of the factors that hindered

DEVELOPMENT
as a minor nuisance to getting something, never mind that it is women in the earlier systems continue to exist and operate in
a right, done. It is into this situation that local self-government rural areas—and legal changes cannot change them. &#9;
has been introduced from the top. If one goes by the spirit of Four, giving women positions in the panchayats is good in
the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee report, nothing loftier than itself. But it would be naïve to believe that it would address
an efficient local tier of development administration was social injustice or issues of poverty. Women have class and caste
intended. This is what the higher level would like to see. It is identities, not just a gender identity. In fact gender as a phe-

COMMUNICATION
important to remind ourselves of this basic truth. nomenon hardly ever appears in a pure form. It is almost
always alloyed with caste, class and religious factors. In matters
where there is a clash between gender and caste or class, we
cannot expect women to align themselves with other women,
going against their caste or class loyalties.
Some women have developed political ambitions too, especially
when it is seen as a quick means for upward mobility. And
political survival will be difficult if they “betray” class and caste
interests. This is why the reservation of the posts of President
to the SC/ST category is so resented. They can be members of
the panchayat, but not its President or Vice President. And if
they are in such posts then a conflict between their different
roles is inevitable. Different individuals will cope in different
ways. The problem is in society, not in the panchayat that only
reflects social reality.
Five, it is essential that the panchayat system be stable. In
Karnataka, the state began well in the 1980s. But since then the
Added to this is the fact that the women who have come in spirit of local democracy has taken several steps backward. The
under caste reservation have come in ‘with their social and state Act passed after the 73rd amendment is far less progressive
economic disadvantages’ – mostly non-literate, with little than the earlier one. Given that both were imposed from the
productive assets, largely dependent on wage labour and into a top, the withdrawal can be seen as a response of politicians at
rural society that has fixed places for various castes and gender. the higher level to the backlash on the ground—from politi-
These cannot be changed by a wave of the constitutional cians and the civil servants. But the continuing tinkering with
amendment wand! this Act has done little to convince people that the system is
here to stay. In this situation, women in particular will choose
Two, while people have a clear sense of survival, they are
to play safe. What is the point of risking one’s local position
prepared to cope in a feudal type system in which direct action
with powerful people if the system itself is likely to undergo
does not work. Rural reality is complex—being freed from
changes? The experience of West Bengal provides a strong
bondage has often not meant freedom as many expected it to.
contrast to Karnataka.
Experience has taught them to go slow, to approach their goal
indirectly. They have to decide if attending PR meetings is March 8 - International
sometimes worth missing their daily wage. This is even more Women’s Day
so in the case of women, who have to worry about crying
A day of hope; a day of courage, of celebration. A day when thousands
babies and hungry husbands.
of women textile workers launched the struggle in Chicago for an eight
This is how they see the new system of PRIs. Thus, it is hour working day and won their demands; even chough many paid for it at
unrealistic to expect much in terms of their response. It has first the cost of their own lives. A day which from then on, has seen millions of
to be demonstrated that the system is indeed here to stay. In women in different parts of the world, come together to speak out against
West Bengal, it is only after one or two rounds of elections had violence against women. A day which has seen women collectively speaking
been held that the system settled down as a permanent part of out for a transformed society - through their visions, their wisdoms.
the rural countryside. In Karnataka, the constant tinkering with
the system has meant that people are still cautious about this Six, the power enjoyed, and exercised by line departments of
system. No one is sure it will not be overturned tomorrow! the state government, will have to be reduced. Today, it is they
Why then should anyone take a risk? who decide major matters. And officials, who belong to these
Three, the new system co-exists with traditional institutions. departments, treat district postings—and panchayat authori-
The elders wield power in a way the Constitution may not have ties—as minor nuisances. This administration is quite gender
foreseen. If the PRIs are to succeed in their main goals, then insensitive. It is just not enough that there are women in the
they must work in harmony with these traditional institutions, civil service—the service has to be sensitised. While an effort has
not confront them head-on. This is easier said than done. been made in Karnataka to reduce diarchy in administration by
giving the Chief Executive Officer a co-ordinating role in the
The traditional institutions have not given space for women.
ZP, much more needs to be done. Capabilities have to be
The pros and cons of this are beyond the scope of this paper.
developed at this level. It is only when ZPs develop their own

83
 [gender sensitive] expertise that they can begin to chart their humiliation. By the police deliberately delaying the investiga-
DEVELOPMENT

own path. Important in this will be co-ordination amongst tions, crucial evidence was lost; while the sessions court of
themselves. For example, they could get together to form an Jaipur acquitted the five rapists in a judgment, stating “The
Inter-District Council on the lines of the Inter-State Council. It rapists are middle aged and therefore respectable citizens while
is important that, in such a body, the Chief Minister remains rape is usually committed by teenagers … Since the rapists are
one among equals, not a superior. This kind of body does not upper caste men, they would not stoop to rape lower caste
exist at all at the moment. Much needs to be done. women.”
COMMUNICATION

In conclusion, for fundamental changes in society, much more The dishonoring of Bhanwari Bai was complete when the local
than PRIs are required; but that does not mean PRIs are not BJP unit, whose parties and leaders claim to protect women
important. That the PRIs as they are now are limited does not [especially Hindu women], upheld the judgment by honoring
mean that they cannot be improved. PRIs as grassroots the five acquitted rapists in a public felicitation.
democratic governance institutions are a necessary, but not March 8, 1996, women and women’s groups all over the
sufficient condition in the transformation to a better social country came together to condemn the horrendous violence and
order. And in that transformation, enabling women’s participa- injustice done to Bhanwari Bai; a violence done to her not only
tion through reservations is a first and important step. by her violators but also me judiciary that failed to give her the
In this process of social transformation, there may be some justice she deserved.
negative unintended consequences - sub-optimal utilisation of In Karnataka, in the case of the gang rape and murder of
resources, weakening of other bodies of governance...not all Sharanavva the anganwadi teacher, Tahsildar and his four
these will automatically mean empowerment of women or accomplices who committed the crime were not only not
engendering of the PRIs. prosecuted but they too were publicly felicitated by members of
Much more will be needed if gender justice is to become the their community.
norm. And it will take time. We must not be impatient. But it
is important to support this fledgling experiment in every way
we can—if we believe in democracy at the grassroots. Note
Some Case Studies
C.K. Janu: The Fire of the Tribals
She is the first prominent leader to rise from among the three
lakh tribals in Kerala. And also the first from her community to
instill fear in the establishment. Janu, the firebrand convener of
the Adivasi Ekopana Samithi (tribal coordination committee),
has galvanized the tribals into the first major movement against
their organized exploitation.
She is spearheading the agitation against the Kerala
government’s 1996 legislation that seeks to legalize the en-
croachments made into tribal lands. “We have lost faith in all
mainstream political parties and feel that our problems can be
solved only by organizing ourselves.” says the illiterate Janu
who was Invited to speak at the UN General Assembly in 1993.
Her struggle has not entirely been fruitless: on December
16,1999, the Kerala High Court held the state Government
guilty of contempt of court for not implementing its 1993
order to restore to tribals their, alienated lands. The court then
fixed a deadline of six months.
Bhanwari Bai: Truth Betrayed, Justice Denied
Bhanwari Bai a government social worker of Bhateri, Rajasthan
was gang raped in the presence of her husband on 22 Septem-
ber 1992 by five men of the socially and politically strong Gujjar
community. In the course of her work, Bhanwari had chal-
lenged the authority of the dominant castes that wanted to
continue certain practices tike that of child marriages without
being questioned.
Bhanwari Bai dared to question and so they vowed to teach her
a lesson.
And this rape was only the beginning. When Bhanwari Bai went
to the police and the courts for justice, she was met with greater

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 UNIT IV
LESSON 11: AGENTS OF DEVELOPMENT
UNDP: UNITED NATION’S GLOBAL COMMUNICATION
DEVELOPMENT NETWORK

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to respect for all internationally recognized human rights and

DEVELOPMENT
fundamental freedoms, including the right to development.” A
To understand the role of UNDP in development
consensus was reached which recognized that improving the
To know what UNDP does to develop the countries quality of democratic institutions and processes, and managing
It advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, the changing roles of the state and civil society in an increasingly
experience and resources to help people build a better life. It is globalised world must underpin national efforts to reduce
spread in 166 countries, working with them on their own poverty, sustain the environment, and promote human
development.

COMMUNICATION
solutions to global and national development challenges. As
they develop local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP Democratic Governance
and our wide range of partners. It helps the UN system and its UNDP’s work in democratic governance is reinforced by its
partners to raise awareness and track progress, while it connects network of over 166 offices and its global partnerships with
countries to the knowledge and resources needed to achieve democratic governance institutions. No organization has a
these goals. wider reach.
World leaders have pledged to achieve the Millennium Develop- UNDP’s core services to support national processes of demo-
ment Goals, including the overarching goal of cutting poverty cratic transitions, focus on: (1) Policy advice and technical
in half by 2015. UNDP’s network links and coordinates global support; (2) Capacity development of institutions and indi-
and national efforts to reach these Goals. The focus is helping viduals; (3) Advocacy, communications, and public information;
countries build and share solutions to the challenges of: (4) Promoting and brokering dialogue; and (5) Knowledge
Democratic Governance, Poverty Reduction, Crisis Prevention networking and sharing of good practices.
and Recovery, Energy and Environment, and HIV/AIDS. UNDP’s work in democratic governance can be summarised
UNDP helps developing countries attract and use aid effectively into the following categories:
and integrates information and communications technology for
• Parliamentary Development
development into its work in democratic governance and
poverty reduction. In all our activities, we promote the protec- • Electoral Systems and Processes
tion of human rights and the empowerment of women. • Access to Justice and Human Rights
From politics to security to public health, from crime to the • Access to Information
environment, a growing agenda of development issues can no • Decentralization and Local Governance
longer be managed within the boundaries of any single nation.
• Public Administration and Civil Service Reform
Global, regional and national coalitions for action are emerging
centred around the United Nations’ indispensable role. The UN Promoting National Initiatives to
can bring together governments, civil society, multinational Empower the Poor
corporations and multilateral organizations - coming together Through the Millennium Development Goals the world is
around particular issues of concern and looking for innovative addressing the many dimensions of human development,
ways to address them”, says Mark Malloch Brown, Administra- including halving by 2015 the proportion of people living in
tor of UNDP extreme poverty. Developing countries are working to create
their own national poverty eradication strategies based on local
Promoting Democracy through Reform
needs and priorities.
More countries than ever before are working to build democratic
governance. Their challenge is to develop institutions and UNDP advocates for these nationally-owned solutions and
processes that are more responsive to the needs of ordinary helps to make them effective through ensuring a greater voice
citizens, including the poor. UNDP brings people together for poor people, expanding access to productive assets and
within nations and around the world, building partnerships economic opportunities, and linking poverty programmes with
and sharing ways to promote participation, accountability and countries’ international economic and financial policies. At the
effectiveness at all levels. We help countries strengthen their same time, UNDP contributes to efforts at reforming trade,
electoral and legislative systems, improve access to justice and debt relief and investment arrangements to better support
public administration, and develop a greater capacity to deliver national poverty reduction and make globalisation work for
basic services to those most in need. poor people. In doing so, we sponsor innovative pilot projects;
connect countries to global best practices and resources;
The critical importance of democratic governance in the
promote the role of women in development; and bring
developing world was highlighted at the Millennium Summit,
governments, civil society and outside funders together to
where the world’s leaders resolved to “spare no effort to
coordinate their efforts.
promote democracy and strengthen the rule of law, as well as

85
 UNDP promotes the concept of human poverty as a comple-
DEVELOPMENT
Prevent the Spread of HIV/AIDS
ment to income poverty, emphasizing that equity, social To prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS and reduce its impact,
inclusion, women’s empowerment, and respect for human developing countries need to mobilize all levels of government
rights matter for poverty reduction. Developing countries are and civil society. As a trusted development partner, UNDP
working to create their own national poverty eradication advocates for placing HIV/AIDS at the centre of national
strategies based on local needs and priorities. UNDP advocates planning and budgets; helps build national capacity to manage
for these nationally owned solutions and helps ensure their initiatives that include people and institutions not usually
COMMUNICATION

effectiveness. We sponsor innovative pilot projects, including involved with public heath; and promotes decentralized
those relying on ICT to help enhance service delivery; connect responses that support community-level action. Because HIV/
countries to global best practices and resources; promote the AIDS is a world-wide problem, UNDP supports these national
role of women in development; and bring governments, civil efforts by offering knowledge, resources and best practices from
society and outside funders together to coordinate their efforts. around the world.
Crisis Prevention and Recovery In each of these five practices, UNDP advocates for the
Many countries are increasingly vulnerable to violent conflicts or protection of human rights and especially the empowerment of
natural disasters that can erase decades of development and women. Through our global network, we seek out and share
further entrench poverty and inequality. Through its global ways to promote gender equality as an essential dimension of
network, UNDP seeks out and shares innovative approaches to ensuring political participation and accountability; economic
crisis prevention, early warning and conflict resolution. And empowerment and effective development planning; crisis
UNDP is on the ground in almost every developing country — prevention and conflict resolution; access to clean water,
so wherever the next crisis occurs, we will be there to help bridge sanitation and energy services; the best use of new technologies
the gap between emergency relief and long-term development. for development purposes; and society-wide mobilization
against HIV/AIDS.
Energy and Environment
Energy and environment are essential for sustainable develop- Human Development Reports
ment. The poor are disproportionately affected by UNDP also engages in extensive advocacy work. The annual
environmental degradation and lack of access to clean affordable Human Development Report 2003, commissioned by UNDP,
energy services. These issues are also global as climate change, focuses the global debate on key development issues, providing
loss of biodiversity and ozone layer depletion cannot be new measurement tools, innovative analysis and often contro-
addressed by countries acting alone. UNDP helps countries versial policy proposals. It is guided by the belief that
strengthen their capacity to address these challenges at global, development is ultimately “a process of enlarging people’s
national and community levels, seeking out and sharing best choices”, not just raising national incomes. The independent
practices, providing innovative policy advice and linking partners team of experts who write the Report draw on a worldwide
through pilot projects that help poor people build sustainable network of leaders from academia, government and civil society
livelihoods. who contribute data, ideas, and best practices. Developing
countries and their international partners use the Report to
Energy and environment are essential for sustainable develop-
gauge results and shape new policies.
ment. The poor are disproportionately affected by
environmental degradation and lack of access to clean affordable The global Report’s analytical framework and inclusive approach
energy services. These issues are also global as climate change, carry over into regional, national and local Human Develop-
loss of biodiversity and ozone layer depletion cannot be ment Reports, also supported by UNDP. So far, more than 420
addressed by countries acting alone. National Human Development Reports have been published in
135 countries. These Reports are created by national experts and
UNDP helps countries strengthen their capacity to address these
intellectuals who draw on UNDP’s global network for advice
challenges at global, national and community levels, seeking out
and inspiration; their success shows how quality research and
and sharing best practices, providing innovative policy advice
advocacy can spur policy debates, draw political attention to
and linking partners through pilot projects that help poor
pressing issues, and help countries build their own develop-
people build sustainable livelihoods.
ment solutions.
• Biodiversity for Development
Unesco and NWICO
• Drylands Development Centre
The New World Information and Communication Order
• Energy for Sustainable Development (NWICO)
• Equator Initiative UNESCO’s new look at worldwide communications has its
• Global Environment Facility (GEF) roots in the formation of the Third World concept itself. In
• Montreal Protocol Unit 1956 the leaders of most of the former colonies met in
Bandung and organized a “nonaligned” movement. They
• Poverty and Environment Initiative
understood their group as a third force to act as a buffer
• Public Private Partnerships for the Urban Environment between proponents of capitalism (First World) and those of
(PPPUE) communism (Second World). This Third World group pressed
• Water Governance

86
immediately for a new economic independence from both First Western concept of a “free flow” of information, like freedom

DEVELOPMENT
and Second Worlds. The United Nations was their forum. of the seas, free markets and free trade, in fact conceals the real
NWICO was a 1970s era project that represented an attempt to nature of neoimperial control.
act on the criticisms aimed at development, particularly the MacBride Commission
modernization model, and neo-colonialism as offered by the In 1976 UNESCO’s Director General Amadou-Mahtar M’Bow
dependency theorists (Schiller, Gunder Frank, Mattelart and was authorized to appoint an International Commission for
Dorfman, etc.), and to restore some balance and equity to world

COMMUNICATION
the Study of Communication Problems. UNESCO commis-
communications dominated by Western news syndicates and sioned a massive research project organized under Irish
media transnationals. journalist (and a founder of Amnesty International, the human
NWICO was an initiative of the UN agency responsible for rights organization, for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize),
media and cultural issues, the United Nations Educational, Sean MacBride, in 1976, to study global inequalities in media
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), with the and cultural production.
particular support of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), a Sean MacBride (1904 – 1988)
group of Third World nations that aligned themselves formally
Dr. Sean MacBride was born on January 26, 1904. His father was
neither with US or Soviet Union in Cold War. It was frequently
Major John MacBride, who was responsible for the Irish Brigade in 1899
paired with a parallel attempt to reconstruct global political
which fought for the Boers against the British in the unsuccessful
economy, and known as the New International Economic
Transvaal (Boer) War of 1899 - 1902. Major MacBride fought the
Order (NIEO), as part of a comprehensive plan to eliminate
British at Jacob’s factory during the Easter Week Rebellion. He was
underdevelopment
sentenced to death by the English and executed at Kilmainham Jail on
(The NWICO is sometimes referred to as the “NWIO” or May 5, 1916. The mother of Sean MacBride was Maud Gonne
“New World Information Order” - but they’re one and the MacBride, a beauty and one of the strongest advocates of Irish
same.) Nationalism. W. B. Yeats idolized her in many of his poems.
During the 1950s and 60s, UNESCO had largely been a Sean MacBride grew up in France but finally was able to permanently
mouthpiece for the First World great powers, and much of the return to Ireland with his mother in 1918. He immediately joined the
media and cultural research had been filtered through modern- Fianna. In 1921, he was with Michael Collins in London during the
ization and “media effects” research models. negotiations for the Anglo-Irish Treaty. When the treaty was ratified in
Issues leading to the NWICO: 1922, Sean MacBride exhibited his Anti-Treaty philosophy primarily
• One-way flow of ideas and images from First to Third because of the partition of Ireland. Sean fought against the Irish Free
World State and was captured and Jailed with Ernie O’Mally in the Four Courts
Battle. Years later, Sean MacBride succeeded Moss Twomey in 1936 as
• monopolization of information resources (e.g., control of
Chief of Staff of the IRA.
Newspapers) by Third World elites
Thereafter, a change in his life occurred and he departed the IRA. He
• Need to reconceptualize cultural independence and freedom
was admitted to the Bar and became a Senior Barrister in 1943. From
of information access
1948 to 1951, he was Minister for Foreign affairs for the Irish
The number one issue at stake in the NWICO debates was the Government. He was responsible for declaring Ireland a Republic. He
flow of information from First World to Third World. The appeared in many leading civil and criminal cases in Ireland, Africa and
“free flow” doctrine was the key element of modernization’s before International Courts. In 1958, he acted as adviser to the Greek
ideas as to how media and culture should be managed as government. He was cofounder of Amnesty International.
development happened. The problem is that a “free flow of
In 1974, Sean MacBride was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for Peace
ideas” (and corresponding free market in cultural commodities,
and he was awarded the American Medal of Justice by President Carter
e.g., sale of news by major news agencies like Agence-France
in 1978. His receipt of these awards is quite unique in human history.
Press, Reuters, Associated Press, etc.) put Third World countries
His work in defense of human rights called him to many parts of the
at a disadvantage insofar as they were not competitive with First
world. He was United Nations Commissioner from 1973 to 1976 and in
World news syndicates and other cultural industries.
Iran in 1979 in an effort to secure the release of hostages. One could go
Third World countries called for a “balanced” flow of informa- on for many pages listing the various international organizations in which
tion, whereby they could contribute to ideas and pictures of he played a significant role and which honored him with high office awards
reality in circulation in world media system, and have means to and distinctions.
controlling access of First World news syndicates, film and TV
Sean MacBride died in Dublin on January 15, 1988. He was the author
producers, among others, into Third World.
of the MacBride Principles, and anti-discrimination code, which has been
In May 1974 the UN General Assembly adopted a Declaration opted by many states in America. The MacBride Principles are aimed at
of the Establishment of a New International Information forcing American companies operating in Northern Ireland to ensure
Order. At the same time, Third World leaders began pressing equal employment opportunities for Catholics who are denied equal rights
for similar action in the areas of news and information. by the British.
Mustapha Masmoudi, Tunisian secretary of state for in-
The International Commission for the Study of Communica-
formation, issued a call for the development of a New
tion Problems or the “MacBride Commission”, as it was
International Information Order (NIIO), asserting that the
popularly called, was given a four- part mandate:

87
 MacBride commission’s mandate: which in turn should be encouraged to be more receptive to
DEVELOPMENT

a. to analyze the current state of world development needs and problems.

communications Facing the Technological Challenge
b. to study the meaning and The technological explosion in communication has both
consequences of the free versus great potential and great danger. The outcome depends on
balanced flow positions crucial decisions and on where and by whom they are taken.
COMMUNICATION

c. draft terms by which an NWICO Thus, it is a priority to organize the decision-making process
might be created in a participatory manner on the basis of a full awareness of
the social impact of different alternatives.
d. suggest how people might be better
educated as to media issues, e.g., media literacy We recommend:
MacBride Commission worked for about five years on the 3. Devising policy instruments at the national level in order to
problem, and published a now famous and often cited study evaluate the positive and negative social implications of the
called Many Voices, One World in 1980. introduction of powerful new communication technologies.
The preparation of technological impact surveys can be a
The commission, under the leadership of Sean MacBride
useful tool to assess the consequences for life-styles, relevance
(former foreign minister of Ireland and recipient of both the
for under-privileged sectors of society, cultural influence,
Nobel and Lenin Peace Prizes), completed its work in time for
effects of employment patterns and similar factors. This is
the General Conference in Belgrade, October 1980.
particularly important when making choices with respect to
Some of the Portions which are of relevance are given below: the development of communication infrastructures.
Recommendations: Parts II-VII. 4. Stetting up national mechanisms to promote participation
and discussion of social priorities in the acquisition or
Social Consequences and New Tasks
extension of new communication technologies. Decisions
Integrating Communication into Development with respect to the orientation given to research and
Development strategies should incorporate communication development should come under closer public scrutiny.
policies as an integral part in the diagnosis of needs and in the
5. In developing countries the promotion of autonomous
design and implementation of selected priorities. In this respect
research and development should be linked to specific
communication should be considered a major development
projects and programs at the national, regional and inter-
resource, a vehicle to ensure real political participation in decision
regional levels, which are often geared to the satisfaction of
-making, a central information base for defining policy options,
basic needs. More funds are necessary to stimulate and
and an instrument for creating awareness of national priorities.
support adaptive technological research. This might also help
We recommend: these countries to avoid problems of obsolescence and
1. Promotion of dialogue for development as a central problems arising from the non-availability of particular types
component of both communication and development of equipment, related spare parts and components from the
policies. Implementation of national policies should be advance industrial nations.
carried out through three complementary communication 6. The concentration of communication s technology in a
patterns; first, from decision-makers towards different social relatively few developed countries and transnational
sectors to transmit information about what they regard as corporations has lead to a virtual monopoly situations in
necessary changes in development actions, alternative this field. To counteract these tendencies and international
strategies and the varying consequences of the different measures are required, among them reform of existing
alternatives; second, among and between diverse social patent laws and conventions, appropriate legislation and
sectors in a horizontal information network to express international agreements.
exchange views on their different demands, aspirations,
Strengthening Cultural Identity
objective needs and subjective motivations; third, between
Promoting conditions for the preservation of the cultural
decision-makers and all social groups through permanent
identity of every society is necessary to enable it to enjoy a
participatory mechanisms for two-way information flows to
harmonious and creative inter-relationship with other
elaborate development goals and priorities and make
cultures. It is equally necessary to modify situations in many
decisions on utilization of resources. Each one of these
developed and developing countries which suffer from
patterns requires the design of specific information
cultural dominance.
programs, using different communication means.
We recommend:
2. In promoting communication policies, special attention
should be given to the use of non-technical language and 7. Establishment of national cultural policies which should
comprehensible symbols, images and forms to ensure foster cultural identity and creativity and involve the media in
popular understanding of development issues and goals. these tasks. Such policies should also contain guidelines for
Similarly, development information supplied to the media safeguarding national cultural development while promoting
should be adapted to prevailing news values and practices, knowledge of other cultures. It is in relation to others that
each culture enhances its own identity. (1)

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 Comment by Mr. S. MacBride: “I wish to add that owing to We recommend:

DEVELOPMENT
the cultural importance of spiritual and religious values and 13. Developing countries should pay particular attention to: (a)
also in order to restore moral values, policy guidelines the correlation between education, scientific and
should take into account religious beliefs and traditions”. communication policies, because their practical application
8. Communication and cultural policies should ensure that frequently overlaps; (b) the creation in each country of one or
creative artists and various grassroots groups can make their several centers for the collection and utilization of technical
voices heard through the media. The innovative uses of information and data, both from with the country and from

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film, television or radio by people of different cultures abroad; (c) to secure the basic equipment necessary for
should be studied Such experiments constitute a basis for essential data processing activities; (d) the development of
continuing cultural dialogue, which could be furthered by skills and facilities for computer processing and analysis of
agreements between countries and through international data obtained from remote sensing.
support. 14. Developed countries should foster exchanges of technical
9. Introduction of guidelines with respect to advertising information on the principle that all countries have equal
content and the values and attitudes it foster in accordance rights to full access to available information. It is increasingly
with national standards and practices. Such guidelines should necessary, in order to reduce inequalities in this field, to
be consistent with national development policies and efforts promote co-operative arrangements for collection, retrieval,
to preserve cultural identity. Particular attention should be processing and diffusion of technological information
given to the impact of children and adolescents. In this through various networks, regardless of geographical or
connection, various mechanisms such as complaint boards or institutional frontiers. UNISIST, which provides basic
consumer review committees might be established to afford guidelines for voluntary co- operation among and between
the public the possibility of reacting against advertising information systems and services, should further develop its
which they feel inappropriate. activities.
Reducing the Commercialization of Communication 15. Developing countries should adopt national informatics
The social effects of the commercialization of the mass policies as a matter of priority. These should primarily relate
media are a major concern in policy formulation and to the establishment of decision-making centers (inter-
decision-making by private and public bodies. departmental and inter- disciplinary) which would inter alia
(a) assess technological alternatives: (b) centralize purchases;
We recommend:
(c)encourage local production of software; (d) promote
10. In expanding communication systems, preference should be regional and sub-regional co-operation (in various fields,
given to non-commercial forms of mass communication. including education, health and consumer services).
Promotion of such types of communication should be
16. At the international level, consideration should be given to
integrated with the traditions, culture, development
action with respect for (a) systematic identification of existing
objectives and socio-political system of each country. As in
organized data processing infrastructures in various
the field of education, public funds might be made available
specialized fields; (b) agreement on measures for effective
for this purpose.
multi-county participation in the programs, planning and
11. While acknowledging the need of the media for revenues, administration of existing or developing data infrastructures;
ways and means should be considered to reduce the negative (c) analysis of commercial and technical measures likely to
effects that the influence of market and commercial improve the use of informatics by developing countries; (d)
considerations have in the organization and content of agreement of international priorities for research and
national and international communication flows. development that is of interest to all countries in the field of
12. That consideration be given to changing existing funding informatics.
patterns of commercial mass media. In this connection, 17. Transnational corporations should supply to the authorities
reviews could be made of the way in which the relative role of the countries in which they operate, upon request and on
of advertising volume and costs pricing policies, voluntary a regular basis as specified by local laws and regulations, all
contributions, subsidies, taxes, financial incentives and information required for legislative and administrative
supports could be modified to enhance the social function purposes relevant to their activities and specifically needed to
of mass media and improve their service to the community. assess the performance of such entities. They should also
Access to Technical Information provide the public, trade unions and other interested sectors
The flow of technical information within nations and across of the countries in which they operate with information
national boundaries is a major resource for development. needed to understand the global structure, activities and
Access to such information, which countries need for policies of the transnational corporation and their
technical decision-making at all levels, is as crucial as access to significance for the country concerned.
news sources. This type of information is generally not easily Professional Integrity and Standards
available and is most often concentrated in large techno-
structures. Developed countries are not providing adequate Responsibility of Journalists
information of this type to developing countries. For the journalist, freedom and responsibility are indivisible.
Freedom without responsibility invites distortion and other

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 abuses. But in the absence of freedom there can be no exercise some cases, at the regional level is desirable, provided that
DEVELOPMENT

of responsibility. The concept of freedom with responsibility such codes are prepared and adopted by the profession itself
necessarily includes a concern for professional ethics, demanding — without governmental interference.
an equitable approach to events, situations or processes with
Towards Improved International Reporting
due attention to their divers aspects. This is not always the case
The full and factual presentation of news about one country to
today.
others is a continuing problem. The reasons for this are
We recommend:
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manifold; principal among them are correspondents’ working

18. The importance of the journalist’s mission in the conditions, their skills and attitudes, varying conceptions of
contemporary would demands steps to enhance his standing news and information values and government viewpoints.
in society. In many countries even today, journalists are not Remedies for the situation will require long-term, evolutionary
regarded as members of an acknowledged profession and action towards improving the exchange of news around the
they are treated accordingly. To overcome this situation, world.
journalism needs to raise its standards and quality for We recommend:
recognition everywhere as a genuine profession.
23. All countries should take steps to assure admittance of
19. To be treated as professionals, journalists require broad foreign correspondents and facilitate their collection and
educational preparation and specific professional training. transmission of news. Special obligations in this regard,
Programs of instruction need to be developed not only for undertaken by the signatories to the Final Act of the
entry-level recruits, but also for experienced personnel who Helsinki conference, should be honored and , indeed liberally
from time to time would benefit from special seminars and applied. Free access to news sources by journalists is an
conferences designed to refresh and enrich their indispensable requirement for accurate, faithful and balanced
qualifications. Basically, programs of instruction and training reporting. This necessarily involves access to unofficial, as well
should be conducted on national and regional levels. as official sources of information, that is , access to the entire
20. Such values as truthfulness, accuracy and respect for human spectrum of opinion within any country. (1)
rights are not universally applied at present. Higher 24. Conventional standards of news selection and reporting,
professional standards and responsibility cannot be imposed and many accepted news values, need to be reassessed if
by decree, nor do they depend solely on the goodwill of readers and listeners around the world are to receive a more
individual journalists, who are employed by institutions faithful and comprehensive account of events, movements
which can improve or handicap their professional and trends in both developing and developed countries. The
performance. The self-respect of journalists, their integrity inescapable need to interpret unfamiliar situations in terms
and inner drive to turn out work of high quality are of that will be understood by a distant audience should not
paramount importance. It is this level of professional blind reporters or editors to the hazards of narrow
dedication, making for responsibility, that should be fostered ethnocentric thinking. The first step towards overcoming this
by news media and journalists’ organizations. In this bias is to acknowledge that it colors the thinking of virtually
framework, a distinction may have to be drawn between all human beings, journalists included, for the most part
media institutions, owners and managers on the one hand, without deliberate intent. The act of selecting certain news
and journalists on the other. items for publication while rejecting others, produces in the
21. As in other professions, journalists and media organizations minds of the audience a picture of the world that may well
serve the public directly and the public, in turn, is entitled to be incomplete or distorted. Higher professional standards
hold them accountable for their actions. Among the are needed for journalists to be able to illuminate the divers
mechanisms devised up to now in various countries for cultures and beliefs of the modern world, without their
assuring accountability, the Commission sees merit in press presuming to judge the ultimate validity of any foreign
or media councils, the institution of the press ombudsman nation’s experience and traditions.
and peer group criticism of the sort practiced by journalism 25. To this end, reporters being assigned to foreign posts
reviews in several countries. In addition, communities served should have the benefit of language training and
by particular media can accomplish significant reforms acquaintance with the history, institutions, politics,
through citizen action. Specific forms of community economics and cultural environment of the country or
involvement in decision-making will vary, of course, from region in which they will by serving.
country to country. Public broadcasting stations, for example
26. The press and broadcasters in the industrialized world
can be governed by representative boards drawn from the
should allot more space and time to reporting events in and
community. Voluntary measures of this sort can do much to
background material about foreign countries in general and
influence media performance. Nevertheless, it appears
news from the developing world in particular. Also, the
necessary to develop further effective ways by which the right
media in developed countries — especially the “gatekeepers”,
to assess mass media performance can be exercised by the
editors and producers of print and broadcasting media who
public.
select the news items to be published or broadcast — should
22. Codes of professional ethics exist in all parts of the world, become more familiar with the cultures and conditions in
adopted voluntarily in many countries by professional developing countries. Although the present imbalance in
groups. The adoption of codes of ethics at national and in

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 news flow calls for strengthening capacities in developing some body to stipulate who should be entitled to claim such

DEVELOPMENT
countries, the media of the industrialized countries have protection. Journalists will be fully protected only when
their contribution to make towards the correction of these everyone’s human rights are guaranteed. (1)
inequalities. 30. That Unesco should convene a series of round tables at
27. To offset the negative effects of inaccurate of malicious which journalists, media executives, researchers and jurists
reporting of international news, the right of reply and can periodically review problems related to the protection of
correction should be further considered. While these journalists and propose additional appropriate measures to

COMMUNICATION
concepts are recognized in many countries, their nature and this end. (2)
scope vary so widely that it would be neither expedient nor
Democratization of Communication
realistic to propose the adoption of any international
regulations for their purpose. False or distorted news Human Rights
accounts can be harmful, but the voluntary publication of Freedom of speech, of the press, of information and of
corrections or replies is preferable to international normative assembly are vital for the realization of human rights. Exten-
action. Since the manner in which the right of reply and sion of these communication freedoms to a broader individual
correction as applied in different countries varies significantly, and collective right to communicate is an evolving principle in
it is further suggested that: (a) the exercise of the the democratization process. Among the human rights to be
international right of reply and correction be considered for emphasized are those of equality for women and between races.
application on a voluntary basis in each country according to Defense of all human rights is one of the media’s most vital
its journalistic practices and national; ;legal; framework’ (b) tasks;
the United Nations, in consultation with all concerned We recommend:
bodies, explore the conditions under which this right could 31. All those working in the mass media should contribute to
be perfected at the international level, taking into account the the fulfillment of human rights, both individual and
cumbersome operation of the 1952 Convention on the collective, in the spirit of the Unesco Declaration on the Mass
International Right of Correction; (c) media institutions Media and the Helsinki Final Act, and the International Bill
with an international reach define on a voluntary basis of Human Rights. The contribution of the media in this
internal standards for the exercise of this right and make regard is not only to foster these principles, but also to
them publicly available. expose all infringements, wherever they occur, and to
28. Intelligence services of many nations have at one time or support those whose rights have been neglected or violated.
other recruited journalists to commit espionage under cover Professional associations and public opinion should support
of their professional duties. This practice must be journalists subject to pressure or who suffer adverse
condemned. It undermines the integrity of the profession consequences from their dedication to the defense of human
and in some circumstances, can expose other journalists to rights.
unjustified suspicion or physical threat. The Commission 32. The media should contribute to promoting the just cause of
urges journalists and their employers to be on guard against peoples struggling for freedom and independence and their
possible attempts of this kind. We also urge governments to right to live in peace and equality without foreign
refrain from using journalists for purposes of espionage. interference. This is especially important for all oppressed
Protection of Journalists peoples who while struggling against colonialism, religious
Daily reports from around the world attest to dangers that and racial discrimination, are deprived of any opportunity to
journalists are subject to in the exercise of their profession: make their voices heard within their own countries.
harassment , threats, imprisonment, physical violence, assassi- 33. Communication needs in a democratic society should be met
nation. Continual vigilance is required to focus the world’s by the extension of specific rights such as the right to be
attention on such assaults on human rights. informed, the right to inform, the right to privacy, the right
We recommend: to participate in public communication — all elements of a
29. The professional independence and integrity of all those new concept the right to communicate. In developing what
involved in the collection and dissemination of news , might be called a new era of social rights, we suggest all the
information and views to the public should be safeguarded. implications of the right to communicate be further
However, the Commission does not propose special explored.
privileges to protect journalists in the performance of their Removal of Obstacles
duties, although journalism is often a dangerous profession. Communication, with its immense possibilities for influencing
Far from constituting a special category, journalists are the minds and behavior of people, can be a powerful means of
citizens of their respective countries, entitled to the same promoting democratization of society and of widening public
range of human rights as other citizens. One exception is participation in the decision making process. This depends on
provided in the Additional Protocol to the Geneva the structures and practices of the media and their management
Conventions of 12 August 1949, which applies only to and to what extent they facilitate broader access and open the
journalists on perilous missions, such as in areas of armed communication process to a free interchange of ideas, informa-
conflict. To propose additional measures would invite the tion and experience among equals, without dominance or
dangers entailed in a licensing system since it would require discrimination.

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 We recommend: consideration. The constitute large and sensitive segments of
DEVELOPMENT

34. All countries adopt measures to enlarge sources of society and have special communication needs.
information needed by citizens in their everyday life. A careful Integration and Participation
review of existing laws and regulations should be To be able to communicate in contemporary society, people
undertaken with the aim of reducing limitations , secrecy must dispose of appropriate communication tools. New
provisions and other constraints in information practices. technologies offer them many devices for individualized
COMMUNICATION

35. Censorship or arbitrary control of information should be information and entertainment, but often fail to provide
abolished. (1) In areas where reasonable restrictions may be appropriate tools for communication within their community
considered necessary, these should be provided for by law, or social cultural group. Hence, alternative means of communi-
subject to judicial review and in line with the principles cation are often required.
enshrined in the United Nations Charter, the Universal We recommend:
Declaration of Human Rights and the International
41. Much more attention be devoted to use of the media in
Covenants relating to human rights, and in other
living and working environments. Instead of isolating men
instruments adopted by the community of nations. (2)
and women, the media should help integrate them into the
36. Special attention should be devoted to obstacles and community.
restrictions which derive from the concentration of media
42. Readers, listeners and viewers have generally been treated as
ownership, public or private, from commercial influences on
passive receivers of information. Those in charge of the
the press and broadcasting, or from private or governmental
media should encourage their audiences to play a more active
advertising. The problem of financial conditions under
role in communication by allocating more newspaper space,
which the media operate should be critically reviewed, and
or broadcasting time, for the views of individual members
measures elaborated to strengthen editorial independence.
of the public or organized social groups.
37. Effective legal measures should be designed to: (a) limit the
43. The creation of appropriate communication facilities at all
process of concentration and monopolization; (b)
levels, leading towards new forms of public involvement in
circumscribe the action of transnationals by requiring them
the management of the media and new modalities for their
to comply with specific criteria and conditions defined by
funding.
national legislation and development policies; (c) reverse
trends to reduce the number of decision-makers at a time 44. Communication policy-makers should give far greater
when the media’s public is growing larger and the impact of importance to devising ways whereby the management of
communication is increasing; (d) reduce the influence of the media could be democratized — while respecting
advertising upon editorial and policy and broadcast national customs and characteristics — by associating the
programming; (e) seek and improve models which would following categories: (a) journalists and professional
ensure greater independence and autonomy of the media communicators; (b) creative artists; (c) technicians; (d) media
concerning their management and editorial policy, whether owners and managers; (e) representatives of the public. Such
these media are under private public or government democratization of the media needs the full support and
ownership. (3) understanding of all those working in them and this process
should lead to their having a more active role in editorial
Diversity and Choice policy and management.
Diversity and choice in the content of communication are a pre
condition for democratic participation. Every individual and Fostering international Co-operation
particular groups should be able to form judgments on the Partners for Development
basis of a full range of information and a variety of messages Inequalities in communication facilities, which exist everywhere,
and opinions and have the opportunity to share these ideas are due to economic discrepancies or to political and economic
with others. The development of decentralized and diversified design, still others to cultural imposition or neglect. But
media should provide larger opportunities for a real direct whatever the source or reason for them, gross inequalities
involvement of the people in communication processes. should no longer be countenanced. The very notion of a new
We recommend: world information and communication order presupposes
fostering international co-operation, which includes two main
38. The building of infrastructures and the adoption of
areas: The international dimensions of communication are
particular technologies should be carefully matched to the
today of such importance that it has become crucial to develop
need for more abundant information to a broader public
co-operation on a world-wide scale. It is for the international
from a plurality of sources
community to take the appropriate steps to replace dependence,
39. Attention should be paid to the communication needs of dominance and inequality by more fruitful and more open
women. They should be assure adequate access to relations of inter-dependence, and complementarity, based on
communication means and that images of them and of their mutual interest and the equal dignity of nations and peoples.
activities are not distorted by the media or in advertising. Such co-operation requires a major international commitment
40. The concerns of children and youth, national, ethnic, to redress the present situation. This clear commitment is a
religious, linguistic minorities, people living in remote areas need not only for developing countries but also for the
and the aged and handicapped also deserve particular international community as a whole . The tensions and

92
disruptions that will come from lack of action are far greater specialized documentation centers should be given a high

DEVELOPMENT
than the problems posed by necessary changes. priority. They should be conceived and organized, both in
We recommend: terms of software and management , according to the
particular needs of co-operating countries.. Choices of
45. The progressive implementation of national and
technology and selection of foreign enterprises should be
international measures that will foster the setting up of a
made so as not to increase dependence in this field.
new world information and communication order. The
51. Mechanisms for sharing information of a non-strategic

COMMUNICATION
proposals contained in this report can serve as a contribution
to develop the varied actions necessary to move in that nature could be established particularly in economic matters.
direction. Arrangements of this nature could be of value din areas
such as multilateral trade negotiations, dealing with
46. International co-operation for the development of
transnational corporations and banks, economic forecasting,
communications be given equal priority with and within
and medium and long-term planning and other similar
sectors (e.g. health , agriculture, industry, science, education,
fields.
etc.) as information is a basic resource for individual and
collective advancement and for all-round development. This 52. Particular efforts should be undertaken to ensure that news
may be achieved by utilizing funds provided through about other developing countries within or outside their
bilateral government agreements and from international and region receive more attention and space in the media. Special
regional organizations, which should plan a considerable projects could be developed to ensure a steady flow of
increase in their allocations for communication, attractive and interesting material inspired by news values
infrastructures, equipment and program development. Care which meet developing countries’ information needs.
should be taken that assistance is compatible with 53. Measures to promote links and agreements between
developing countries’ priorities. Consideration should also professional organizations and communication researchers
be given to provision of assistance on a program rather than of different countries should be fostered. It is necessary to
on a strict project basis. develop networks of institutions and people working in the
47. The close relationship between the establishment of a new field of communication in order to share and exchange
international economic order and the new world information experiences and implement joint projects of common
and communication order should be carefully considered by interest with concrete operational contents.
the technical bodies dealing with these issues. Concrete plans International Mechanisms
of action linking both processes should be implemented Co-operation for the development of communications is a
within the United Nations system. The United Nations, in global concern and therefore of importance to international
approving the international development strategy should organizations, where all Member states can fully debate the
consider the communications sector as an integral element of issues involved and decide upon multi-national action.
it and not merely as an instrument of public information. Governments should therefore attentively review the structures
Strengthening Collective Self-reliance and programs of international agencies in the communication
Developing countries have a primary responsibility for under- fields and point to changes required to meet evolving needs.
taking necessary changes to overcome their dependence in the We recommend:
field of communications. The actions needed begin at the 54. The Member States of Unesco should increase their support
national level, but must be complemented by forceful and to the Organization’s program in this area. Consideration
decisive agreements at the bilateral, sub-regional, regional, and should be given to organizing a distinct communication
inter- regional levels. Collective self-reliance is the cornerstone of sector, not simply in order to underline its importance, but
a new world information and communication order. to emphasize that its activities are inter-related with the other
We recommend: major components of Unesco’s work — education, science
48. The communication dimension should be incorporated into and culture . (1) In its communications activities, Unesco
existing programs and agreements for economic co-operation should concentrate on priority areas. Among these are
between developing countries. assistance to national policy formulation and planning,
technical development, organizing professional meetings and
49. Joint activities in the field of communication, which are
exchanges, promotion and co- ordination of research, and
under way between developing countries should be
elaboration of international norms.
developed further in the light of the overall analysis and
recommendations of this Report. In particular, attention 55. Better co-ordination of the various communication activities
should be given to co-operation among national news within Unesco and those throughout the United Nations
agencies, to the further development of the News Agencies System. A thorough inventory and assessment of all
Pool and broadcasting organizations of the non-aligned communications development and related programs of the
countries as well as to the general exchange on a regular basis various agencies should be undertaken as a basis for
of radio, TV programs and films. designing appropriate mechanisms to carry out the necessary
consultation, co-operation and co-ordination.
50. With respect to co-operation in the field of technical
information, the establishment of regional and sub-regional 56. It would be desirable for the United Nations family to be
data banks and information processing centers and equipped with a more effective information system,

93
 including a broadcast capability of its own and possibly advocating national, racial or religious hatred and incitement
DEVELOPMENT

access to a satellite system. That would enable the United to discrimination, hostility, violence or war.
Nations to follow more closely would affairs and transmit its 69. Due attention should be paid to the problems of peace and
message more effectively to all the peoples of the earth. disarmament, human rights, development and the creation
Although such a proposal would require heavy investment of a new communication order. Mass media both printed
and raise some complex issues, a feasibility study should be and audiovisual, should be encouraged to publicize
undertaken so that a carefully designed project could be significant documents of the United Nations, of Unesco, of
COMMUNICATION

prepared for deliberation and decision. (2)(3). the world peace movements, and of various other
57. Consideration might be given to establishing within the international and national organizations devoted to peace
framework of Unesco as International Centre for the Study and disarmament. The curricula of schools of journalism
and Planning of information and Communication. Its main should include study of these international problems and
tasks would be to: (a)promote the development of national the views expressed on them within the United Nations.
communication systems in developing countries and balance 60. All forms of co-operation among the media, the
and reciprocity in international information flows; (b) professionals and their associations, which contribute to the
mobilize resources required for that purpose and manage the better knowledge of other nations and cultures, should be
funds put at its disposal; (c) assure co-ordination among encouraged and promoted.
parties interested in communication development and
61. Reporting on international events or developments in
involved in various co-operation programs and evaluate
individual countries in situations of crisis and tension
results of bilateral and multilateral activities in this field; (d)
requires extreme care and responsibility. In such situations in
organize round tables, seminars, and conferences for the
the media often constitute one of the few, if not the sole ,
training of communication planners , researchers and
links between combatants or hostile groups. This clearly casts
journalists, particularly those specializing in international
on them a special role which they should seek to discharge
problems; and (e) keep under review communications
with objectivity and sensitivity.
technology transfers between developed and developing
countries so that they are carried out in the most suitable End note: The recommendations and suggestions contained in
conditions. The Centre may be guided by a tripartite co- our Report do not presume to cover all topics and issues calling
ordinating council composed of representatives of for reflection and action. Nevertheless, they indicate the
developing and developed countries and of interested importance and scale of the tasks which face every country in the
international organizations. We suggest Unesco should field of information and communication, as well as their
undertake further study of this proposal for consideration at international dimensions which pose a formidable challenge to
the 1980 session of the General Conference. the community of nations.
Our study indicates clearly the direction in which the world
Towards International Understanding
must move to attain a new information and communication
The strengthening of peace, international security and co-
order — essentially a series of new relationships arising from
operation and the lessening of international security and
the advances promised by new communication technologies
co-operation and the lessening of international tensions are the
which should enable all peoples to benefit. The awareness
common concern of all nations. The mass media can make a
already created on certain issues, such as global imbalances in
substantial contribution towards achieving these goals. The
information flows, suggests that a process of change has
special session of the United Nations General Assembly on
resulted and is under way. The power and promise of ever-new
disarmament called for increased efforts by the mass media to
communication technologies and systems are, however, such as
mobilize public opinion in favor of disarmament and of
to demand deliberate measures to ensure that existing commu-
ending the arms race. This Declaration together with the Unesco
nication disparities do not widen. The objective should be to
Declaration on fundamental principles concerning the contribu-
ensure that men and women are enabled to lead richer and
tion of the mass media to strengthening peace and
more satisfying lives.
international understanding, to the promotion of human
rights and to countering racialism, apartheid and incitement to Conclusions
war should be the foundation of new communication policies The Committee concluded the findings a s below:
to foster international understanding. A new world information 1. Our review of communication the world over reveals a
and communication order requires and must become the variety of solutions adopted in different countries — in
instrument for peaceful co-operation between nations. accordance with diverse traditions, patterns of social,
We recommend: economic and cultural life, needs and possibilities. This
58. National communication policies should be consistent with diversity is valuable and should be respected; there is no place
adopted international communication principles and should for the universal application of preconceived models. yet it
seek to create a climate of mutual understanding and should be possible to establish, in broad outline, common
peaceful co-existence among nations. Countries should also aims and common values in the sphere of communication,
encourage their broadcast and other means of international based on common interests in a world of interdependence.
communication to make the fullest contribution towards The whole human race is threatened by the arms race and by
peace and international co-operation and to refrain from the persistence of unacceptable global inequalities, both of

94
 which generate tensions and which jeopardize its future and These decisions are not merely the concern of professionals,

DEVELOPMENT
even its survival. The contemporary situation demands A researchers, or scholars, nor can they be the sole prerogative
BETTER MORE JUST AND MORE DEMOCRATIC of those holding political or economic power. The decision -
SOCIAL ORDER, AND THE REALIZATION OF making process has to involve social participation at all levels.
FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS. These goals can be This calls for new attitudes for overcoming stereotyped
achieved only through understanding and tolerance, gained thinking and to promote more understanding of diversity
in large part by free, open and balanced communications. and plurality, with full respect for the dignity and equality of

COMMUNICATION
2. The review has also shown that the utmost importance peoples living in different ways.
should be given to eliminating imbalances and disparities in Thus our call for reflection and action is addressed broadly to
communication and its structures, and particularly in governments and international organizations, to policy
information flows. Developing countries need to reduce makers and planners, to the media and professional
their dependence, and claim a new more just and more organizations, to researchers, communication practitioners,
equitable order in the field of communication. This issue has to organized social groups and the public at large.
been fully debated in various settings; the time has now
Strengthening Independence and Self
come to move from principles to substantive reforms and
Reliance
concrete action.
Communication Policies
3. Our conclusions are founded on the firm conviction that
All individuals and people collectively have an inalienable right
communication is a basic individual right, as well as a
to a better life which, howsoever conceived, must ensure a social
collective one required by all communities and nations.
minimum nationally
Freedom of information — and, more specifically the right
and globally. This calls
to seek , receive and impart information — is a fundamental
for the strengthening of
human right; indeed, a prerequisite for many others. The
capacities and the
inherent nature of communication means that its fullest
elimination of gross
possible exercise and potential depend on the surrounding
inequalities; such defects
political, social and economic conditions, the most vital of
may threaten social
these being democracy within countries and equal, democratic
harmony and even
relations between them. It is in this context that the
international peace.
democratization of communication at national and
There must be a
international levels, as well as the larger role of
measured movement from disadvantage and dependence to
communication in democratizing society, acquires utmost
self- reliance and the creation of more equal opportunities. Since
importance.
communication is interwoven with every aspect of life, it is
4. For these purposes, it is essential to develop comprehensive clearly of the utmost importance that the existing ‘communica-
national communication policies linked to overall social, tion gap’ be rapidly narrowed and eventually eliminated.
cultural and economic development objectives. Such policies
We recommend:
should evolve from broad consultations with all sectors
concerned and adequate mechanisms for wide participation 1. Communication be no longer regarded merely as an
of organized social groups in their definition and incidental service and its development left to chance.
implementation. National governments as much as the Recognition of its potential warrants the formulation by all
international community should recognize the urgency of nations, and particularly developing countries, of
according communications higher priority in planning and comprehensive communication policies linked to overall
funding. Every country should develop its communication social, cultural, economic and political goals. Such policies
patterns in accordance with its own conditions, needs and should be based on inter-ministerial and interdisciplinary
traditions, thus strengthening its integrity, independence and consultations with broad public participation. The object
self- reliance. must be to utilize the unique capacities of each form of
communication, from interpersonal and traditional to the
5. The basic considerations which are developed at length in the
most modern, to make people and societies aware of their
body of our Report are intended to provide a framework for
rights, harmonize unity in diversity , and foster the growth
the development of a new information and communication
of individuals and communities within the wider frame of
order. We see its implementation as an ongoing process of
national development in an interdependent world.
change in the nature of relations between and within nations
in the field of communication. Imbalances in national 2. As language embodies the cultural experience of people all
information and communication systems are a s disturbing languages should be adequately developed to serve the
and unacceptable as social, economic, cultural and complex and diverse requirements of modern
technological (both national and international) disparities. communication. Developing nations and multilingual
Indeed, rectification of the latter is inconceivable in any true societies need to evolve language policies that promote all
or lasting sense without elimination of the former. Crucial national languages even while selecting some, where
decisions concerning communication development need to necessary, for more widespread use in communication,
be taken urgently at both national and international levels. higher education and administration. There is also need in

95
 certain situations for the adaptation, simplification, and maintenance personnel. In this regard, co-operation between
DEVELOPMENT

standardization of scripts and development of keyboards, neighboring countries and within regions should be
preparation of dictionaries and modernized systems of encouraged.
language learning, transcription of literature in widely-
Basic Needs
spoken national languages. The provision of simultaneous
All nations have to make choices in investment priorities. In
interpretation and automated translation facilities now under
choosing between possible alternatives and often conflicting
experimentation for cross-cultural communication to bridge
COMMUNICATION

interests, developing countries , in particular, must give priority

linguistic divides should also be envisaged.
to satisfying their people’s essential needs. Communication is
3. A primary policy objective should be to make elementary not only a system of public information, but also an integral
education available to all and to wipe out illiteracy, part of education and development.
supplementing formal schooling systems with non-formal
We recommend:
education and enrichment within appropriate structures of
continuing and distance learning (through radio, television 10. The communication component in all development projects
and correspondence). should receive adequate financing. So- called “development
support communications” are essential for mobilizing
3. Within the framework of national development policies,
initiatives and providing information required for action in
each country will have to work out its own set of priorities,
all fields of development - agriculture, health and family
bearing in mind that it will not be possible to move in all
planning, education, religion, industry and so on.
directions at the same time. But, as far as resources allow,
communication policies should aim at stimulating and 11. Essential communication needs to be met include the
encouraging all means of communication. extension of basic postal services and telecommunication
networks through small rural electronic exchanges.
Communication policies should offer a guide to the determina-
tion of information and media priorities and to the selection of 12. The development of a community press in rural areas and
appropriate technologies. This is required to plan the installa- small towns would not only provide print support for
tion and development of adequate infrastructures to provide economic and social extension activities . This would also
self-reliant communications capacity. facilitate the production of functional literature for neo-
literates as well.
We recommend:
13. Utilization of local radio, low-cost small format television
4. Developing countries take specific measures to establish or
and video systems and other appropriate technologies would
develop essential elements of their communication systems:
facilitate production of programs relevant to community
print media , broadcasting and telecommunications along
development efforts, stimulate participation and provide
with the related training and production facilities.
opportunity for diversified cultural expression.
5. Strong national news agencies are vital for improving each
14. The educational and informational use of communication
country’s national and international reporting. Where viable,
should be given equal priority with entertainment. At the
regional networks should be set up to increase news flows
same time, education systems should prepare young people
and serve all the major language groups in the area.
for communication activities. Introduction of pupils at
Nationally, the agencies should buttress the growth of both
primary and secondary levels to the forms and uses of the
urban and rural newspapers to serve as the core of a
means of communication (how to read newspapers, evaluate
country’s news collection and distribution system.
radio and television programs, use elementary audio-visual
6. National book production should be encouraged and techniques and apparatus) should permit the young to
accompanied by the establishment of a distribution network understand reality better and enrich their knowledge of
for books, newspapers and periodicals. The stimulation of current affairs and problems.
works by national authors in various languages should be
15. Organization of community listening and viewing groups
promoted.
could in certain circumstances widen both entertainment and
7. The development of comprehensive national radio educational opportunities. Education and information
networks, capable of reaching remote areas should take activities should be supported by different facilities ranging
priority over the development of television, which, however, from mobile book, tape and film libraries to programmed
should be encourage where appropriate. Special attention instruction through “schools of the air”.
should be given to areas where illiteracy is prevalent.
16. Such activities should be aggregated wherever possible in
8. National capacity for producing broadcast materials is order to create vibrant local communication resource centers
necessary to obviate dependence on external sources over and for entertainment, education, information dissemination
beyond desirable program exchange. This capacity should and cultural exchange. They should be supported by
include national or regional broadcasting, film and decentralized media production centers; educational and
documentary production centers with a basic distribution extension services should be location specific if they are to be
network. credible and accepted.
9. Adequate educational and training facilities are required to 17. It is not sufficient to urge that communication be given a
supply personnel for the media and production high priority in national development; possible sources of
organizations, as well as managers, technicians and

96
 investment finance must be identified. Among these could possibility of negotiating preferential tariffs on bilateral or

DEVELOPMENT
be differential communication pricing policies that would regional basis.
place large burdens on more prosperous urban and elite 20. The electro-magnetic spectrum and geostationary orbit, both
groups; the taxing of commercial advertising may also be finite natural resources, should be more equitably shared as
envisaged for this purpose. the common property of mankind. For that purpose, we
Particular Challenges welcome the decisions taken by the World Administrative
Radio Conference (WARC), Geneva, September-November

COMMUNICATION
We have focused on national efforts which must be made to
lead to greater independence and self- reliance. But there are 1979, to convene a series of special conferences over the next
three major challenges to this goal that require concerted few years on certain specific topics related to the utilization of
international action. Simply put, these are paper, tariff structures these resources.
and the electro-magnetic spectrum.
We recommend: Note
18. A major international research and development effort to
increase the supply of paper. The worldwide shortage of
paper, including newsprint and its escalating cost impose
crushing burdens upon struggling newspapers, periodicals
and the publication industry, above all in the developing
countries. Certain ecological constraints have also emerged.
Unesco, in collaboration with FAO, should take urgent
measures to identify and encourage production of paper and
newsprint either by recycling paper or from new sources of
feedstock in addition to the wood pulp presently produced
largely by certain northern countries. Kenaf, bagasse, tropical
woods and grasses could possibly provide alternative
sources. Initial experiments are encouraging and need to be
supported and multiplied.
19. Tariffs for new transmission, telecommunication rates and
air mail charges for the dissemination of news, transport of
newspapers, periodicals, books and audio-visual materials are
one of the main obstacles to a free and balanced flow of
information. This situation must be corrected, especially in
the case of developing countries, through a variety of
national an international initiatives. Governments should in
particular examine the policies and practices of their post an
telegraph authorities. Profits or Revenues should not be the
primary aim of such agencies. They are instruments for
policy-making and planned development in the field of
information culture. Their tariffs should be in line with larger
national goals. International action is also necessary to alter
telecommunication tariffs that militate heavily against small
and peripheral users. Current international consultations on
this question may be brought to early fruition, possibly at
the October 1980 session of the 154 nation International
Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee, which
should have before it specific proposals made by a Unesco-
sponsored working group on “Low Telecommunication
Rates” (November 1979) . Unesco might, in cooperation
with ITU also sponsor an overall study on international
telecommunications services by means of satellite
transmission in collaboration with Intelsat, Intersputnik and
user country representatives to make proposals for
international and regional co-ordination or geostationary
satellite development. The study should also include
investigation of the possibility and practicalities of discounts
for transmission of news and preferential rates for certain
types of transmission to and from developing countries.
Finally, developing countries should investigate the

97
DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 12:
AGRICULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN INDIA
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to functions of agricultural sector have figured prominently in
theories of development, particularly since World War II.
To become aware of the role of agriculture in India
Most of the modern developed economies have achieved
To learn about the agricultural communication in India
development prior to World War I. In the nineteenth century
To know about the extension system and in the earlier epochs, the process of economic development
was spontaneous and economic theorists did not devote much
Nature And Significance of Agriculture
attention to the question of priorities, viz., whether agricultural
in India
development should precede industrial development or vice
So long as the farmer continues to feed and clothe the world,
versa. But during the past three decades, when the less devel-
agriculture continues to assume the role of a basic industry in
oped countries of Asia, South America and Africa entered the
some degree or the other in every country. In recent years, the
phase of development, there was a strong bias in favour of
achievements of science have been marvelous in all productive
rapid industrialisation. This was largely due to a feeling among
fields manufacturing a variety of goods, sometimes replacing
them that industrialisation was synonymous with economic
the traditional goods. But science has not succeeded in thor-
development. Concentration upon accelerated industrialization
oughly revolutionising agriculture and replacing crops, livestock,
became almost the motto of the less developed countries.
etc.
However, the strategy that was adopted towards this end faced
It is rightly observed that “Even those most hopeful in the serious obstacles and several countries failed in their endeavours
progress of science would scarcely contend that the growing of and ended in frustration.
crops and livestock will be supplanted by huge, smoky manu-
It was this situation that induced economists to study the
facturing plants producing necessities of life now furnished by
malaise that afflicted the development process. The role and
the farmers.”
functions of agriculture came to be studied in depth. As a
Agriculture, as a primary industry, plays a significant role in the result, it was realised that neglect of agriculture could limit
process of economic development of a country. But the economic growth. It was also realised that industrialisation and
contribution of the agricultural sector to the overall economy agricultural development are complementary to each other.
varies from country to country depending upon the level of
Historical records clearly show that no country has moved from
economic development. In the early stages of economic
the stage of chronic stagnation to the take-offstage of economic
development, normally, agriculture is the major contributor to
development without first achieving a substantial increase in
national income and it provides employment to a majority of
agricultural production. In the earlier stages of economic
people. At later stages of a fairly high level of economic
development of modern advanced State, a high rate of
progress, the importance of agriculture gradually declines.
agricultural production has played a crucial role in furthering
However, agriculture with its fundamental importance has its
overall economic growth. In Western Europe, revolutionary
own contribution to make throughout the unending process
changes took place during 1780-1860. Among other factors,
of economic development.
agriculture, on the eve of the Industrial Revolution, was
favourable for a take-off. In the United Kingdom agriculture
did provide cheap and sufficient food in the early decades of the
Industrial Revolution and did provide self-finance for more
efficient agriculture; but it did not, as agriculture did in Japan in
later year, help capital formation and industrial development in
general. The take-off periods of France, Belgium, Germany and
Sweden also rested upon a firm base of a raising agricultural
productivity. Economic development of Russia, China and
Japan reveals the basic role played by agriculture in the earlier
stages. Russian economic progress was made possible by an
initially substantial food surplus. Japan with an agricultural
economy, characterised by land shortage and labour surplus
Economic development may be defined as transformation of adopted policies which created a food surplus, the basis and
an economy, which is predominantly agricultural and traditional foundation for its spectacular economic development- Commu-
into one largely industrial and modem. The agricultural and nist China also recognised the importance of achieving an
non-agricultural sectors in the former remain separate, present- agricultural surplus in the process of economic development. In
ing economic dualism, while in the latter they get integrated India, too, during the planning era, some of the State Govern-
together. In the overall economic development, the role and ments have accorded high priority to agriculture.

98
After his monumental studies of Asian countries, Gunnar countries where the size of population is large and its rate of

DEVELOPMENT
Myrdal concludes: It is in the agricultural sector that the battle growth is also high, transformation of agriculture becomes
for long-term economic development in South Asia will be operative “to prevent an overflow of population to the cities, in
won or lost.” With reference to India, Coale and Hoover stress a futile search for employment.”
the same point: “Very substantial progress in that most The agricultural sector creates demand for more and new
backward part of the economy (agriculture) was a prerequisite to industrial goods. As agricultural development takes place, the
successful development of the Indian economy as a whole.” In per capita farm income will improve. Now the farmers would

COMMUNICATION
emphasizing the role of agriculture in the development of be in a position to buy more of modern agricultural inputs and
Indian economy, it is observed that “If one sector limits the consumer goods from the industrial sector. Further, with the
growth of the other, it is more likely to be a case of agricultural development of processing, packing and distribution services in
growth, limiting non-agricultural sector than vice versa.” the agricultural sector, there is greater scope for marketing of
Role And Functions of Agriculture agricultural products. The improved inputs enhancing produc-
Agricultural development is important for many reasons. tive efficiency in agriculture, leading to more of marketable
Agriculture must primarily provide adequate food and nutrition surplus, can be exchanged for goods and services in the
supplies to the fast growing population. In the early stages of industrial sector.
economic growth, the income elasticity of demand for food in Agriculture also contributes to capital formation which is
underdeveloped countries is estimated to be 0.6 or higher which essential for economic growth. The contribution of agriculture
is twice or thrice as much as that in Europe, the United States to capital formation can take place in three ways. First, increased
and Japan.7 In an underdeveloped country like India, with low agricultural productivity leads to lower food prices which, in
nutritional standards, any rise in income is most likely to turn, raises real income and promotes saving. Second, increased
increase the demand for food and more diversified foodstuffs. farm output may generate higher levels of farm income and a
Moreover, less developed countries are experiencing population part of it may be saved. These savings may be utilised for
explosion. In order to supply adequate food and nutrition to investment purposes for overall economic development. ‘With
the growing population, the rate of agricultural production the rising of agricultural productivity with comparatively smaller
should be higher than the rate of growth of population, which outlays”. Observe Johnston and Mellor, “greater is the scope
in these countries varies from 2.0 per cent to 3.0 per cent per for agricultural sector to make contribution to the capital
annum. If domestic production fails to increase adequately, the requirements for overall economic growth.” Thirdly, capital can
gap has to be filled up by imports, involving a heavy drain on be derived by taxing the agricultural sector. In China, Russia and
foreign exchange resources. If the food supplies fail to expand Japan, farm tax revenue helped significantly their economic
in pace with the growth of demand, the result is likely to be a growth. The system of agricultural taxation may be diverse in
substantial rise in food prices and consequent inflationary form such as land taxes, agricultural income tax, export duty
situation both in rural and urban sectors. and irrigation tax. When agricultural incomes rise, a larger tax
The farm sector has to supply the raw materials for growing revenue can be secured on a rising income base. However, a
manufacturing industries. Agricultural raw material enters many policy of ruthless or too high taxation as that of taxes on
industries. Nearly one-third of India’s industrial output till agricultural exports in Argentina would be like “killing the
recently depended upon the supply of agricultural commodities goose that laid the golden eggs which were expected to pay for
such as raw cotton, jute, oilseeds and rice.8 If the agricultural the programmes of industrialization.
sector in a country fails to supply adequate quantity of raw If agricultural production is large enough to yield an exportable
material, the gap is to be filled up with imported raw material. surplus, it will earn the much-needed foreign exchange for
Imported raw material is most likely to cost more, leading to a imports of essential equipment, technical know-how and
higher price of final product with consequent adverse effect on industrial raw materials. “It is hardly a surprise that in the initial
the marketability of products. stages of growth of many presently developed countries”,
In underdeveloped economies, the agricultural sector with observes Simon Kuznets, “agriculture was a major source of
surplus labour can supply manpower to the growing manufac- exports and that the resulting command over the resources of
turing industry. The agricultural sector, with unlimited supply the more developed countries played a strategic role in facilitat-
of manpower, as Arthus Lewis has put it, has to release the ing modern economic growth.”14 For instance, the post-Meiji
labour force for industrialization. For such labour transferred to industrialization of Japan was crucially assisted by the rapidly
the industrial sector, agriculture should also provide food, expanding agricultural exports.
clothing and other essential consumption goods. In the early The theoretical models of agricultural development also
stages of economic development, manpower for manufacturing emphasise the significant role of agricultural sector in economic
sectors can be drawn easily from agriculture. “Agricultural sector development. According to these theoretical models, the
can even provide much labour at zero opportunity costs because transformation of traditional agriculture into modem one
a considerable part of the labour force in agriculture is redun- involves several phases of development. The first phase
dant in the sense that its marginal productivity is zero.”10 In consists of transferring surplus labour (W.A. Lewis) accompa-
countries where the amount of labour is limited, labour can be nied by transfer of food capital to the industrial sector. If
transferred to the industrial sector through higher productivity marginal productivity of labour is zero, surplus food will be
per man in the agricultural sector. On the other hand, in available (as Fei and Ranis Model Postulates). If marginal

99
 productivity is positive, surplus food for transfer has to be nineteenth century till about World War I had remained around
DEVELOPMENT

secured by stepping up productivity (as per the hypothesis of 66 per cent. V.K.R.V. Rao estimated that the proportion of
Jorgenson Model). In the second phase, as agricultural produc- agriculture to the total output was 57 percent during 1925-29
tivity is raised, surplus income as well as output emerges and and 53 per cent for 1931-32. For 1948-49, official estimates
the strategy of development called for mobilization of the rural placed the share of agriculture in the national income at 49 per
surpluses and their transfer to the industrial sector for capital cent. In 1950-51, its share in the net domestic product was
investment. The third phase is characterized by a mature reckoned to be about 56 per cent and during the following ten
COMMUNICATION

agricultural sector and a fairly developed industrial sector helping years, it remained above 50 per cent. After this, the percentage
each other. share declined and was about 45 per cent in 1970-71; 40.2
percent in 1980-81, 31.7 per cent in 1991-92 and 27 per cent in
Interdependence Between Agriculture
1999. Although these estimates are not strictly comparable, due
And Industry
to differences in concepts, geographical coverage and methods
The agricultural sector contributes to industrial development by
of computation, it is evident that the share of the agricultural
way of:
sector declines gradually.
a. providing food to the growing industrial workers,
Agriculture continues to be a main source of livelihood for a
b. providing raw material to industrial development of both vast majority of the population in India. According to the
large-scale as well as small-scale industries, decennial census reports, the proportion of cultivating and
c. providing labour to the industry, agricultural labourers to main workers was 72 per cent in 1951,
d. creating demand for industrial products, 71.8 per cent in 1961, 69.8 per cent in 1971, 66.5 per cent in 1981
e. helping capital formation required for industrial and 65.0 per cent in 1991. It is clear that the dependence of the
development. workers on agriculture, though slightly decreasing, continues to
be significantly higher.
Production not only accelerates the growth of industries, but
also brings stability to the industrial sector. Thus, agriculture The agricultural sector in India supplies food to the fast-
helps industry and is also helped simultaneously by industry in growing population and raw material to the manufacturing
many ways. There is, thus, a continuous process of feedback in industry. The agricultural sector with surplus labour is in a
the economic system. Agriculture and industry, therefore, are position to supply manpower required for the industrial sector
not conflicting alternatives, but complementary one. In other in urban areas. However, there seems to be no dearth of
words, agriculture, industry and transport, etc., mutually help manpower in the urban areas, also,. Further, with nearly 65 per
and fortify one another towards the integrated growth of an cent of the people depending upon agriculture for their living,
economy. To quote Jagdish Bhagwati, Those who stress the the agricultural sector creates demand for industrial products.
role of industrialization generally underestimate the importance With the advent of the Green Revolution, there has been a
of agricultural sector in developing economies. But the two considerable increase in farm incomes in areas with relatively
need not be in conflict. Agriculture and industry compete for better irrigation facilities. Farmers in areas like Punjab, Haryana,
national resources. But this does not mean that those who Coastal Andhra, etc. are able to contribute to capital require-
emphasize the need for agriculture and industry compete for ments for the overall economic growth in India. Through
national resources. But this does not mean that those who agricultural taxation, some State Governments are able to raise
emphasize the need for agricultural expansion should necessar- considerable amounts. The contribution of the agricultural
ily be opposed to industrialisation.” In view of diversity of sector to foreign exchange resources is significant. The agricul-
agricultural conditions and of the general economic situation in tural sector contributed 21 per cent to the total exports in
different underdeveloped countries, it is difficult to state the 1999-2000. The share of agriculture in total exports will be
priority between agriculture and industry as a universally higher if the exports of agro-based manufacturers are taken
acceptable proposition. However, it may be taken as the general into account.
consensus that “an agrarian revolution, preceding and running In 1991-92, the contribution of agricultural commodities to
parallel with industrial revolution, is a sound strategy that could exports was Rs. 8228 crores and it increased to Rs. 25040 crores
take a country along the golden path of economic develop- in 1996-97.
ment.” There is a close interdependence between agriculture and
Importance of Agriculture in the Indian industry. In 1964-66, out of total agricultural production, about
Economy 12.5 per cent went from agriculture to agriculture, while nearly
The importance of agriculture in Indian can be judged mainly 23 percent was utilized by the industries, the rest went directly
from its contribution to national income and employment. to final consumption. The value of agricultural inputs (Rs.2,085
Agriculture continues to be a major source of income and crores) formed about 20.6 per cent of the total value of
employment to a vast majority of (about 66 per cent) people in industrial output (Rs.10,106 crores) in that year. Similarly, the
India. Official estimates of national income and its components industrial sector delivered goods worth Rs.228 crores to
are available on a regular basis in India since 1948-49. According agriculture which is about 11 per cent of the amounts sold by
to the estimates of individual scholars like Dadabhai Naoroji, agriculture to industry and accounted for 2.53 per cent of the
Curzon, Vakil, Murganjan and some others, the contribution total output of the agricultural sector. According to an estimate
of agriculture to the national income since the latter part of the for 1973-74 at 1971-72 prices, the contribution of agriculture as

100
input in the total output of industry was as high as 58 per cent. Extension education is a dynamic and flexible process of

DEVELOPMENT
Agriculture’s share is 42 per cent for tea and coffee, 40 per cent, educating people to develop their capabilities. According to
for leather products, 32 per cent for vegetable oils, 35 per cent Dahama (1980), “Extension education is a behavioral science
for jute textiles and 29 per cent for cotton textiles. following a continuous, persuasive and discriminating educa-
After the advent of the new farm technology, agriculture tional process. It aims at affecting the behavioral components
depends, largely on industry for modem inputs like chemical of the people in a desirable direction, through conviction,
fertilizers, pesticides, pumpsets, tractors, power tillers etc. For communication and diffusion, by its proven methods,

COMMUNICATION
instance, between 1990-91 and 1993-94 the consumption of principles and philosophies resulting in learning involvement
fertilizers was around 12 million tonnes. It increased to 14.3 of both client and change agent systems.”
million tonnes in 1996-97. The use of pumpsets, both electric History of Extension
and diesel, increased from about one million in 1965-66 to 60
Pre-British Period
million in 1996.
Before the colonization India was a sub-continent of small
The interdependence between agriculture and industry clearly royal kingdoms. Generally, the villages were self contained, self
shows that further growth both in agriculture as well as sufficient and self governed units, and role of extension was
industrial production in India is materially dependent on the very minimum. Looking after the welfare of the people was the
rapid increase in the production of the input supplying capacity main responsibility of the emperors and kings. The service of
of both the sectors to each other. It is such an interdependent the foreign missionaries and local organizations is also praise-
relationship that will culminate in the fusion of the two sectors worthy. The Panchayat system executed the welfare activities
and formation of an integrated modem economy. (Dahama, 1980). Thus, extension had no important role to play
Conclusion in the pre-British period for the rural development of the
Agricultural development, however, is not synonymous with country. But, the idea of extension was prevailing even in those
rural development. While the development of agriculture is times.
critical for self-sufficiency in food and for the economic develop- Pre-Independence Era (1866-1947)
ment of India, it is equally necessary to develop simultaneously The British colonial rule did not do much to the agrarian
other sector’s in rural areas, so as to reduce pressure on land. development of the country. Yet they tried to do some
This step is most likely to contribute to the improvement of organizational structure, irrigation projects and establish
living conditions of many. Moreover, rural population consists, different agricultural departments.
of a large number of landless people, who form the hard core
1866 Famine Commission to study famine spread in
of poverty, In the schemes of agricultural development, the
Bengal and [Link] suggests for
rural poor without any assets like landless labour, village
organized planning in Agriculture.
artisans, etc. are not likely to be benefited substantially. There-
fore, some radical institutional changes aiming at redistribution 1871- June Department of Revenue, Agriculture and
of rural wealth in favour of rural poor become necessary as a Commerce started. Agriculturalprograms do not
part of rural development programmes. Land reforms in India, flourish.
no doubt, help to some extent, the neglected section of rural 1880 Famine again. Commission asks government to
population like landless labour, etc. At the same time, it should separate Department ofAgriculture under a secretary
be noted that in spite of the land reforms, a large number of and to start regional offices.
people remain without lands in rural areas. Therefore, alterna- 1881 Imperial Department of Agriculture under new
tive programmes like rural industrialization, provision of secretariat. By 1882, SateAgricultural Departments
institutional credit with supporting services to rural poor for started functioning.
asset-building schemes, payment of minimum wages to
1888 Land Improvement Loans Act, and Agricultural
agricultural labour, social security measures benefiting rural
Loans Act
poor, etc., should receive greater attention of the government.
1901 Imperial Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa,
Part 2. Extension System in India Agricultural College inDharbanga (Bihar) with a
India, the seventh largest country in the world, is known for its
farm. Indian Agricultural Service was constituted.-
rich cultural, geographical and political heritage and also for its
Staffing in the various agencies. All Activities were
poverty and low per capita income. The climatic, geological,
connected.
cultural, linguistic, religious and sociological diversity and her
population of 950 million within the 3.3 million square 1904 Cooperative Act
kilometers challenges the economical development of the 1912 Amendment in the Cooperative Act
country. As 64% of the labor force in India is in the agricultural 1919 Government of India Act makes agriculture a
field and the lion share of GDP comes from agriculture, responsibility of the state.
agricultural development denotes the prosperity of Indian
1924 Royal Commission recommends stopping staffing
economy. Further, the need to educate the people and raising
in Indian Agricultural Service.
their standard of life and giving them a healthy environment to
live, makes extension a very important component for the
development of India.

101
 1928 Royal Commission recommends to start a national
DEVELOPMENT
Sir Daniel Hamilton’s Scheme of Rural
center for Research,Training and Extension. Reconstruction
Suggests mobility of staff within the system . In 1903, Hamilton formed a scheme to create model villages in
1929 Imperial Council for Agriculture and Research Bengal based on cooperative principles. He also organized
(ICAR) formed. cooperative Bank and cooperative Marketing Society and then
established a Rural Reconstruction Institute. This Institute
1935 Community Development becomes a provincial
provided training facilities in cottage and subsidiary industries
COMMUNICATION

subject. Provinces established their rural Construc-

(Dahama, 1980).
tion Department or Village Uplift Boards and
activities funded by Central Government. These Rural Reconstruction by Christian Missions
Development Departments could not make up any The Christian missionaries focused on education, public health
comprehensive program. Their activities were not and rural reconstruction. They started rural reconstruction
based on detailed studies of program planning, or centers in their educational institutions to make use knowledge
the needs and resources of the people. It never for practical training. The Rural Extension Service in the colleges
emphasized the people’s participation, cooperation was closely related to the life of the rural community. The
and involvement. It never tried to create confidence Missions Hospitals spread throughout the country ensured
in the people through educational approach but sanitation in the locality and looked after the health needs of
mostly the work remained that of a supply agency the people. The hospitals gave training in medicine, nursing,
and the approach agents acted as bosses and not compounding and midwifery. Several agricultural demonstra-
guides, or teachers. tion centers were established with the help of YMCA and
1947 Aug. Independence of India. YWCA (Dahama, 1980).
Extension By Various Organizations Before Independence Gandhian Constructive Program
Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of India was not only a Mahatma
Shantiniketen
(Great Soul), or a political leader, but also a social and economic
In 1908, Shri Rabindra Nath Tagore, under his scheme of rural
reformer. He made people know that the soul of India lives in
development through the youth organizations and he
village and that the common man’s uplift is the actual develop-
established a Rural Reconstruction Institute at Shantiniketen
ment of the country. He wrote “if the village perishes India
(where peace resides) in 1921. This objective of the program
will perish too. India will be no more India, her own mission
was to create interest among the villagers in rural welfare and
in the world will be lost.” For the emancipation of the
help them to develop their resources. These objectives were
villagers, he formulated an 18 point program which included
achieved through establishing training centers for handicrafts
the promotion of village industries, basic adult education, rural
and a demonstration center at Shantiniketan. The demonstra-
sanitation, uplift of backward tribes, uplift of woman,
tions also were conducted in the farms on improved practices in
education in public health and hygiene, propagation of national
dairy farming, cultivation and poultry farm. This institute had a
language, and love for the mother tongue, equality, organization
mobile library and started night schools for non formal
of kissans (farmers), labor and students. The Gandhian
education. But these scheme was limited to villages that were
constructive program gave a new vision for rural development.
around the institute and it could not extend to other villages
(Dahama, 1980).
(Dahama, 1980).
Etawah Pilot Project
Gurgaon Experiment
The program was launched in UP, in 1948 covering 97 villages.
In 1930’s, Rural Uplift Movement on a mass scale was started in
The main objectives of the project were to see what degree of
the Gurgaon District of the Punjab. Under this program, a
production and social improvement, initiative and cooperation
village guide was posted in each village who was to act as a
could be obtained from an average area. The efforts of the
channel through which the advice of experts in various
project were to broaden the mental horizon of the villager so
departments could be passed on to the villagers. The program
that he might become self generating and self perpetuating and
of introducing improved seeds, implements, improved
able to deal with his land, tools, and surroundings. The
methods of cultivation, was started throughout the district. As
program included improved agricultural and animal husbandry
the village guides were poorly equipped the rural development
practices, public health education, literacy campaigns, and
was not improved much. (Dahama, 1980).
improvement of cottage industries. This program was effective
Servants of India Society and resulted improved economic condition of the villagers
This organization stated a center to impart training in agricul- (Dahama, 1980).
ture and cottage industries to village boys and girls. It has
Adarsh Sewa Sangh, Pohri (Gwalior)
published booklets on subjects like education, labor problems
This plan of rural reconstruction was put into operation 352
and indebtedness. This experiment was started first in Madras
villages and aimed at increasing the per capita income of the
and then in Utter Prathesh and Mathya Prathesh (Dahama,
villagers. In each village, a Village Reconstruction Society was
1980).
formed to teach the villagers compost making, deep ploughing,
improved breeding and management of cattle. The Sangh

102
published a monthly journal “Rural India” that devoted to 1964 Intensive Agricultural Area Program. (25%

DEVELOPMENT
Planning and community Projects (Dahama, 1980). cultivated land)
Post-Independence Era 1966 High Yielding Variety Program, Green Revolution
The policy of the British rulers was such that resulted in the Starts.
exploitation of India to enrich their own industries in Britain. 1967 Agricultural Administration Team Report estab-
This exploitation continued until India attained Independence, lishes modern research and extension system.

COMMUNICATION
when there prevailed the problems of widespread poverty, 1971 All agricultural research centers comes under the
ignorance, and disease. The first year of independence faced authority of ICAR.
with extraordinary problems of floods, droughts, famine and
1974 National Agricultural Project (NAP) launched by
rehabilitation of 9 million refugees from Pakistan. The per
ICAR for interdisciplinary research, funded by
capita income during that period was only RS 225 (US $ 34) and
World Bank.
86% of the people were illiterate.
1978-79 Training and Visit Project launched, covering 13
1947 ICAR becomes Indian Council for Agriculture and
states by 1985.
Research. ‘Grow More Food Campaign.’ Extension
Programs initiated. 1984 23 SAUs in different states each having a extension
department.
1949 The constitution of India pledges to the people to
create welfare state. 1968-97 Various Research Centers for every product.
1952 GMF committee suggests reconstruction of the Extension System
system, and elaborate extension system, and in the Extension system in India has four components; Indian
state under a Development Commission. council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the State Agricul-
1952 55 Community Development (CD) projects, tural Universities (SUSs), Rural Development Program and
assistance from Ford Foundation. Each project NGO’s. ICAR at the national level as an apex body is mainly
covered an area of about 500 square miles, with 300 responsible for promoting and coordinating agricultural
villages and population about 0.2 million. Each research education and extension activities in various branches
block was divided into Village level worker’s circles. of agriculture and allied sciences. It also undertakes research
both basic as well as applied on diverse problems of national
1953 Oct. National Extension Service.
importance.
1956-58 Balwant Rai Mahta Committee suggests Panchayat
The Department of Agriculture, Directorate of Agricultural
Raj to increase people’s participation in the
Research and Education and Department of Rural Develop-
extension. Leads to power struggle between Zilla
ment are all involved in agricultural extension. Department of
parishad (District level) Panchayat Samiti (Taluk)
Rural Development also promotes public health, nutrition and
and Gram Panchayat (Village) in the three tier
sanitation. The Department of Agriculture in the states is
administrations.
responcible for the state extension activities. The State agricul-
1957 Maize Improvement Scheme by ICAR. Assisted by tural Universities train personnel and promote technologies.
Rock Feller. They act as the brain and the government extension agencies as
1958 Nalagarh Committee suggests reorganization of the hands. The supply of material inputs, credit and various
Agricultural administration. agro-services is handled by various public, co-operative and
1959 Agricultural Production Team of Ford Foundation private institutions.
in its report, ‘Indian Food Crisis and Steps to Meet The department of agriculture is reorganizing extension services
it’ recommended Indian government to increase under a National Institute of Agricultural extension Manage-
the productivity of land by selected area program, ment, and four extensions training institutes. Krishi Vijnan
execute Nalagarh Committee recommendations, Kendras, set up all over the country and Rural Development
Village level Extension program. Offices and Village Extension Offices in every village give
1959 Jun. Inter-ministries’ Committee to execute Ford enough and timely extension services to the extension workers,
Recommendations. farmers and the village flock.
1960 Intensive Agricultural Development Program Extension Link with Research
(IADP) in seven districts. Establishes three The national agricultural research, education and extension
Extension Education Institutes. education system in India is one of the largest in the world,
1961 Agricultural University in Pant Nagar, in the style both with its size and the complexity of activities undertaken.
of US Land Grant College: Research, Teaching, To fasten the research and to make research cost effective, all
Extension. research activities in the field of agriculture of all the agricultural
universities are integrated. Central Commodity Committees
1962 Punjab Agricultural University.
work in integration under the guidelines of ICAR. Field
1963 Research Review Team suggests to strengthen oriented, project based research with an interdisciplinary
ICAR and streamline the All Extension System. approach is possible in the agricultural universities, because the
various branches function under the same agency (ICAR). The

103
 vice-president of ICAR is the president of all the Commodity The success of this program in India depended on the holistic
DEVELOPMENT

committees. Directors of the research institutes, and senators approach. Research, supply, credit, irrigation, infra structure,
of ICAR and the Board of Research and Extension come markets, public policies and the physical and socio-economic
together periodically to discuss the matters of common interest environment were made suitable for the efficient functioning of
both for the officials and farmers. the extension system.
The 28 SAUs spread over all the states monitors regional Training and Visit Time Table for a Village Extension
agricultural research, education and extension. They are sup- Worker:
COMMUNICATION

ported by state governments and ICAR. To enable fast and Each extension worker has eight farmers’ groups to train and
accurate information dissemination among the different visit. If he fails due to sickness he has to make his visit to
research centers and to ensure fast and effective extension some other day. Generally the extension workers used the
activities, ICAR, research centers and SAUs are connected following time table. Sundays were holidays.
through computer network. Agricultural Research and Informa-
tion Center (ARIC) is the central source of research
information on all ongoing as well as completed research
I week II week
projects and schemes undertaken by ICAR and SAUs. This
information net work enables mutual help and support in Monday Visit Group I Visit Group V
research and extension activities. The periodical training of the
extension workers in the SAUs makes extension relevent to the Tuesday Visit Group II Visit Group VI
time.
Wednesd Meeting with subject matter
Extension Methods Meeting with AEO
ay specialists
The role of extension worker in agriculture is to make farmers
know, understand, accept and adopt recommended farm Thursday Visit group III Visit Group VII
practices such as crop-production, plant protection and soil and
Friday Visit Group IV Visit Group VIII
moisture conservation, to increase agricultural production. They
are the grass-root functionaries in training, visits and demon- Make up Visits and extra visits for checking farm
stration (T.V.D). Extension in public health, adult education Saturday
trials
and rural development ensures the emancipation of the poorest
of the poor giving them a better standard of life and life
environment. Farmers Training
They achieve these goals through a wide range of extension The necessity for higher training for farmers was felt as early as
teaching methods like visiting the houses and farms to build up 1959 at the annual conference of community development.
a personal relationship. Demonstrations of both methods and This conference recommended training of prominent and
results are to construct confidence among the farmers in new selected farmers. 1960 conference also pushed the suggestion
technology, group discussion, experience sharing. Posters, forward. There by, a scheme was launched to train 50,000
leaflets and pocket booklets are ready for their references. Field farmers (Gram Sahayaks), prepared by the Directorate of
trips and film shows are to make the life of farmers both Extension, Ministry of Food and Agriculture in constancy with
interesting and to develop their potentials. the Ministry of Community Development. Later the number
of trainees was raised to 120,000. The training was conducted in
Up to the 70’s Village Level Workers (VLW) used mainly house
100 centers and it was not that successful in spite of the huge
and farm visits. Demonstrations were not that successful as
investment involved. Eventually the program was canceled.
they were conducted most often disorganized. Farmer fairs,
field trips, and film shows were successful. Audio visual media Some institutions, doing teaching and research in agriculture
were very rarely used. Combined methods were shown greatest revived the program in 1962-63. These institutions laid more
results in that period. importance on the quality of training rather than the number
of trainees. The service of Punjab Agricultural University in this
Now the extension through Cybernet is getting much attention.
regard was very noteworthy.
This program is to start village level computer shops to help the
farmers with the latest technology. When many other institutions followed remarkable progress in
this line, government during the fourth plan period brought all
Training and Visit Program these activities together under one scheme called High Yielding
Training and visit program (1978-79) was a well organized and Verity Program with a financial assistance from UNDF. The
field oriented one. Farmer’s awareness of N. T was never such main objectives of the training were,
before it. The establishments of a trained, exclusively agricul-
1. to attract motivated persons to scientific agriculture, (Latest
tural cadre at the grass root level are close contact with farmers as
knowledge in the hands of the needy)
a regular basis. The extension and research linkages through a
team of subject matter specialists and provision of adequate 2. bridge the gaps between farmers and scientists
mobility for the extension staff are some of the other major 3. take problems land to lab and to take technology lab to land.
advantages. The scheme aimed at training not only the farmers but also the
farming women, farmers’ sons and young farmers. The scheme

104
came into operation in five million farm families, in 100 high To improve the farmer scientist interaction, the government

DEVELOPMENT
yielding verity program districts. The training included demon- has recently started two schemes namely, ‘Agricultural Extension
stration cum production camps of 1-3 days, short training through Voluntary Organizations’ and ‘Women in Agriculture.’
courses 6-10 days and a course for three months for the young
New Information Technology in Extension
farmers.
A Continuos flow of economically viable technology from
Location specific syllabus was drawn up to meet the needs of laboratory to the farmers’ fields is essential for sustainable
the farmers. Literacy classes and Radio programs, field trips, film

COMMUNICATION
agricultural development. The success and failure of extension
shows were also conducted. After the training the farmers were system largely depends on the speed with which the informa-
encouraged to organize Farmers Club to sustain the spirit of tion are disseminated to the farmers in a form acceptable to
modernization and socialization. them.
Training Rural Youth The main problem of an Indian farmer is that crucial informa-
During 1952, extension education gave ample importance to tion reaches him very late. One of the most ambitious projects
train the youth as a long term investment for sustainable undertaken by Indian government in the late 90’s is the
agricultural support and development strategy. After Indepen- development of agro-metereological services. This mission
dence youth clubs got a national stature when the program mode service objective is to inform and guide farmers well in
began to work alongside with the activities of the youth clubs. advance about the various farming activities in view of the
Department of Agriculture together with the Agricultural expected weather. To achieve this a medium range of weather
Universities conducted short term training courses to the forecasting (NCMRWF) is being established at the Indian
members of the youth clubs. The program was very successful. Meteorological Department (IMD), New Delhi, a computerized
station based on the mathematical forecast model. Its substa-
Extension Activities of the SAUs
tions spread over all over the country reaches the information to
a. Lab to lab program has 139 centers through out the country farmers through the District level extension system.
and supports about 75000 farmers. The aim of this program (Ramachandran, 1988).
is to increase their income through low cost technology and
The main advantage of the NIT is, it includes the excluded.
self employment.
Government started establishing Computer Aided Extension
b. Farmers Schools, also supported by ICAR and voluntary (CAEx) and Information Villages (IV). They convert generic
organizations train farm women school dropouts rural information to location specific one. These will be available in
youth. information shops where farmers could come and get the best
c. Conduct field demonstrations about 2500 every year in the time for sowing, reaping, and selling (Balaji, Venkataramani,
land of poor farmers. 1996).
d. Operational research projects are concerned with solving Satellite information which is of a key importance to Indian
community based agricultural problems through appropriate agriculture is being used in many agricultural fields especially in
technology and identifying the constraints preventing marine production. Remote sensing in Marine technology helps
adoption. fishermen to locate area and time to have a good harvest.
e. Training subject matter specialists. An Appraisal
Post-service Training and In-service Training of the In agriculture
Extension Workers The system has succeeded in evolving, testing and propagating
Agricultural Universities from their very origin had extension new farm technologies on almost all the economically impor-
departments which trained extension workers. Agricultural tant crops. Today India is one of the eight gene centers in the
research and the emergence of new technologies are so fast that world having three centers dealing with plants, animals and
no extension system and extension training can keep abreast fishes.
with it. It readily calls for ongoing training for the extension
The research and extension backed by constant support and
workers. Agricultural Universities in India conducts long term
encouragement of the government, The state of helplessness
and short term training to extension personnel. The aim of
of the Indian farmer, his confusion and his apathy have
these courses and seminars is
disappeared like a bad dream, he has experienced a reawakening
1. to motivate extensionists to work for the rural poor, full of purposiveness confidence and hope (Buddhananda,
2. to train them up-to-date, 1985).
3. to train them to move along with the villagers India is today either the largest or second largest producer of
4. to train them to train the villagers. milk, fruit, vegetables, sugar and other crops in the world. The
overall agricultural production comes to 5% increase per annum.
The government organizations, non-government organization
and private organization give assistants to farmers. Radio, T.V
and Newspapers have regular beats on agriculture and rural
development.

105
 Compound growth rates of Area (A), Production (P) and
DEVELOPMENT
In Public Health
Yield (Y). Health facilities and peoples access to it varies from state to
state. The average life expectancy in India is 63 years. 135
million Indians do not have access to medical facilities. Infant
1949 - 50 to 1964 - 65 1967 - 68 to 1995 mortality is very high in India. According to a study in 1996,
Crop
- 96 53% of the children under five years are malnourished.
COMMUNICATION

A P Y A P Y In Family Planning
As in any developing country the most threatening phenom-
Rice 1.21 3.50 2.25 0.64 2.90 2.33
enon to economic development is its multiplying population.
Wheat 2.69 3.98 1.27 1.55 4.72 3.11 As on 1996, Indian population is 953 million of which 74%
Total Cereals 1.25 3.21 1.77 0.03 2.91 2.42 lives in the rural areas and 265 lives in the urban areas. Average
fertility is 4. Only 43% has adopted family planning methods.
Total Food The birth rate varies in different states, from 37 in Rajasthan to
1.35 2.82 1.36 0.06 2.67 2.24
Grains
18 in Kerala. Keralites generally have adopted two children
Sugar Cane 3.28 4.26 0.95 1.72 3.11 1.36 policy. The population growth has shown a clear declining
tendency over the decades. It has come down from 24.66% in
Oil Seeds 2.67 3.20 0.30 1.33 3.53 1.68
1971 to 23.85 in 1981.
Cotton 2.47 4.55 2.04 -0.02 2.76 2.79
In Education
In the field of human resource development India stands 126th
Yield of Principal Crops Over Time (Kg/ha) in the world. Literacy rate in India has grown from 18.35 to
52.11% in 1996. The National Literacy Mission (1988) is given
the responsibility to make India fully literate. The female literacy
Crop 1950 - 51 1964 - 65 1967 - 68 1995 - 96 is very low (36%) compared to male’s literacy rate (64.3).
Rice 771 1078 1032 1855 Education level varies from state to state. Kerala is on the top
with 99% literacy while Bihar is at the lowest with 38.66%.
Wheat 664 913 1103 2493
Tamil Nadu is fast progressing with 62.66% in 1997.
Kharif Jawar 353 557 576 1014
A 24 hrs education channel (ETV) is trying to bring education
Maize 538 1010 1123 1570 to rural areas. Government is establishing at least one television
Total Food Frains 522 757 783 1499 set in every village. Countrywide Class Room (CWCR) program
telecast by University Grant Commission (UGC) through
Sugarcane 33421 46838 46665 68369
satellite has its beat one hour a day. Navodaya Vidyalaya being
Cotton 87 120 123 264 set up in every rural area tries to give rural children modern
education.
Extension still has miles ahead to go Conclusion
In agriculture The basic problem that faces extension activities is existing social
Although the infrastructure for providing training facilities to constraints. Caste system a predominant social evil cuts all roots
farmers and extension workers has been developed substan- of development project. High caste societies always see that
tially, yet their performance is not up to the mark, particularly their workers do not develop. The idea that women are inferior
from the point of view of time lag in transfer of technology sex, blocks all the development activities aimed at raising the
from the laboratory to the farm and extent of technology women. Prevailing corruption and unhealthy practices takes
transferred. The results obtained at farm level are often far away the lionshare of the resources allotted to a project.
below the claims made by our scientists. If people are educated and social constraints and political
The present time period of 5 to 7 years, taken in transferring constraints removed India can develop overnight. She has the
technologies from laboratories to the farms is too long and manpower and technological know-how. The problem is just
often leads to obsolescence with the development of even more that the system doesn’t utilize it well.
efficient technologies. At present only 11% of the requirements
of quality seeds are being met indigenously. The field perfor-
Note
mance of the extension workers seems to be below the
expectations of the policy makers.
As the growing population of the country demands more
supply, if adequate measures are not undertaken, the country
would face a terrible food shortage by the year 2030. The Indian
scientists have great hope in themselves and in the farmers, that
they can meet any challenge.

106
 DEVELOPMENT
LESSON 13:
PANCHAYATI RAJ: INSTRUMENT OF POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT OF PEOPLE

COMMUNICATION
Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to
To become aware of the role of political empowerment
To learn the importance of Panchayati Raj
To know about the PR system

For sustainable economic and social development to take place

in any country, it is necessary that people participate in the
political process.
Panchayats have been a vibrant and dynamic identity of the
Indian villages since the beginning of recorded history. The
Indian Independence must begin at the bottom and every
word “panchayat” is a traditional one, referring to the five elders
village ought to be a Republic with Panchayat, having powers.
in a village who mediated conflict and spoke on behalf of all
the residents of a village in pre-modern times. But, in these — Gandhiji
traditional bodies, the lower castes—and women—had no The Union in those early days took up what was called the
representation, and that was ignored. Community Development Programme. This was meant for all
Gandhiji, the Father of the Nation, in 1946 had aptly remarked round social and economic development, and it was an
that the Indian Independence must begin at the bottom and important ministry headed for long by S.K. Dey. It was this
every village ought to be a Republic with Panchayat, having programme that brought in such functionaries as the Village
powers. Gandhiji’s dream has been translated into reality with Level Worker and the Block Development Officer. After the
the introduction of the three-tier Panchayati Raj System to 1960s this programme declined, as centrifugal forces led to the
ensure people’s participation in rural reconstruction. gradual dominance of the Union. Finally, the Ministry of
Community Development ceased to exist. That philosophy
The Constitution provided, [in Part 4, The Directive Principles
became a thing of the past.
of State Policy, Article 40] for the setting up of village
panchayats. But this is non-justiciable, and there was no Balwant Rai Mehta Committee in the late 1960s came up with
pressure on any state to set up such a system. Many saw this the idea of local governments, which was given the traditional
article as a concession to Gandhi, rather than as a serious matter name of Panchayat. Later, in another context, the Ashok Mehta
to be immediately implemented. The reason for this was the Committee in the late 1970s too made recommendations for
powerful voice of Dr Ambedkar. Drawing on his own experi- the setting up of local governments. These had an important
ence of rural India as it then was, he argued that local elite and impact many years down the line. It is from the Union’s
upper castes were so well entrenched that any local self govern- experience of development programmes that the idea/need for
ment only meant the continuing exploitation of the local governments came to be pushed. It has been a top-level
downtrodden masses of Indian society. Nehru shared this view. initiative for local development and decentralized administra-
Thus, in addition to affirmative action enshrined in the tion.
Constitution, the distribution of powers was deliberately made Given the overall centralizing trends in the Indian polity, the
to favour the Union as against the local, even state govern- States too developed an authoritarian system of governance.
ments. The Union, being far away from the squalid battles of States almost became subservient to the Union. Art 356 was
rural India, and being looked after by an educated and urban used to keep a firm check on the behaviour of state govern-
strata of society, would, it was felt, be more just - or at least ments. This ensured that strong hierarchical systems developed.
more impartial - in its dealings with the downtrodden. All this was further strengthened during the Emergency. The
states behaved in the same dominating way with lower tiers of
administration. Strong line departments of the state govern-
ments took over development programmes. Indian democracy
lost the grass roots link: it became a top down system. At the
same time the bureaucracy grew in influence.
However, several state governments conducted their own
experiments with local self-government. This is the result of
the shift in power from the traditional upper castes to the
OBCs or intermediate castes—certainly in states like Tamil Nadu
Our aims must be to restore to the Villages the Power to meet
and Karnataka. The changes that occurred over the last 50 years
their own requirement
— Rabindra Nath Tagore

107
 of planned development also resulted in pressures from below, 4. Constitution of State Finance Commission to make
DEVELOPMENT

to which political forces have had to respond. recommendations as regards the financial powers of the
Policy makers found after four decades of independence and Panchayats and
five year plans that the implementation of development 5. Constitution of District Planning Committees to prepare
programmes, like the IRDP, for example, would be most development plans for the district as a whole.
effective if local people were involved. The strident debate on
The Three Tiers of PRIs
Centre-State relations, the poor targeting of poverty alleviation
COMMUNICATION

Panchayat now means the three tiers of local administration

programmes and the like led to the realization that local
brought in by the 73rd amendment—the highest, being the
involvement—participation—is essential if such programmes
district or zilla panchayat. The powers that these panchayats
are to succeed. This is specially so for beneficiary identification,
enjoy are enshrined in the laws enacted by each state, and, in
and to a smaller extent, for decisions on how to spend the
India, there is considerable variation across states.
limited amount available locally on different local projects. And
given the lack of interest in devolving such power in most of These bodies, which are legally local government, have a
the states, coercion through a Constitutional amendment was pyramidal structure. At the base is the gram sabha—the entire
the chosen route for introducing such decentralization. body of citizens in a village or “grama”. This is the general body
that elects the local government and charges it with specific
April 24, 1993 is a landmark day in the history of Panchayati Raj
responsibilities. This body is expected to meet at specific times
in India as on this day the Constitution (73rd Amendment)
and approve major decisions taken by the elected body. Gram
Act, 1992 came into force to provide constitutional status to the
ensures downward accountability, transparency and voice to the
Panchayati Raj institutions. The amendment prescribed a three-
people. In reality, this is far from being the case.
tier system of local governance for the entire country. This has
been effective since 1993. Above this basic unit of democracy, is the gram panchayat or
GP, which is the first level elected body, covering a population
of around five thousand people. This may include more than
one village. It is not uncommon to find several villages coming
under one GP. This has implications for women’s participation,
as women have limited mobility.
At the district level is a zilla panchayat, which is the link with
the state government. In between the two is an intermediate
body called, in Karnataka, the taluk panchayat, which is
expected to play a co-ordinating role among the GPs in its
jurisdiction and the ZP in planning and administration. While
the levels are common across the country, states have passed
laws that are not necessarily similar with respect to roles
73rd Amendment Act, 1992 functions and responsibilities. There is thus much variation and
The passage of the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 it is essential we learn from this. But that is another question.
marks a new era in the federal democratic set up of the country
Financial Powers of Panchayati Raj Institutions
and provides constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs). Article 243-G of the Constitution of India provides that the
States/UTs may, by law, endow the Panchayats with such
Consequent upon the enactment of the Act, almost all the
powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to
States/Union Territories, except J&K, National Capital Territory
function as institutions of self-government and to prepare
(NCT) Delhi and Arunachal Pradesh have enacted their
plans for economic development and social justice, and their
legislation. Except Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, NCT
implementation including those in relation to the matters listed
Delhi and Pondicherry, all other States/UTs have held elections.
in the Eleventh Schedule.
As a result, 2,27,698 Panchayats at village level; 5,906 Panchayats
As per Article 243-H of the Constitution, State Legislatures
at intermediate level and 474 Panchayats at district level have
have been empowered to enact laws:
been constituted in the country. These Panchayats are being
manned by about 34lakh elected representatives of Panchayats • to authorise a Panchayat to levy, collect and appropriate some
at all levels. This is the broadest representative base that exists in taxes, duties, tolls and fees;
any country of the world - developed or underdeveloped. • to assign the Panchayat, some taxes, duties and tolls levied,
The main features of the Act are: and collected by the State Government;
1. A 3-tier System of Panchayati Raj for all States having • to provide for making grants-in-aid to the Panchayats from
population of over 20lakhs; the Consolidated Fund of the State; and
2. Panchayat elections to be held regularly every 5 years; • to provide for constitution of such funds for Panchayats for
crediting all money received by or on behalf of Panchayats
3. Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes
and also the withdrawal of such money there from.
and women (not less than one-third of seats);
Article 243-I of the Constitution provides for constitution of a
State Finance Commission (SFC) to review the financial

108
position of Panchayats and to make recommendations to the Ministers, had urged that all relevant information on Develop-

DEVELOPMENT
Governor regarding the principles governing the major issues. ment Schemes taken up by the Panchayat along with the budget
The Tenth Finance Commission (TFC), for want of SFC for them should be displayed prominently in the Panchayat
reports, made an adhoc provision of Rs.4381 crores to the PRIs Office. Relevant records should be made available for inspection
for the period 1996-2000. All the States were released Grants by members of the public. Photocopies of documents such as
amounting to Rs.1095.23crores during 1996-97 to be given to muster rolls, vouchers, estimates, etc. can be made available to
the three tiers of Panchayats. However, releases during 1997-98 the public on payment of a nominal fee. Technical manuals may

COMMUNICATION
and subsequent years require the State Governments to furnish be prepared for execution of various works at the Panchayat
utilisation reports. Besides, holding of Panchayat elections Level so that transparency can be ensured.
regularly is mandatory for the release of TFC Grants. The The Ministry convened a Conference of State Ministers of Rural
eligible States released Grants amounting to Rs.581.11crores Development and Panchayati Raj on May 13, 1998. A Task Force
during 1997-98, Rs.573.31crores during 1998-99 and Rs.1326.71 was constituted under the Chairmanship of the then Minister
crores during 1999-2000. Thus, out of total recommended of State (Independent Charge), Ministry of Rural Areas &
Grants, an amount of Rs.3576.36crores was released by the end Employment to study the structure and functioning of PRIs.
of 31st March, 2000. The State Governments have been requested to ensure that the
Gram Sabha Meetings are convened once in each quarter,
Further Initiatives
preferably on - 26th January -Republic Day; Ist May - Labour
A Conference of the Chief Ministers on Panchayati Raj was held
Day; 15th August- Independence Day and 2nd October –
on 2nd August, 1997, at Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi, under the
Gandhi Jayanti.
chairmanship of the Hon’ble Prime Minister recommended:
The Government of India decided to observe the year 1999-
• Leave selection of beneficiaries to Gram Sabha.
2000 as the “Year of Gram Sabha”. This is in recognition that
• Waive requirement of Technical sanction for works upto Rs.
the Gram Sabha is potentially the most significant institution
10,000. for participatory and decentralised democracy.
• Innovate to provide adequate manpower support to the
On 17th March, 1999, all Chief Ministers/ Administrators have
Gram Panchayats. been requested to initiate measures to energise Gram Sabha in
• Delegate total control over such manpower to Gram tune with the following Seven Point minimal package during
Panchayats. the ‘Year of Gram Sabha’:
• Zilla Parishad Chairpersons be made the Chairpersons of 1. The relationship between the Gram Sabha and the Gram
DRDAs. Panchayat may be the same as between the Legislature and
• Provide reasonable opportunity of hearing to the PRIs the Government. The Panchayat should be accountable to
before suspension/dismissal. the Gram Sabha in unequivocal terms. The members of the
• Gram Panchayat President to be accountable solely to Gram
Panchayats should hold office only so long as they enjoy the
Sabha. confidence of Gram Sabha.

• Expeditious constitution of District Planning Committees.

2. The Gram Sabha should have full powers for determining
the priorities for various programmes in the village and
Empowerment Through PR approval of budget. Prior approval of Gram Sabha should
In order to ensure that Panchayati Raj Institutions function as be made mandatory for taking up any programme in the
instruments of local self-government, it is important that their village. Certification of expenditure and also about
functional and financial autonomy is guaranteed and transpar- proprietary in financial dealings should be made mandatory
ency in their functioning is ensured. This has to be and Gram Sabha is responsible for that.
accomplished in most of the States. The role of the Gram
3. The management of natural resources including land, water
Sabha is, perhaps, the most important in ensuring the success
and forest by any authority whatsoever should be made
of Panchayati Raj Institutions at the village level. The role of
subject to the concurrence of the Gram Sabha. Consultation
local people in conducting social audit and fixing responsibility
with the Gram Sabha should be made mandatory before
on Panchayat functionaries will be effectively ensured with the
acquisition of land for public purpose and other forms of
Gram Sabha becoming active. It is essential that the village
land transfer.
community perceives meetings of the Gram Sabha as useful.
The most important factor for that is the empowerment of the 4. The Gram Sabha should be vested with full authority to
Gram Sabha. manage all affairs concerning intoxicants including their
manufacture, sale, transport and consumption and also
Another important factor for the success of the Panchayati Raj
enforcement of total prohibition, if the Gram Sabha so
System is the need for transparency in the functioning of these
desires.
bodies. Panchayats being closer to the people, their right to
information and accessibility to the Panchayats must be 5. Participation of women, SC and ST members in the Gram
ensured. This issue was discussed in the Chief Ministers Sabha should be made mandatory with suitable provision
Conference held on 2nd August, 1997, and the Committee of for their presence in the quorum of Gram Sabha meetings.
Chief Ministers as well. The Ministry had written to the States.
The Hon’ble Prime Minister too, in his letter to the Chief

109
 6. The Gram Sabha should have the power to evolve its own The Ministry of Rural Development extends limited financial
DEVELOPMENT

procedure for conducting its business including decision- assistance to the States in their effort to train and create
making following the principles of natural justice. awareness among the PRI elected members and functionaries.
7. The rules and regulations which may be issued by the The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) has
Government in this regard from time to time should be been entrusted with the task of preparation of the syllabus for
deemed to be as guidelines. the certificate course. The State Governments are being re-
quested to conduct these courses. IGNOU is also involved in
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Empowerment to Tribal People

the Distance Education Proagramme.
The Ministry of Rural Development has also been providing
financial assistance through the Council for Advancement of
People’s Action & Rural Technology (CAPART) to the Non-
Governmental Organisations with proven track record for
conducting training and awareness generation programmes on
Panchayati Raj. The Research Advisory Committee headed by
the Secretary (Rural Development) approves proposals on
Action Research studies related to Panchayati Raj which are
received from voluntary organisations/institutions.
The Central outlay for training during the Eighth Plan was
Rs.8.80crores, during 2000-2001, an amount of Rs.3crores was
allocated, and Rs.3crores for 2001-2002.
The provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled
Areas) Act, 1996, came into force on 24th December, 1996. This Reservations for Women
Act extends Panchayats to the tribal areas of States such as 73rd Amendment of the Constitution reserved 33% seats for
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, women in Panchayats. This provision is a major move towards
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and strengthening the position of rural women. The introduction
Rajasthan, which intends to enable tribal society to assume of women in sizable numbers into the new Panchayat could
control over their own destiny to preserve and conserve their bring significant changes in the functioning of these grass-root
traditional rights over natural resources. The State Governments level institutions. Involvement of women in the Panchayati Raj
were required to enact their legislation in accordance with the Institutions is expected to bring qualitative change in the
Provisions of the Act before the expiry of one year i.e. 23rd matters relating to health nutrition, children welfare, family care,
December, 1997. States barring Bihar have enacted State drinking water etc.
Legislation to give effect to the provisions contained in Act 40, The reservation was given not because women who were
1996. conscientised demanded their due share in power, or contested
in large numbers to capture seats in these bodies. Women [as a
Training of PRI members
group] were caught quite unprepared by this development. In
As a result of the elections of Panchayats in all the States, there
the rural India, where women literacy is very low, especially
are about 3.4 million elected representatives at all levels of
where presidentship is reserved for SC\ST women, emerged
Panchayats. Out of this, an overwhelming majority is new
many problems like women were made “Dummy”, where
entrants, particularly from the weaker sections of the society, i.e.,
actual decisions were taken by men and politicians, and people
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women (33%). The
of the upper caste.
Constitution having placed vast responsibility on the Gram
Panchayats to formulate and execute various programmes of Deciding the venue, time, and day has lot to do with women
economic development and social justice, elected representatives participation.
who will have to acquire the required skill and given appropriate Reservations for SC/ST
orientation. There is a mandatory provision for reservation of seats for SC/
The success of the Panchayati Raj system hinges largely on the ST in every tier of Panchayati Raj System. The reservation for
extent to which their capabilities are built to perform these SC/ST is an another significant aspect for development of
functions and responsibilities. Thus, a time-bound and disadvantaged groups in the rural areas.
systematic training programme to provide orientation of the Role of Panchayats in Human Resource
elected representatives on a very large scale is considered to be Development
the most important pre-requisite for the success of the PRIs.
1. Panchayati Raj Institution should ensure development of
The States/UT governments are required to work out system-
human resources by providing weak and under privileged
atic and comprehensive training programmes to train the
opportunities like education, training, basic health services
representatives of PRIs and to generate awareness among the
necessary for their growth and development.
masses at the grass-roots level and to strengthen the Gram
Sabha. 2. Panchayati Raj Institutes should ensure that all the sections
of the society particularly weaker section including women

110
 and girl child get adequate opportunity for developing

DEVELOPMENT
Note
human resource potential.
3. Panchayat can play a major role in development of human
resource for weaker section by disseminating information on
special development programmes for them.
4. Voluntary groups and local agencies should be encouraged by

COMMUNICATION
PRIs in effective implementation of human resource
development programmes.
Role of Panchayats in Social Mobilization
and Participation for Development:
Panchayati Raj system has provided avenues for facilitating
people’s participation at the grass-root level in the following
ways:
1. Gram Sabha will provide an open forum for discussion on
various village level development activities thereby ensuring
peoples participation.
2. Representation of weaker sections in the decision making
process.
3. Empowering rural women through an induction of 1/3
reservation in the Panchayati Raj bodies.
Panchayati Raj System and Micro Level
Planning

Planned development being an essential feature of Indian

economy, Panchayati Raj Institutions play an effective role in the
preparation of planning for socio economic development of
the rural areas. Each tier has got responsibilities to plan for the
socio economic development of the rural people as per their felt
need.
Conclusion
Panchayati Raj Institutions – the grass-roots units of self-
government – have been proclaimed as the vehicles of
socio-economic transformation in rural India. Effective and
meaningful functioning of these bodies would depend on
active involvement, contribution and participation of its citizens
both male and female. Gandhiji’s dream of every village being a
republic and Panchayats having powers has been translated into
reality with the introduction of the three-tier Panchayati Raj
system to enlist people’s participation in rural reconstruction.

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DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 14:
ROLE OF NGOs IN DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION

• publications, bulletins, checklists, guidelines, etc.

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to
• demonstration/pilot programmes and projects
To become aware of the role of NGOs in development
• influencing media: newspapers, TV, radio etc.
To learn the importance of NGOs
NGO activities in Partnership with Other
The experience across the country has shown that group
NGOs
formation and development is not a spontaneous process. A
facilitator working closely with the communities at grassroots • sharing of information, best practices
level can play a critical role in the group formation and develop- • supporting and collaborating with each other in
ment. The quality of the groups can be influenced by the operationalizing LA21
capacity of the facilitator. The facilitator may or may not be an • creating networks for capacity building
official. In some cases, NGOs can not only work as the
• technology and policy research
facilitator but also help in training and capacity building of
facilitators. • creating and maintaining databases on publications, activities,
organizations etc.
NGO activities in Partnership with
NGOs play a major role in social development. From the early
National and Local Governments
80’s when participatory projects were launched, NGOs played a
NGO roles focusing national and local governments are usually
greater role due to their love for the poor, quicker organizational
as an observer, partner and/or implementer
capacity, their organizational flexibility and collaboration spirit.
• collating and packaging baseline information Government projects lagged behind the NGO projects.
• monitoring and evaluating governmental action If the various government policies are scrutinized by the media
• participation in planning and developing and other NGOs it can be a good check for the people oriented
• participation in operationalizing development plans.
• researching, formulating, recommending and supporting NGOs & Development
public policies on the environment. Includes proposing NGOs work in the social sector, and have strong links at the
alternative policies, scenario building etc. grassroots. They do not have a very positive experience of
• lobbying political parties and politicians for policy/ government at this level. In fact, many of them came on the
programme/project implementation scene because government was unable to deliver the goods. The
involvement of NGOs with the grass-roots democracy arises
out of their activities in the following areas:

NGO activities in Partnership with Local

Communities
NGO activities directed at local communities are usually • Organisation of the disadvantaged sections of rural society -
information based (eg: publications, hearings, newsletters) or e.g. the dalits, minorities, landless, SC/STs, agricultural/
activity based (eg: tree planting, recycling fairs, workshops). plantation labour, labour of the unorganised sectors etc.
• activities, passive and active, aimed at environmental • In addition to organising, most NGOs run training
awareness building programmes - leadership development, capacity building,
• informing the public of the effects of their lifestyles on local group dynamics and management and so on.
environments • The most valuable area of contribution of NGOs is the
• education, training, and other interactive initiatives in organizing of women (whatever sector the NGO works with
increasing knowledge on the local / global environments - health, IGPs, SHGs, housing, water & sanitation,

112
 education, watershed...) The opportunities provided in small

DEVELOPMENT
According to the newspaper reports (Financial Express dated
groups dealing with the above issues has been a kind of 12/ 1/1999), Grameen Bank has 2.4 million active borrowers.
‘testing ground’ for women to enter a larger arena, having NGOs and Government institutions also follow the pattern. It
been empowered in the smaller arena. The best examples of will be another 2.5 million borrowers i.e. about 5 million
this can be seen the ‘Right to Information’ movement in families. This constitutes half the number of poor families.
Rajasthan and the Anti-Arrack movement in Andhra Pradesh The collective saving of Grameen Bank is over 1 billion. If we
and Kerala. take NGOs and other organizations the total will be equal to

COMMUNICATION
Financial Institutions & Rural 100 crore Taka.
Development According to a report in Economic Times dated 15/7/95, the
GB loanee’s per capita income rose to 32% over the two years
Case Study on Grameen Bank
whereas the per capita income of BD as a whole increased only
Dr. Muhammed Yunus is an Economics Professor from Dhaka
bv 2.6%. As compared to the average, the expenditure of the
University and is now world renowned for his Grameen Bank
loanee households is found to be 2.3 times higher for health,
Model for eradication of poverty.
2.4 times higher for housing and 3-7 times higher for clothing.
Dr. Yunus found that poor Bangla women were in chronic debt Literacy rates and Family Planning measures are also much
not because of large-scale borrowing but because of a debt of a higher. He said that GB will soon be known as the bank of the
mere 30-40 takas. Yunus discovered that a simple bottom-end former poor.
bank could revolutionize the lives of the poor. There was no
After the advent of Grameen Bank, women were able to
need for high-end technology or capital-intensive investment.
control their own money. Many women started some income
The experiment started in the Bangladeshi village of Subiki in generating activities. One poor woman living in a windowless
1976 with a total loan of $30 to 42 poor people. When he six square meter –room, which she rented out for 20 takas per
started Grameen Bank, 87% of the population was living under month, nurses the ambition of making her daughter a doctor.
Poverty Line. Conventionally banks seek out wealthy people She earns her living by stitching. Grameen Bank has trans-
and exclude the poor. Muhammed Yunus did just the reverse. formed the lives of poor women. It made women to have
He sought out the poorest of the poor who had no collateral access and control over money. Grameen Banks empowered
to offer. Rural households holding less than 5 acres of culti- women. Recently a women’s group purchased cell phone and
vable land were targeted. started a booth. Countries like Malaysia, Philippines and
Indonesia and even countries in Europe are replicating GB
credit programme on an experimental basis. By mid 1980s,
inspired by the Grameen example, voluntary agencies in the US
attempted to promote black and Hispanic woman in the inner
city streets of Chicago. Similar funds were organised at Los
Angeles and Arkansas.
(Photo: Dr. Yunus, awarded by KR Narayan)
Role of Women in Development
Female population constitutes nearly half of the total rural
population. According to the 1991 Census, the total population
of India was 845 million, of which, rural population+
amounted to 628 million. Of the rural population, 324 million
or 51.6 per cent were males and 304 million or 48.4 per cent
were females. The rural female population of 304 million in
India is higher than the population of the USA, namely, 273.8
He persuaded the local bank to advance loans to women’s million in 1998. The size of female population in India
groups of 5. Loans were given to women farm labourers, indicates the potential strength of women in the total human
hawkers of cheap ornaments etc. Loans were given to buy resources in the country. Women play a vital role in the rural
weaving machines, cows and for house construction. The loans economy of India.
were usually paid back within a year. The default was only about
5%. Material collateral was replaced by social collateral. There has
Women in Development Process
Women have been playing a crucial role in the development
been pressure to take loans for real purposes and to repay the
process since the early stages of civilized life. Historians believe
amount promptly. He exploded the myth that lending to the
that it was women who first started cultivation of crop plants
poor was a risky business.
and initiated the art and science of farming. It is said that it was
The group of 5 women met every week. They line up and do women who not only discovered fire, but also the use of fire —
some exercises. Unity, work and discipline are the bywords for the basic cooking techniques like boiling, roasting, baking,
this unique experience. steaming, etc. It is also said that woman was the first potter and
Grameen Bank was a mobile bank. The bank went to the weaver.
people instead of the people going to the bank.

113
 Directive Principles of State Policy empowered the State to make
DEVELOPMENT

special provisions for the progress of women. There are, in fact,

a wide range of constitutional and legal provisions to protect
and safeguard the interests of women. Yet, the lot of women
has not improved, judging from the literacy level of women,
attitude of parents towards birth of female children, their rights
in ancestral property, their employment opportunities, the level
COMMUNICATION

of wages to women workers, their socio-political economic

participation, etc
Socio-Economic Status Of Rural Women
According to the 1991 Census, while the literacy rate in the
country as a whole is 52.2 per cent, it is 39.29 per cent for
females and 64.13 per cent for males. The gap between the rural
and urban female literacy is even more. It is 30.62 per cent in
rural areas, but in urban areas it is 64.05 per cent. When we look
at the female literacy picture, we find that 70 per cent women are
illiterate. In the schools also, we find a wide difference in the
enrolment of boys and girls. It is estimated that among girls 66
There is a widespread view among the scholars that the best way per cent at the primary level, more than 75 per cent at the middle
to judge a nation’s progress is to find out the status of its level and more than 85 per cent at the secondary level are out of
women there. Indeed, many writers have equated cultural levels schools. The corresponding figures for boys are 20 per cent at
with the type of treatment meted out to women. At the lower the primary level, 57 per cent at the middle level and 71 per cent
levels of culture, woman was simply an object of pleasure to at the secondary level. In higher education, the percentage of
man, the stronger sex. In ancient India, particularly during the enrolment of girls was 27.7 at the undergraduate level, 26.2 at
Vedic period, women enjoyed a very high status in the family as the postgraduate level, 24.6 at the research level and 21.5 per cent
well as in the society. In the pursuit of knowledge and virtue, in at the diploma level. Education of girls at the school as well as
the performance of rituals, in the harder fields of war and at the university level is far from satisfactory. Again, there is a
statecraft, the Vedic woman was found as a companion and bias in favour of boys and their education. It is rightly observed
helpmate of man. The Upanishads expounded the idea of man that “In the social system of India, the education of the boy is
and woman as equal halves of a divine unity, each the comple- prized more than the education of the girl. In fact, in many
ment of and incomplete without the other. India has always rural families, education of the girl is considered to be a waste
upheld in theory the spiritual equality of man and man, as well of one’s own resources. In certain pockets of the society, which
as man and woman. But “in social practice there has been still consider the birth of a girl as inauspicious and un-welcome,
increasing laxity after the Vedic period, not because of deliberate discrimination against girls’ education is the only next logical
human choice, but due to the vicissitudes of history.” Al- step.”4 This leads to driving women, particularly in rural society,
though women were respected in the later Vedic Age, they did to a lower status. Rural women in many cases, continue to take
not have the same freedom as before. The birth of a daughter up traditional work without the possibility of acquiring
was not quite welcome. The evils of child marriage, polygamy, required skills for more remunerative farm work.
and dowry system that entered the social system during the
Agriculture is the major economic activity for rural women, yet,
Maurya and Gupta periods and the purdah system of Muslim
as stated in the Report of the Committee on the Status of
period degraded the status of women in society. The efforts of
Women in India, 1974, ‘there are considerable disparities in
social reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami
wages between -men and women, depending upon the region,
Dayananda Saraswati, Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Gopal
between crops and the bargaining power of labour.” Fixing of
Krishna Gokhale and Sir Sayyad Ahmed Khan, no doubt,
statutory minimum wages by the government has tended to
helped to a considerable extent social liberation of women.
narrow down the gap between the wages of men and women.
Gandhi worked hard for bringing women on an equal footing
But the National Commission on Labour noted “the continua-
with men. He considered that education was as necessary for
tion of wage differential between men and women, particularly
women as for men. Through his journals, Harijan and Young
in agriculture.”
India, he propagated his ideas about women’s emancipation.
He vehemently condemned the system of Devdasi and carried Economic Participation of Rural Women
on a crusade against prostitution. To him, women were not Based on the NSS data, it can be noted that a substantial
weaker sections, but they were the very source of inspiration, proportion of the rural workers is self-employed or work as
light and moral strength to men. Women, according to him, unpaid family workers and is underemployed. Females provide
were the embodiment of sacrifice, faith and patience. He had a a large part of the unpaid family labour in agriculture and the
burning desire to see them restored to their natural and rightful proportion of women and children in the labour force tends to
place in society. With the advent of Independence, a new be higher than in other sectors. The decennial population
impetus was given to social reforms for women. The Constitu- census, however inadequate, must be relied upon to draw
tion granted them equality of status and opportunity. The

114
certain inferences for macro analysis. Table below presents the renovate them at least once a year after the end of the rainy

DEVELOPMENT
trend in the distribution of main workers. season or at the time of important festivals.
Occupation-wise Distribution of Workers (in percentages) In Agricultural Process
Source: Census Reports of India. A majority of female workers in rural areas are engaged in
agriculture and allied activities, The farm operations of women
1971 1981 1991 include application of manure, sowing, planting, irrigating field,
Category
Persons Male Female Persons Male Female Persons Male Female

COMMUNICATION
fertilizer application, plant protection, weeding, thinning,
Cultivators 51.2 44.9 6.3 51.0 55.2 36.9 48.2 51.4 38.6
harvesting, hulling, winnowing, cleaning, storing grains, feeding
Agricultural
31.4
20.8 10.6 30.1 24.0 50.4 32.2 26.4 49.3 the cattle, taking care of livestock, particularly dairy cattle,
labourers
looking after poultry, kitchen gardening, marketing of vegetable,
Other
workers
17.4 15.0 2.4 15.9 18.0 8.9 17.5 20,3 9.2 management of household routine affairs, etc., and women’s
wage labour contributes significantly in tea and coffee planta-
The table shows that the participation rate of women under the tions.
three categories has increased from 19.3 per cent in 1971 to 96.2 The nature of functions performed by women in rural families
percent in 1981 and to 97.1 per cent in 1991. This trend indicates varied from region to region and from one social group to
that women are attracted towards low-paid jobs in the agricul- another. There are certain agricultural operations which are
tural sector, while landless male labourers seek employment in undertaken by men labour alone and certain others by women
relatively high-paid construction jobs, etc. However, some of labour exclusively. Sometimes, sex considerations do not figure
the empirical studies reveal that economic participation of in certain tasks. Normally, tasks which need more of physical
women is of much higher order, particularly in farm families in strength are done exclusively by men labour while lighter jobs
rural areas. Miles M stated that women participation rate in are entrusted to women labour. Digging or deepening of wells,
agriculture is grossly under-reported. In her study of 3 villages climbing a coconut tree for collecting ripe coconuts, carrying of
in Andhra Pradesh, it was noticed that women did more field heavy agricultural equipment and tools, driving a tractor for
work than men. In one village, for which comprehensive data ploughing and transport purposes, threshing, etc., are normally
were collected 96 per cent of women were engaged in agricul- done by men. Application of manure, transplanting of
tural work, women represented 67 per cent of all agricultural seedlings, weeding, cleaning and storing grains, kitchen
labourers and 40 per cent of all cultivators. This conclusion gardening, etc., are done exclusively by women.
cannot, however, be generalised. Yet, it is a fact that rural
Sometimes, there is no such rigid division of labour as between
women play different crucial roles in spite of certain social
men and women. Different tasks are performed by both men
restrictions.
and women labour like application of manure/chemical
Different Roles of Women fertilizer, irrigating fields, etc.
Women play several roles and perform several functions at Normally, high caste women of landowning households do
different levels. not undertake field work, although they are involved in post-
Domestic Roles harvest phases of work within the homestead. Most of the
field tasks on such farm households assigned to women are
performed by hired female labourers from the Scheduled and
other less privileged castes.
Women in Cottage Industries
Women play an important role in cottage industries such as toy-
making, carpet-making and weaving of silk and cotton cloth,
rope-making, rice-pounding, etc.
Power Roles of Women
Gelia T Castillo (1977) stated that women play certain “power
roles.”
The unsubstitutable function of child-bearing must be
performed by women alone. They bear the major responsibility
of child-care and educating the child in all respects at infant
stage. In their hands is the burden of the health and well-being
of present, past and future generations of the labour force.
Women have the responsibility of cooking food, keeping in
view the tastes and preferences of different persons in the
family- Collecting water, cleaning the house regularly and
maintenance of family shelters, including cattle shed, storage
room, etc. are the domestic roles of a woman. Also, they have
the responsibility of taking special care of the aged and disabled
persons in the family. Women living in mud houses have to

115
 1. A woman as daughter, sister, wife and mother acts as an 2. Social institutions like marriage, divorce and remarriage tend
DEVELOPMENT

information broker, mediating social relations within the to favour men and they often come in the way of regular
family and larger society. In this position, a woman can employment and earnings of women;
channel information to or withhold it from male members 3. Women during menstruation period are prohibited from
of the kindred; attending to work in green field;
2. Women form their own exclusive solidarity groups which 4. Women in the advanced stage of pregnancy cannot work;
exercise considerable social control by seeking alliance and
COMMUNICATION

5. Even after a family is economically degraded from a higher

support from other women in the community; certain
level, under the situation of pressing need for small earnings
women achieve high social status and consequently, exercise
for living also, women are not allowed to go out for wage
political influence;
earnings;
3. Women influence men through religious or supernatural
6. Men are aware that their womenfolk can either help them
practices like witchcraft, sorcery, divination and curing; and
maintain their honour or destroy it. Therefore, in some cases
4. The public image of a man is influenced by the particular women have no freedom to go out and work as the wage
behaviour of his wife through ridiculing, gossip, shame and earners as women’s purity unlike men’s is a condition of the
honour. maintenance of the family honour; and
The type of work done by women depends upon the economic 7. In the course of economic development and structural
status of a family in a village, source of income, number of change, women’s employment has been affected in certain
earning members in the family, size of family, type of family, distinctive ways.
the literacy level of women, the attitude of family members
In one survey, it is observed: “Employment losses have also
towards women doing work and general attitude of society
been associated with (not necessarily caused by) the new
towards women undertaking farm and non-farm operations,
technology, and in the Asian region, these losses appear to have
etc. However, in all rural families in India, women have an
been concentrated on women, especially among the landless
important part to play at all times.
rural poor.”9
In spite of different roles of rural women, their monetised role
The changed harvesting procedures such as switch over from
remains low. This matter has to be studied in depth at the
open harvesting for a share of the output to the employment
micro-level. There is an overall realisation that primary data on
of regular wage labourers, mechanisation of rice processing
women in the unorganised occupation was particularly lacking
instead of hand-pounding, etc., have reduced demand for
and as such, micro-level studies of women need to be encour-
female labour. Domestic grinding, hulling works, etc., are also
aged.
mechanised, displacing women labour. It should be noted,
Rural poverty can be tackled effectively only when gainful however, that some of these jobs eliminated by the new
employment opportunities are provided both for men and technology are tedious, poorly-paid and back-breaking and the
women. No doubt, there are difficulties in measuring unem- major concern should be to provide superior alternatives.
ployment in rural areas with a large proportion of
Economic development brings about other changes in the rural
self-employment population. Further, in rural areas workers
economy which affect women*s employment. Diversification
cannot be easily classified into employed and unemployed, since
into a wider range of commercial crops may change the sexual
almost everyone is employed for some part of the year and
division of labour in agriculture in favour of men labour.
unemployed for some other part. Again, some households
Industrialisation, mechanisation of agriculture and rural labour
need additional employment for supplementary income, while
migration have involved mostly male peasants. The Seventh
others need employment for regular earnings. In rural areas,
five Year Plan Report observes. “Recently a declining trend has
there is still a category of unorganised labour force, not
been observed in the employment of women labourers. Some
benefited by developmental programmes and who are solely
of the technologies have displaced women from many of the
dependent on wage earnings. Under this category come rural
traditional activities. Though many of the tasks performed by
women from the weaker sections dependent mainly on wage
males are getting mechanised, the women continue to toil in
earnings. The target group approach of rural development,
labour-intensive jobs like rice plantation, cleaning and storing
sporadically made so far, has not covered this category of rural
of grain in post-harvest operations, picking of leaves and fruit,
poor.
hand-shelling groundnut, picking out common-seed, etc.
Special Problems of Rural Women of Women get limited opportunities in modern occupations/
Weaker Sections trades as they do not have access to the training required for new
The following are some of the special problems of the rural technologies. In many areas, where multiple crops are grown,
women: the workload of women has increase. In industry, women
1. Social customs come in the way of rural women of some continue to be employed mostly on unskilled jobs.”
communities (in spite of dire poverty conditions) working International Women’s Year And
on daily wage outside the house. For instance, Muslim Employment Of Women
women in different parts of India, women from Nair and The year 1975 was celebrated as the International Women’s Year
Nadar communities in Kerala and Tamil Nadu respectively and basing on the recommendations of the World Conference
have social restrictions in taking up field manual work; held in Mexico in 1975, the decade 1975-1985 was declared as

116
the U.N. Decade for Women. The International Women’s Year was to utilise the potential of these organisations in the

DEVELOPMENT
of 1975 highlighted the great lag that exists in various spheres implementation of various programmes meant for the
of women’s activities in India. The 1990s have seen increasing development of women and children. As early as 1953, a
recognition of the centrality of women’s empowerment to the Central Social Welfare Board Was set up with a view to combin-
success of development programmes. Empowerment of ing the governmental and non-governmental resources for
women goes beyond formal political participation and con- social and economic development of rural women with
sciousness raising and covers “cognitive, psychological, political diversified activities.

COMMUNICATION
and economic components.” The cognitive dimension refers to A review of the available literature on the performance of the
women having the capacity of understanding the conditions Mahila Mandals reveals that the participation of women,
and causes of their subordination at the micro and macro levels particularly of lower caste women, is very poor. A study
and how to get over such a situation. Psychological dimension sponsored by the ICSSR (1983, Indian Council of Social Science
includes the belief that women can act at personal and societal Research Centre for Women Development Studies) noted that
levels to improve their lot. The political element implies the finding an interested and active group of women to participate
strength of women in matters of organisation and mobiliza- was always a problem. Few women officially joined the Mahila
tion for social change. The economic component requires the Mandals, fewer still attended meeting or programmes regularly
women to have access to and control over production resources and many dropped out, some quite soon after joining. The
ensuring some degree of financial autonomy. president often belongs to the higher caste who either prevents
Developmental Programmes lower-caste women from joining the Mahila Mandal, or the
Though women contribute substantially to the economic lower-caste women assume that the organisation is not for
resources of a family both by way of services rendered and them because of the upper-caste women in the leadership
wages earned, yet their potential is not duly recognised. It is position. It is also noticed that emphasis has been mostly on
observed that “While development projects are meant mainly social and cultural programmes and very limited on economic
for men, social welfare schemes cater mainly to women.”11 content.
There is, however, now an increasing realisation of the fact that A study13 on the working of Mahila Mandals conducted by
women play an active role and they have to be involved in NIRD revealed, among others, that:
development schemes. Gradually, some measures have been a. the participation of the women members from the weaker
adopted to involve women in developmental programmes. In sections was meagre both in the decision-making process
the Community Development Programme, Social Education and the general activities;
Organisers were appointed to activise women’s participation in
b. they have not been able to free themselves from the
community development, based mainly on the Home Science
dominance of high caste or class people in the village;
Extension approach. In this approach, the emphasis was mainly
on strengthening the performance of women in domestic c. many Mandals did not have adequate financial resources to
duties. In different States, rural women were encouraged to undertake different activities; and
form Manila Mandals. These Mandals have become the centres d. there was more emphasis on homecraft activities as
for discussion of socio-economic problems of common compared with the other economic activities, particularly
interest and concern. In some areas, these organisations are also those intended for the benefit of poorer sections.
involved in the implementation of Applied Nutrition
Training for Farm Women
Programme and Composite Programme of Women and pre-
The training of farm women on institutional basis was initiated
School Children. It was expected that Mahila Mandals would be
during 1966-67 in India under the Centrally-sponsored scheme
able to motivate rural women not only in improving their skills
of farmers’ training and education programme. This
in homecrafts, but also participate in the socio-cultural activities
programme is in operation in many States. Some of the
of their villages. These Mandals were also encouraged to take up
important shortcomings identified of this programme14 were:
the production-oriented activities, viz., kitchen-gardening,
poultry, fishery, extension programme relating to family welfare, 1. Content of the training programme is not based on the
non-formal education, agricultural development programmes, analysis of farm women’s needs;
etc. The importance of widening the scope of the Mahila 2. The training programmes were more theory-based rather
Mandal programme has been stressed from time to time, than practical and skill-oriented as they were not linked with
In the Fourth Five Year Plan, two schemes, namely. Incentive field activities;
Awards to Mahila Mandals and Training of Associate Women 3. The coverage of the farm women was very meagre; and
Workers, were introduced. Mahila Mandals showing good 4. The training was mostly oriented to fulfill the targets in
performance during a year were given cash awards for undertak- terms of numbers rather than quality and development of
ing certain economic projects. The latter scheme was designed to compliance among the trainees to perform their work roles
provide orientation to selected women having leadership effectively.
qualities in organising village women and assisting them in
In this connection, it is also stated that the Krishi Vidnyan
implementing various welfare programmes. In the Fifth Five
Kendras (sponsored by ICAR) have not been able to link their
Year Plan, another schemes known as the Promotion of
training programmes to the field activities and provide continu-
Voluntary Action was initiated. The objective of this scheme
ous follow-up service for want of women-oriented extension

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 services or availability of farm women extension services in the livestock combination and combination of any other enterprise
DEVELOPMENT

agricultural extension systems. with crop production.

In the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), The farm women with assets need special skills in storing of
women constitute a part of the target group. The recent farm products meant for seed purpose as well as for marketing.
decision that a minimum of one-third of the beneficiaries Further, the women must be familiar with the supply proce-
under TRYSEM would be women is quite encouraging. But it dures relating to credit, fertilizers, etc.
is observed that beneficiaries under these programmes belong
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Reputed voluntary organisations may be involved suitably in

to the upper strata in the villages and rural landless women are imparting the necessary skills to rural women and in creating
not much benefited. gainful employment to them with the necessary support from
A new scheme, namely, the Development of Women and the government.
Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), was started in 1982-83 as a Skills in dairy, poultry, sericulture, pisciculture, etc., are impor-
pilot project in 50 blocks of the country with the aim of tant for farm women. Need-based training in handicrafts is
covering those left out under the IRDP and to provide training equally important for supplementary earnings.
in selected economic activities like weaving, fish-vending, broom
In the case of women without any assets, such skills/training
and rope-making and pickle-making, candle-making and baking.
with which they can easily be employed with better wages,
DWCRA programme focuses on organisation of women into
become necessary. Training in child care, rural crafts, weaving.
self-help groups to foster a collective approach to their prob-
spinning, embroidery, papad and pickle-making, mat-weaving,
lems and improve their lot by enhancing their bargaining power
poultry-keeping, honey-bee keeping, tailoring, sewing, painting,
and resist exploitation. These organised women can avail
knitting, etc., becomes very relevant both from the point of
resources of the different governmental programmes for their
self-employment or seeking employment elsewhere- They also
benefit. Under DWCRA an amount of Rs. 25,000/- is provided
need agricultural operation skills like preparing seed-bed,
to the group as lumpsum grant. The members can use its
compost-making, weeding operation, pest protection, kitchen
collection or share it on prorata basis and the amount is used
gardening, sericulture, dairying, piggery, sheep and goat-rearing
for any income-generating activity. This is a common fund
etc.
which is recouped and revolved periodically. The DWCRA has
targeted coverage of women living below poverty line. The Separate Training Facilities for Women
scheme emphasises on thrift and self-reliance. Within the group There is need for separate training facilities manned by women
women are encouraged to save as a common fund with workers so that the training programme may be oriented
marketing assistance. Money is loaned, recovered and managed towards the specific requirements of the different categories of
by women themselves. In state like Andhra Pradesh, where rural women. Men extension workers may not be able to
DWCRA has been functioning effectively, the educational and communicate and train farm women effectively on certain issues
economic status of the concerned families had improved apart of sex-related problems. These problems can be solved
from increase in a general awareness and employment opportu- effectively by creating separate cadres of women agricultural
nities. extension workers, meant for generating social consciousness
and awareness. There is need for integrating home and farm
Skills Needed for Different Categories of
related aspects in training as farm women participate in both
Rural Women
farm and family management matters together.
The hurdles faced by rural women in securing gainful employ-
ment and earn on a par with men have been analysed earlier. The training programme should focus mainly on skill building
Remedial measures for each of those different socio-economic among rural women. By acquiring certain skills, even the
hurdles have to be initiated, some as short-term measures and landless women can take to certain self-employment schemes by
others as long-term strategy. Employment opportunities availing of credit facilities from regional banks, etc. The skills
required for women that belong to (a) farm families with certain acquired should be useful for supplementary income in many
assets and (b) landless labour have to be analyzed carefully. The cases. Specialised skills in handicrafts would go a long way in
requirements of these two categories in terms of skills required helping the rural women for a better life. Illiterate women also
and facilities needed must be dealt on its merits. The landless can be trained in skill development through demonstration and
rural women falling below the poverty line will have to be given practicals. The training centres should have access to centres of
the first priority while formulating the various programmes and dairy, poultry, sericulture, village handicrafts, etc. There should
policies for employment generation. Based on an inventory of be flexibility in offering courses or imparting of skills, need-
opportunities for new avenues of employment opened by based being the major criterion. Population education should
science and technology, there is need to find out the methods be an integral part of the rural women training programme.
of promoting greater involvement of women in the productive The research and development agencies have to give serious
programmes. Existing opportunities for training will have to be thought to these problems-M.S. Swaminathan (1985, paper
carefully reviewed and appropriately modified and expanded. presented at IRRI, manila) rightly argues that the first step
Steps must be taken to provide women certain managerial and required in this regard is sensitization. Where there is no
organisational skills, so that they themselves can operate new awareness, it is futile to expect action. Hence, the first step is to
technologies such as those relating to biofertilizers, seed arouse human consciousness to the existence of the problem.
production, pest control, biomass utilisation and crop and It should be followed by studies and surveys and finally

118
scientific strategies and programmes. He rightly suggests that

DEVELOPMENT
the social scientists and management experts should work
together with biological scientists to determine:
a. The package of technology most beneficial to users, taking
account of sex-related-differences in needs and constraints;
b. The package of services including the delivery of knowledge,

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credit and inputs with reference to their reliance and benefits
to women users; and
c. The package of government policies in agrarian reforms,
rural development, credit and marketing, essential for
conferring equal benefits on men and women.
In recent years, focus is on vocational training to women. The
National Vocational Training Institute in NOIDA (UP) and the
Regional Vocational Training Institutes for women in different
parts of India impart basic and advance levels of Vocational
training to women. Special attention is given to the moderniza-
tion and establishment of women Industrial Training
Institutes under the World Bank aided Vocational Training
Projects. A women’s cell under the Office of Director General
of Employment and Training is also coordinating with the
States in the matter of Vocational Training for women. The
employment exchanges take special care to cater to the job needs
of women registered with them. In respect of women training,
proper coordination is necessary among different institutions
like Director-General of Employment and Training (DGET),
Ministry of Labour, Department of Women and Child Welfare,
different Institutes engaged in Training of women in areas of
education, health, agriculture, welfare, tourism etc. The DGET
(Women Directorate) may take a lead in such coordinating
programme-The Ninth Plan proposes to strengthen the
training facilities for women byway of strengthening accredita-
tion facilities on the pattern of the All-India Council of
Techinical Education. The Government ITFs alone cannot meet
the growing requirements of trainings. Hence ITI’s by private
individuals need to be encouraged. However, there must be a
check on fee structure of Private ITI’s, so that, the training cost
per seat is reduced. Also, the course, content is to be made
responsive to the needs of different trades well suited for
women.
Rural Women must have their legitimate place in all the rural
development schemes. In different poverty alleviation schemes
like Swarnajayanti Gram Swaroygan Yojana, Jawahar Gram
Samridhi Yojana etc. it should be made obligatory that at least
30 per cent of the beneficiaries consist of women of lower
strata who are socially and economically backward. Gainful
employment opportunities must be provided, particularly to
women of weaker sections, and through this step, their
economic strength must be improved. Otherwise, the goal of
rural development is not well achieved. Appropriate and
effective women’s organisations can help both to focus
attention on the special problems affecting women and to
ensure the flow of benefits to them.

Note

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 UNIT V
LESSON 15: MEDIA AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
ROLE OF MEDIA IN DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to development is whether the rapid expansion of media has
DEVELOPMENT

penetrated deeply into the lives of rural people and brought

To learn about the role of media in social change
consequent benefits or whether the penetration has been
To learn about the power of media to develop the rural poor uneven and irrelevant in its consents, particularly for the poorer
sectors of the rural population that have not benefited from
Inherent in theories and applications of mass media for
this expansion. The latter position questions how the increase
development in underdeveloped countries has been the
in mass media has been distributed and suggests that, even if
assumption that information made available via the mass
there is reasonably widespread access and exposure, the
COMMUNICATION

media can and does make a difference in promoting change.

suitability and usefulness of the messages cannot be assumed.
Rooted very firmly in an idealistic conception of social change
and theories of development based on the experiences of the Beltran (1974), representing this more skeptical view, has argued
Western industrialized countries. that the evidence thus far does not indicate that most mass
media even reach the rural masses: As a rule, the distribution of
Development communication theorists have often assumed
these messages in Latin America is uneven within groups of
that communication/ Information was an independent variable
countries, within each country, and within each of the cities.
in the development process. Consequently, it was believed that
Research has found urban concentration of mass media
exposure to mass media messages would be a powerful enough
messages to be particularly high in the larger cities, especially in
force to generate the changes necessary for development.
the cases of Television and the press; concentration is apprecia-
Communication is not a simple independent variable but as bly less acute for radio and somewhat less acute for the cinema.
both a dependent and an independent variable in a complex set For the most part, mass media do not reach the masses in rural
of relationships with social, economic, and political structures Latin America. Communication in this region is but one more
and processes. Communication is more realistically an auxiliary privilege enjoyed by the ruling elite. Within each city, a minority
variable subject to the constraints of the rest of the social of the population has far more access to mass media messages
system. It has a vital role to play in coordinating, informing, than the majority. And within rural areas, even smaller minori-
and mobilizing the rural masses. ties have the privilege of access to these messages.
There has been a rapid quantitative diffusion of mass media m Development communication is a tool, and not a product.
developing countries over the last two decades. Radio, in Development communication is goal-oriented. The ultimate
particular—since the appearance of transistors—has expanded goal of development communication is a higher quality of life
dramatically in almost every area of the world, and it is the most for the people of a society. The role of the media also changes
widespread of the mass media in rural areas (McAnany 1973). in development communication. It plays the following four
The press has also reached advanced levels, particularly in Latin responsibilities:
America (Frapier 1969). Although the number of television sets
i. Circulate knowledge that will inform people of significant
and television stations has increased substantially in many
events, opportunities, dangers and changes in their
developing countries, the evidence suggests that television is
community, country and the world.
available primarily for urban elite audiences (Nordenstreng and
Varis 1973). ii. Provide a forum where issues affecting the national or
community life may be aired.
iii. Teach those ideas, skills and attitudes that people need to
achieve for a better life.
iv. Create and maintain a base of consensus that is needed for
the stability of the state.
To perform these roles, the media keeps the development
orientation in its perspective. Three approaches have been
identified in relating communication to development. These are
empathy, diffusion, and multiplying of information. We shall discuss
each separately, individually.
Empathy : Daniel Lerner in his book, Passing of Traditional
When considering the concentration and distribution of mass society, saw the problem of ‘modernizing’ traditional societies.
media in rural areas, the primary concern is with radio and, to a He saw the spread of literacy resulting from urbanization as a
lesser degree, newspapers—which, supposedly, have substan- necessary precondition to more complete modernization that
tially penetrated rural areas. The key issue of debate among would include participatory political precondition to more
scholars concerned with the role of communication in rural

120
complete modernization that would include participatory To Schramm, as to mainstream social scientists of the time, the

DEVELOPMENT
political institutions. Development was largely a matter of mass media were ‘agents of social change’, ‘almost miraculous’
increasing productivity. in their power to bring about that change. Schramm argued that
According to D. Lerner, development failed to occur because ‘the mass media could help accomplish the transitions to new-
peasants were unable to ‘empathise’ or imaginatively identify customs and practices (the ‘innovations’ of Rogers) and, in
with the new role, and a changed and better way of life and so some cases, to different social relationships. Behind such
remained fatalistic-unambitious and resistant to change. Every changes in behaviour must necessarily lay substantial changes in

COMMUNICATION
change in society must originate and begin in the hearts of the attitudes, beliefs, skills and social norms’. The process, he
people. If the people would like to change, only then the elaborated was simple: first, the awareness of a need, which is
development would begin. What is required is that some not, satisfied by- present customs and behaviour; second, the
means of providing such people with clues as to what better need to invent or borrow behaviour that comes close to
things in life might be. Lerner saw the media as filling this need meeting the need. Hence a nation –that wants to accelerate the
of promoting interest among the people for a better life. Not process of development will try to make its people more widely
only that, he saw the media as machines, inspiring people for and quickly aware of needs and of the opportunities for
better things in life. He said ‘empathy’ endows a person with meeting them will facilitate the decision process, and will help
the capacity to imagine himself as proprietor of a big grocery the people put the new practices smoothly and swiftly into
store in a city, to wear nice cloths and live in a nice house, to be effect. Schramm went further than Rogers in taking account of
interested in “what is going on in the world” and to get out of cultural linkages, in acknowledging ‘resistance to change’ and in
his hole.” urging ’an understanding participation’. However, his model of
communication was still manipulative of behaviour towards
Diffusion : Everett M. Rogers approached this with a perspec-
the desired end of innovation adoption; it still cited as empirical
tive that had much in common with Lerner, but different with
evidence a strong correlation between high media exposure and
him somewhat in emphasis. He saw the diffusion of the new
development. Schramm argued forcefully that the mass media
ideas and their practice as a crucial component of the modern-
had the potential to widen horizons, to focus attention, to raise
ization process. He found that his home community less than
-aspirations and to create a climate for development. They also
impressed with his stock of innovations in agriculture; outside
had the potential to confer status to enforce social norms, to
his country he had marked influence in the field of agricultural
help form tastes, and could affect a: lightly held. He was
extension, through his textbook on the diffusion of Innova-
optimistic about the potential of the mass media (and also the
tions, which over the years has been expanded and updated into
educational media such as programmed instruction, language
the second and third editions.
laboratories, electronic digital computers) in all types of
Rogers developed his concepts and theories of the diffusion of education and training. Unlike Rogers, he conceded though that
innovations from a synthesis of diffusion research studies in ‘the mass media can help only indirectly to change strongly
United States, and in later editions, of diffusion studies in the attitudes and valued practices’.
developing world as well. Rogers defined ‘innovation’ as ‘an
He therefore recommended that ‘a developing country should
idea perceived as new by the individual’. ‘It really matters little,
review its restrictions on the importing of informational
as far as human behaviour is concerned’, he added, ‘whether or
materials, should not hesitate to make use of new technical
not an idea is ‘objectively’ new as measured by the amount of
developments in communication, in cases where these new
time elapsed since its first use or discovery. It is the newness of
developments fit its needs and capabilities’. The challenge, he
the idea to the individual that determines his reaction to it’. By
concluded, was to put resources and the power of modern
the third edition, Rogers begins to use ‘technology’ as a
communication skillfuIIy and fully behind economic and social
synonym for ‘innovation’, and to urge the adoption of a
development.
‘convergence model’ that stresses the intricacy of ‘interpersonal
communication networks’ that are in operation during the Media and Social Issues
process of diffusion.
People must be informed, persuaded, educated. Information
must flow, not only to them but also from them, so that their
needs can be known, and they might participate in the acts and
decisions of the nation building; and information must also
flow vertically so that decisions may be made.
Magic Multipliers : Wilbur Schramm extended the arguments
of Lerner and Rogers in favour of ‘modernization’ through the
mass media - which he termed ‘the magic multipliers’. His work
was part of the efforts of the United Nations and UNESCO
for ‘a programme of concrete action to build up press, radio
broadcasting, film and television facilities in countries in the India’s process of development since 1947 has been accompa-
process of economic and social development. UNESCO carried nied by significant social changes and an increasing awareness
out the survey itself on which the book was based, during a about issues affecting the poor, the women and the children in
series of meetings in Bangkok, Santiago and Paris. India. This period has also seen the burgeoning of the

121
 voluntary movement in India and the establishment of several constantly the classic ‘watchdog’ role of the media in liberal
DEVELOPMENT

non-governmental organisations to protect and promote the democracy?

interests of women and children. In order for the public to renew their stake in media, it is
The Government has made constant attempts to promote essential that media ownership and control be regulated so as to
values like democracy, freedom from discrimination, self-reliance prevent existing media monopolies from increasing their stake
and independence of thought. It has also tried to improve the in the media industry. The government should increase its
lot of the poor and weaker sections of society. Women and commitment for community radio and television at district and
COMMUNICATION

children have figured prominently in the government’s agenda local levels. Citizens’ movements that are committed towards
of social reforms and initiatives. reforms in the media industry should be encouraged. It is a fact
Today, India is working towards a society where the poor, that the press, television channels and the entire media could be
marginalized and underprivileged have equal opportunities in a business. But the journalists per se are not for trade or
all spheres of life. Partnership and collective action by the business. Journalism is a social responsibility. It is a struggle to
voluntary agencies, government and other like-minded institu- gain public space within the private sphere.
tions and individuals has been the key to a meaningful thrust in Media education supports the creation of an informed media
this direction. public, a public that is able to critically judge between good and
bad media content. Simultaneously however, for a true
Social Issues
democracy, we also have to ensure that there is a strong stream
In Bihar there is widespread poverty, illiteracy, inequality and
of media free of any government control, with free speech and
oppression. Despite this, over the past two decades there has
free press.
been rapid politicisation of poor people in the garb of social
justice. Land issues and social injustice have created a lot of Media Shaping the Society
disturbance. Even then there is a lack of broader public opinion It is clear that in the present Indian context, media plays an
at the state level and the society at large for a better and more important role in the exertion of power and distribution of
equitable society and good governance. values. Media affects the overall quality of public life and also
Although here also different forms of media are growing shapes people’s engagement in the specific policy decisions in
rapidly, and people are interested to learn more about contem- the Indian democracy. To make greater impact within the broad
porary issues, the media is behaving like a market product. It socio-political context, media needs to create a ‘space’ to
attempts to satisfy people’s thirst for ‘news’ but basically keeps effectively carry out its functions. The attempt by civil society
in focus its profitability and market sentiments. It is clear that in organizations to assert the importance of issues like, ‘gover-
the contemporary context the media cannot become a mission nance for the people’ vis-à-vis media is an attempt to search for
towards the goal of social transformation on a large scale. It is its own public space and its own means.
doubtful whether it can even become a leading agent in the There must exista relevant political consciousness so that a
process of establishing a people based governance. democratic impact is possible. Media to be effective must form
The implication is important for the rest of India. The part of an ideological and political context – of attitude, feeling,
formation of an authentic public opinion will not be possible hope and critical democratic values and practice.
in the absence of a newspaper, magazine reading culture, which Development Communication Intervention
has to become a mass habit in both town and country. We will Programme
have to see the link between political excitement and media Television, like the radio, was introduced in India ostensibly for
expansion. The dramatic expansion of the language press over the purpose of information, education and entertainment and
the last 15 years has a lot to do with political and social upheav- in that order. Television was introduced as an experimental
als generated in many states of our country. service for school education in 1959. The scope was expanded
The designer suits of today’s politicians may be sharp, but so to include non-formal education for agricultural development.
are the interviews, commentaries and editorials, which debunk Television sets were specially provided in selected villages for the
them. News management may be more intense than before, but farmers.
so is its journalistic deconstruction. There is populist excess, but It was only in 1965 that the regular service of television was
the democratic sphere should be dynamic enough to take it in started. ‘Doordarshan’ is the television authority in the country.
its stride. There are ethical lapses and resource constraints, which It is responsible for all television broadcasts in the country.
constantly threaten the quality of journalism. Doordarshan has been under the control of Ministry of
It is also true that politics driven growth can be for better or for Information and Broadcasting of the Central or Federal
worse. How to make it better? How to go against the ‘manufac- Government. It was only in 1997 that it has been given
ture of consent’, a role that is now widely understood as autonomy and it now functions under an independent
something built into its character? How to build a culture of autonomous board called Prasar Bharati.
public service broadcasting? How to invest hope in the new The objectives of Doordarshan have been very well precisely
media, especially in the Internet? How to deal with national and stated and have come to be known as the social objective of
transnational media monopolies, which will come sooner or Doordarshan. Some of the important social objectives of
later? How to build a socially conscious media? How to realize Doordarshan are: create national integration, stimulate scientific
temper, aid development and social change, transmit

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programmes related to development activities in different facets watch only Doordarshan’s primary channel. As explained earlier

DEVELOPMENT
like agricultural extension, education, health and family welfare, even this facility is restricted to only 40 per cent households.
promote social change and welfare of the weaker sections of the A review of different channels transmitted from foreign satellite
society. These objectives make the role of the television networks, it is obvious that the major thrust is on entertain-
authority very clear. ment followed by news and current affairs and least for
In order that television is able to fulfil its assigned role, it is education. Majority niche¢ channels like music channels, sports
necessary that the people be provided access to television sets. channels, movie channels or even general mixed-fare channels,

COMMUNICATION
The access can be increased in two ways: (1) facilitating increased the emphasis is on entertainment. There are special 24-hour
television production and also increasing purchasing facilities news and current affairs channels. Admittedly there are a few
and capabilities utilising the market forces and (2) intervention channels solely directed towards non-formal education in the
of the state by providing television sets at community places field of environment, wildlife, culture, etc. but there is hardly
like the schools or local self-government offices in villages. Both any special channel for education or development. Similar is the
these modes of expansion have been used in India. The situation on Doordarshan. Though Doordarshan is one of the
growth of the number of television sets in the country has few channels to provide a very significant part of its program-
been phenomenal since the operationalisation of Indian Space ming time for education and development programmes,
Research Organisation’s INSAT satellite system in 1982. From a substantial portion of the prime time is devoted to entertain-
mere 84000 television sets in 1972, the figure had gone beyond ment, news and current affairs programmes.
the one Million mark by 1980. A significant growth indeed but Clearly market forces alone will not be in a position to fulfil the
it picked up speed even more after 1982. In 1985 there were 6.8 educational and development needs. Intervention other than by
Million television sets and the 1997 estimates are that there are the market forces becomes necessary. Such intervention can
about 60 Million television sets. Assuming that most of the come through either the State or institutes and organisations of
houses are one TV-set houses, out of the total 150 Million public good. This may include institutes of higher learning like
households in the country, nearly 40% are television house- universities, the open learning systems or through some non-
holds. But this will mean that over 60% of the households do government organisations. It is not as if the market forces do
not have a television sets. A closer look also indicates that the not provide any scope for educational and development
distribution of the sets is skewed. Nearly 70 per cent of India’s broadcasting. They certainly do. But the role is limited to some
population lives in the rural areas, but only about 30 per cent of specific types of education and training needs. A more sus-
the TV sets are located in these areas. This in turn means that tained effort can come only from the state.
even if the TV signals through satellite cover the entire country,
The state intervention can come in several different ways. One
the actual access is denied to an overwhelming majority of the
mode of intervention is to facilitate the market forces to
people. According to Doordarshan 1995, there were 64,600
develop technologies so that the TV sets are made more
‘community sets’ in the country. These sets are located in a
affordable through appropriate policy decisions; so that the
commonly accessible place like the school and provide
number of transmitters in the country are increased and
viewership to persons who do not have TV sets at home. But
through devising a suitable communication and broadcasting
obviously this number is very small.
policy to facilitate educational and development programmes.
Considering the economic profile of the country, where the per Another mode of intervention is through appropriate legisla-
capita income is approximately Rs.2400/- (US $ 1= Rs.40/-) tion and policy guidelines that make transmission of such
and the per capita GDP is Rs.14000/-. Even the cheapest programmes mandatory for Doordarshan. This will involve
television set costing about Rs.3000/- would be well beyond appropriate time allocation for these types of programmes.
the means of a very large population of the country. This also
Another major and more important mode of intervention is
means that the access to television programmes cannot be left
through starting of specific development or educational
to market forces alone.
programme experiments or projects. The earliest phase of
The market forces combined with satellite communication Doordarshan of school educational programmes or ‘krishi
technology have given impetus to the television industry in a darshan’ — agricultural programmes — for rural farmers were
different way. Before the onset of the foreign satellite network really attempts in that direction. Another very significant
companies since 1992 onwards, the only available channel for intervention is exemplified by the Satellite Instructional
the Indian people was the Doordarshan’s primary channel or at Television Experiment (SITE) by Indian Space Research
most one more channel in some cities. Today, the situation is Organisation in 1975-76. SITE, described as the world’s largest
quite different. It is possible to watch nearly 40 channels from socio-technical communication experiment, covered 2400
different satellite networks both Indian and foreign. Approxi- villages of six states through Direct Reception Sets (DRS)
mately 15 Million households are satellite television transmitting educational and development programmes on a
households. This forms about 25 per cent of television daily basis.
households. Of these 15 Million, 11 Million households are
It is in the overall context of the above that this paper looks at
urban and only 4 Million households are rural. Considering the
an intervention programme called Jhabua Development
average urban-rural proportion of the Indian population, it is
Communications Project (JDCP) of Development and
obvious that a very large number of the rural population is
Educational Communication Unit (DECU), Indian Space
deprived of watching any of the satellite networks and they can
Research Organisation (ISRO). As a backgrounder to it, it is

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 pertinent to quote (Bhatia; Pursuit; DECU-ISRO, Ahmedabad; inadequate, many of the villages become unapproachable
DEVELOPMENT

1997):”The Indian Space Programme was propelled by the during monsoon. The conditions in Jhabua make development
dream of taking the benefits of space technology to Indian communication a very necessary, but at the same time, a very
villages. It was a statement of a vision when Dr. Vikaram challenging task. The situation is all the more compounded by
Sarabhai said “ We must be second to none in the application the fact that the village habitation pattern is typically tribal. A
of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and village actually consists of a group of about 5 to 6 scattered
society which we find in our country. hamlets. Each hamlet may be distanced from each other by as
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It was in pursuit of this vision that ISRO undertook the much as 1 or 2 kms. The overall communication profile is
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) in 1975-76. extremely backward. High illiteracy practically rules out the print
Through this experiment Satellite TV signal was received in medium. The ownership of radio is also very small and the
2400 Indian villages for the first time. The experiences of SITE ownership of television is about 6 per cent of the households
led to the development of the INSAT system and also to predominantly located in the bigger and comparatively more
substantial education television effort in the form of University developed villages.
Grants Commission (UGC), National Council of Educational It was in such a district that DECU initiated JDCP. The main
Research and Training (NCERT) and Central Institute of objective was to provide quality development programmes to
Educational Technology (CIET) telecasts. the deprived. This meant that Direct Reception Sets had to be
The Kheda Communications Project (KCP) was started as part installed at a central place in the village accessible to majority
of SITE, and over the years evolved into a model rural oriented villagers. This was done in 150 villages and plans are afoot to
local TV station. It demonstrated how participatory, and people expand it to the rest of 450 villages. The software objectives of
oriented can a local TV system become. Indian Space Research the project were to provide communication support to
Organisation (ISRO) shared these experiences with the opera- development activities in the following subjects:Watershed
tional agency through a series of training programmes. These Management including agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry,
efforts were followed by the application of one way video two etc.
way audio teleconferencing for Education and Development Health covering child and women’s health, family welfare and
Training. This network has found very effective application in prevention of various diseases.
training of Panchayati Raj (Village Local Self-government) Panchayati Raj (Local Self-government Administration)
elected representatives, Aanganwadi (crèche) workers, Primary including the role of women and its function.
School Teachers, Daais (mid-wives), etc. The Network is
Education including non-formal and adult education.
currently operational as the Training and Development Com-
munication Channel (TDCC) and is spreading out to several Socio Economic issues covering employment, government
states and distance education agencies like Indira Gandhi development schemes, etc.
National Open University (IGNOU), All India Management Culture covering folk and traditional aspects.
Association (AIMA), Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) The other objective was to organise intensive interactive
like Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) and educational programmes through a one way video and two way
Ahmedabad Women’s Action Group (AWAG). audio talk back system from 12 block headquarters where
The Jhabua Development Communications Project (JDCP) of development functionaries gather on specified days in the
ISRO combines the features of all the above and builds upon afternoons.
the experiences further. It has the feature of Direct Reception The challenge was not only in installing the DRS but also
like SITE; it has localisation like Kheda and the interactive making sure that proper electricity connections were available,
training component like TDCC. However, the operational that there was an appropriate seating place, that there was a
features are adjusted to the changed technological and socio- custodian who will operate the TV set everyday and the
economic context. A much higher degree of involvement of maintenance of the satellite dish antenna as well as the TV sets
private agencies, in maintenance, programme production and had to be ensured. The greater challenge was to make the
research is attempted. It is proposed to try out new features like programmes need-based and entertaining. The JDCP brochure
Telemedicine, Data Broadcasts, access to databases, etc. and (1996) aptly states the software approach:
study the viability and effectiveness of these systems. It is also
“An innovative, and imaginative software approach using the
proposed to try this in a few more States”.Jhabua is a district of
sophisticated modern tools and yet rooted in the cultural ethos
the state of Madhya Pradesh in India. It has an area of about
of the tribal people is the hallmark of TV programmes. The
6782 sq. kms. The population is 1.2 Million. It has a predomi-
programmes are entertaining, enjoyable and educative. The
nantly tribal (86%) and rural (91%) population. The growth rate
information flow is two way: upwards as well as downwards.
is very high at 42.65 as compared to India’s growth rate of
The programmes are made with the active participation of the
23.79. It is one of the most backward districts of the country.
local population”.
Agriculture is near primitive. It has a very low literacy rate of
14.54 compared to India’s literacy rate of 52.19 and the female In order to make the programmes need based and useful, a
literacy is even lower. It presents a rather depressing health detailed formative research plan was put into action. Apart from
profile with a very high infant mortality rate and low average life developing profile of the district and the audience, detailed
expectancy. The transport and communication facilities are very needs assessment studies in all the selected subjects were
initiated. This was done through involvement of the social

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scientists from Madhya Pradesh State and others in the country. due from the first eviction, were dishoused from their

DEVELOPMENT
The needs assessment studies formed the basis to develop over second location — which, too, they had nostalgically named
400 communication briefs that in turn were the basis of the Chikapar.
programmes.
There is a transmission of two hours every weekday. It covers
the programme subject described earlier and uses a variety of
formats like drama, docu-drama, documentary, puppetry,

COMMUNICATION
animation, etc. An important feature of the programming has
been that almost all the programmes are produced in Jhabua
district with active involvement of the local artists, script writers,
subject experts, etc. This makes the programmes participatory
and gives a strong sense of identification.
Detailed benchmark survey was carried out in 60 villages and
this was followed up with three during-transmission surveys at
equal time intervals. Detailed feedback studies have also been
conducted regularly. Several knowledge gain studies have also This time, Mukta wended her way down the road to nowhere
been conducted. The results indicate a very satisfactory level of with a grandchild. “Once again, it was raining, we took shelter
effectiveness. The project was supposed to be a two year project under a bridge and stayed there for some days,” says she.
and was to end in November 1998, but has been extended by “This time (in 1987),” says Arjan Pamja, also from the same
another year. There are now plans to initiate similar projects in tribe, “we had to make way for the Upper Kolab multipurpose
several other districts of different states of the country. project and the naval ammunition depot.”
The example of the Jhabua Development Communications And now, the villagers, who have reorganised Chikapar once
Project clearly brings out not only the need but also the more in several little pockets in yet another area after the
effectiveness of an intervention programme that too in a second uprooting, have received eviction notices for the
difficult communication terrain. It also demonstrates that one third time. Chikapar is being chased by development.
cannot leave development communication activities to market Jagannath Kadam, one of the village’s few educated mem-
forces alone. A participatory, need-based, educative and enjoy- bers, is a school teacher who works in another village (there
able television is possible provided one sees the need for it and has been no proper school in Chikapar for years). He says,
has the will to start such an intervention programme. “The reasons being given for the third eviction vary. Minister
Media spreading awareness through newspaper articles, print Harish Chandra Bakshi Patra, said at a public meeting here that
and web magazines, documentaries, films, TV programmes, we had to make way for a poultry farm. Another explanation is
radio [Link] example the following article highlights that the present set-up of the village poses problems for the
the darker side of development projects. Military Engineering Service (MES) in the area. We don’t
Chased by Development know. We only know that the villagers are receiving eviction
CHIKAPAR (Koraput): Mukta Kadam wept as she herded her notices.”
five children in front of her, luggage on their heads, leading If the latter reason is true, says one official, “Little Chikapar will
them through a jungle in darkness and rain. Her village, have, in succession, taken on the air force, the navy and the
Chikapar, had been acquired for the MiG project of the army. If it weren’t so tragic, it would be almost comical. And all
Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL) and her family was evicted in the name of development.”
on an angry monsoon night. Jagannath Kadam stayed on in what might be called
“We didn’t know where to go. We just went because the saab Chikapar-2, the village’s location after it was evicted the first
log told us to go. It was terrifying. I was so frightened for the time to facilitate the MiG project, but before its eviction for the
children on that night,” she recalls. That was in 1968. Mukta, a Upper Kolab project. The waters of the Kolab did not quite
Gadaba tribal, didn’t know then that she, along with her entire reach his house, so he defied orders and stayed put. “Since my
village of 400-500 large joint families, would have to go family has been alone here, we’ve had to face dacoities, but
through the same experience two more times. I’m not leaving again,” he says firmly.
When the villagers of Chikapar village found that they were to Chikapar was not a village of very poor people. They comprised
be evicted for a record third time, they weren’t quite sure what Gadaba and Paroja tribals, some Doms (Harijans) and a few
to do. “What can we do?” asks Pammia Das, a Gadaba tribal, in OBCs. Originally located in Sunabeda (literally translated as
despair, “Wherever we go, some project will come up and we golden land), the villagers owned big tracts of land. “My joint
will have to move again.” family of seven owned 129 acres in 1963,” says Balram Patro.
“Of these, we were compensated for 95 acres only and got a
Chikapar is like almost any other village on the Koraput map.
total of Rs 28,000 many, many years later. But there was no
Almost. Perhaps no other village anywhere has the dubious
help with house sites, materials or any kind of rehabilitation,”
distinction of being targeted for displacement three times. In
he says.
the late ’60s, it was the MiG project. In 1987, Chikapar resi-
dents, many of whom had not even received the compensation

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 “My family owned 60 acres of land,’’ say Jyotirmoy Khora, for cultivation. We are prepared to pay such ‘compensation’ as
DEVELOPMENT

“and we got Rs 15,000 - Rs 150 per acre of hilly land and Rs we received if we get back our land,” says Khora.
450 per acre of Class I land. Again, the money came much That, however, seems unlikely to happen. “I can’t move again,
later. And that was it: not a single paisa towards rehabilitation, let them do what they like,” says Mukta Kadam, the oldest
not even a home site.” woman in the village and one of the first to be evicted in
“They promised us one job per house, one home for 1968. “Why does this always have to happen to us?”
each displaced family,” says Narendra Patro, speaking to us at
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Possibly because they are Adivasis and Harijans and because

what can be called Chikapar-3. “People did not even resist on this is Koraput, which includes some of the poorest parts of
either occasion, but the authorities went back on every assur- the country (two of which have emerged as new districts).
ance.”
When the National Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO) came
Less than 15 people found employment, at very menial levels, up in 1981 in Koraput, more than 47.7 per cent of the 2,500
in HAL. Another group made it, with some difficulty, as casual displaced families were tribals and 9.3 per cent were Harijans,
labourers with no security of tenure. Khora, despite being points out Prof LK Mahapatra, former vice-chancellor of
the village’s first matriculate in 1970, and obtaining a diploma Utkal and Sambalpur Universities. Over 55 per cent of the
of proficiency from a technical training school, remained 3,067 families displaced by the upper Kolab project belonged
unemployed for eight years before finding a placement with to either Scheduled Tribes or Scheduled Castes.
HAL. Even for casual labour, “the contractors always bring
The Machkund hydro-electric project in Koraput district
people from outside,” says Madan Khasla, a Harijan, “and
had displaced almost 3,000 families by 1960. Of these, 51.1 per
the recruiting agents want payments from us for other jobs,
cent were adivasis and 10.2 per cent were Dalits. “It is a pity,”
but what money do we have? We have lost our homes twice,
notes Prof Mahapatra in a major study on the subject, that
but they want us to go yet again.”
“out of 2938 families displaced, only 600 were rehabilitated,
The revenue inspector of Sunabeda, Purnachandra Parida, including 450 tribal families. Not a single Scheduled Caste
confirmed that eviction notices had been issued for the third family was rehabilitated.” The list of such victims in Orissa is
time. “They are encroachers and must go,” he said. endless. Of nearly 22 million people across the country
Khora laughed when told of the inspector’s assertion: “Each estimated to have been direct victims of displacement since
time this village has been shifted we have moved, mostly, to independence, over 40 per cent are tribals. In Orissa, that figure
our own lands. Remember, we owned a lot of acres in this is probably much higher, though clear estimates are hard to
region. They have made us encroachers on our own land by come by.
declaring it the property of the state. If the government At the national level, less than 25 per cent of those displaced
declared your house as its property tomorrow, you would be by development have been rehabilitated in the past four
an encroacher in your own home, too.” decades. Again, the scenario in Orissa is probably worse.
When the villagers of Chikapar village found that they were Within this depressing picture, Koraput plumbs the depths. In
to be evicted for a record third time, they weren’t quite sure a study funded by the Union ministry of welfare, Walter
what to do. “What can we do?” asks Pammia Das, a Gadaba Fernandes and Anthony S Raj, of the Indian Social Institute,
tribal, in despair, “Wherever we go, some project will come New Delhi, note that in Koraput, “around one lakh tribals
up and we will have to move again.” have been deprived of their land, including 1.6 lakh hectares
Actually, the problem is even more complex. This twice-evicted of forests on which they had till then depended for their
village is unlikely to receive any compensation at all when it is livelihood.
uprooted for a third time to make way for either a poultry farm “More than six per cent of the district population, a majority of
or a Military Engineering Service depot. them tribals, have been displaced (by projects). This trend
“Even in our second location,” says Pakalu Kadam, also a seems to continue even today.”
Gadaba tribal, “We have been told we are occupying land
illegally. Actually, this is our land. But they want us to vacate
Note
in 60 days. Our ownership was never recognised on record.
So we have no rights, no domicile certificate, not even caste
certificates.”
But, asks Jyotirmoy Khora, “What happened to the over 400
hectares they took from Chikapar in the ’60s and the thousands
of acres from 17 other villages?” In the ’60s too, Mr Biju
Patnaik was chief minister “and he had this grand idea that all
the units of HAL would come to Koraput.” So huge tracts of
land were acquired towards that project.
In fact, nothing of the sort happened. The other units came
up in Bangalore and elsewhere. As a result, much of the land
forcibly taken over from the 18 villages remains unutilised to
this day. “They are neither returning the land, nor leasing it

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 DEVELOPMENT
LESSON 16:
FACTORS OF MEDIA EFFECTING SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNICATION
Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to be an individual’s access to a private radio, but it can also be a
situation of a shared radio or a newspaper read by a number of
To learn about the factors of media effecting social change
people. In most rural areas, access is primarily to radio and
To learn about the impact of media exposure on development print.
Development Communication: A Various constraints beyond just physical distance might limit
Progressive Model access. In the case of radio, this might involve set cost and
This model may be called “progressive” because the progress maintenance factors as well as the quality of signal received in a
from outer to inner circles is usually in stages. It suggests that in particular rural area. Access to print is limited by availability as
the process of different, kinds of information diffusing to rural well as literacy levels.
people through the mass media, a series of stages needs to be The above definition of access seems automatically to be
distinguished. These .are represented by concentric circles that limiting access to the reception of messages; it is important also
begin with access of the population to media, a stage that one to consider a broader view of access to include access to the
cannot assume for rural people, even for a widespread medium production and distribution of messages. In a society such as
such as radio. the United States, where penetration for most mass media is
This model also suggests that in order to obtain a genuine almost 100 percent, access quite clearly cannot be defined purely
understanding of the role of the mass media in rural areas, all in terms of physical access to the reception of mass media. In
the components of the model have to be considered within developing countries, where the mass media, have not pen-
general social structures of the society in question. Beginning etrated as deeply, it is natural to first consider reception
from the outermost circle, each stage assumes the presence of questions. Nevertheless, researchers should be careful not to
the previous one in order to have an impact, Thus, access is repeat the same top-down and passive receiver view of mass
both logically and temporally prior to exposure, and reception media prevalent in earlier research. Access to active participation
of certain kinds of mass media content assumes exposure. One in creation of media messages should also be considered.
cannot assume, for example, that potential access to a mass Although this kind of access might only be feasible on a small
medium will necessarily imply exposure for a group or an scale, it has important implications for the decentralization of
individual, nor can one assume that exposure will necessarily the mass media, bottom-up change, and local development
lead to contest appropriate to a particular audience. In short, goals. For the purposes of this chapter, access is viewed in
each stage is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for terms of the first, more limited, view of access to a passive
achieving the next stage. reception mode. The broader view of access to media in a more
active capacity should be the object of future research in
A brief explication of the five stages may help to clarify how the
developing countries (Jouet 1977; O’Sullivan and Kaplun,
model works. This will be followed with a review of relevant
forthcoming).
research to see how far the model has been tested.
Exposure is more complicated than access because it deals not
only with whether a person is within physical range of the
particular mass medium but also whether a person is actually
exposed to the message. Exposure is hearing, seeing, reading,
or, more generally, experiencing, with at least a minimal amount
of interest, the mass media message. This exposure might
occur in individual or group level.
Many studies, although possibly distinguishing between access
and exposure, do not go further in examining questions of
message content of the different media. The content of a radio
program or a newspaper usually is designed with a particular
audience in mind. In some cases, content that was designed for
a broad audience might be understood and utilized to different
Access and exposure are so closely linked in most research that degrees by different sectors of the audience. Content can be
It Is necessary to explicate the vital differences between them. broken down in various ways: information, entertainment
Access is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for exposure. programs, music, news, sports, and the like in the case of radio,
Access generally refers to the essential physical potential for for example. These categories can obviously be broken down
exposure— the situation where there is a newspaper, radio, further into subtypes and production sources. An important
television, or other mass medium within reasonable range of distinction should also be made between commercial program-
the potential audience. In some cases in rural areas, this might ming and purposive, social change programming. The audience

127
 and kinds of programs might be very different in these two some non-urban areas, and radio has the highest access level in
DEVELOPMENT

types of programming structure. Distinctions have also been rural areas (Beltran 1971).
made between implicit and explicit content (for example, the The stratification and concentration that exist In terms of the
difference between the explicit message of an advertisement on rural-urban dichotomy also occur within each area. Within rural
radio to buy a certain product and the implicit message for rural areas, a small percentage of the peasants have substantially
people that such a purchase is more “modern,” and thus higher access levels than the masses. Garcia (1966), studying the
better). press in Columbia and Mexico, found a heavy concentration of
COMMUNICATION

Following from these prior stages, the next step of the model newspapers in urban areas. Mattelart (1970) found a definite
is that concerning the information outcomes, viewed as the stratification of access to, and use of, mass media among urban
cognitive, affective, or attitudinal impact of exposure to mass workers, slum dwellers, and farmers in Chile. He also found the
media messages. In terms of information programs, it greatest disparity among people for access to television. Other
examines what has been learned as a result of exposure. It studies that point to the concentration and stratification of
naturally is closely connected to some of the Issues concerning mass media access in rural areas are those of Blair (1960) and
content mentioned above. Questions of what has been learned Bostian and Oliveira (1965) in Brazil, and of Ruanova (l958)
are more difficult in the case of-entertainment programs. These and Myren (1964) in Mexico.
outcomes need not only be from a single exposure but also
from exposure over a period of time.
The final stage of the model is the social outcome, defined as
any social change resulting from exposure to mass media. The
concept incorporates both shorter- and longer-term out-
comes—from actions taken and operations improved to a
betterment in the quality of peoples’ lives that are the results of
actions taken. Final outcome measures include changes In levels
of agricultural productivity and improvement in levels of health
care, nutrition, and the like. This final stage of the model is
Important in relation to the issues raised in the beginning of
this chapter concerning the role of information in rural
development, and whether information really makes a differ- Moving away from Latin America, different access data are
ence. found. In Thailand, Story and Story (1969) found very low
access to radio in rural areas. In contrast, however,
The question of social change and the role of information in
Polpatanarithi (1970) found very high access to radio in rural
this process is also related to the classic debate between those
India. Spain (1971) found high levels of access to radio in the
who argue that individual change comes first in the process and
southern Philippines, and Seya and Yao (1977) found relatively
those who argue that structural change must occur first for
high levels of access to radio in the rural Ivory Coast, despite
other changes, such as attitudes of individuals, to be possible.
great language diversity. One of the major studies on rural
The author will avoid getting immersed in this debate by
access and exposure is that of Frey (1966) in Turkey. He found
suggesting the adoption of a dialectical view of the process—
clear evidence (as is the case in almost all other studies) that, at
where the individual is not glorified to the extent of ignoring
least on a gross level, access to radio was greater than to any
the social structure and where the social structure is not seen is a
other media. He also found that access to one medium
rigid, deterministic manner that ignores the ongoing humaniz-
correlated significantly and positively with access to other media.
ing praxis of the individual. “
Two tentative conclusions emerge from this brief survey: first,
One aspect of the model presented above, which has not been
there is great variation from area to area in the amount of access
discussed but which needs to be considered, is that of feedback
to media in rural areas; second, whatever the access, whether
loops. The review of literature and secondary analysis of access/
heavy or light, its general pattern follows the pattern of social
exposure data will not be able to include feedback, but it should
structures in the country studied.
be kept in mind as important for the whole model. *
Exposure
Access
In Latin America, the exposure research seems to support the
For Latin America, the research suggests that the distribution
stratification view suggested by Beltran (1974), Mejia (1971) in
of mass media follows the pattern of steep stratification that
Peru and Canizales and Myren (1967) in Mexico confirm the
characterizes the socioeconomic structure prevailing in the
view that mass media exposure is stratified between urban and
region: higher levels of income, education, and status are
rural areas and within rural areas themselves. Taking one
strongly associated with higher levels of access to mass media
extreme of the spectrum, Deutchmann, McNelly, and
messages (Beltran 1974). There is also a high degree of
EUingworth (1961) found that the mass media exposure of
concentration of the mass media in the cities, especially the
subelites (professionals and technicians) in 11 Latin American
larger ones. Lower-class urbanites and rural peasants have as low
countries equaled—and, in some cases, exceeded—the exposure
a level of access to communication as is their access to food,
of similar samples in the United States.
shelter, and education. This concentration is particularly true for
newspapers and television. There is modest access to film in

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Physical factors—such as lack of roads, distance from urban velopment. However, even if this were eliminated—or, at the

DEVELOPMENT
areas, and lack of electricity—undoubtedly contribute to the minimum, improved—there is still reason to be concerned with
skewed distribution of some of the mass media in rural areas. the content of the messages. As Beltran (1971) points out, the
Nevertheless, Diaz-Bordenave (1964) in Pernambuco, Brazil, fact that access increases and mass media messages reach
and Gutierrez Sanchez and McNamara (1968) in Colombia progressively wider sectors of the population does not
found that despite the relative proximity of peasants to automatically guarantee the contribution of these messages to
urbanized areas, exposure to the mass media was very low. This development. A substantial amount of research, particularly in

COMMUNICATION
suggests that despite the relative availability of mass media, Latin America, has been done on the content of newspapers,
exposure was low, perhaps because, among other things, less on the content of television, and the least on the content
peasants did not find the content very useful. of radio.
There is a large source of data from the family planning For newspapers, Diaz Rangel (1967) and Simmone, Kent, and
literature on the use of media to reach clients, often in rural Misgra (1968) suggest that consistently less space is devoted to
areas. Radio was the first source of information for family information relevant for development than to that for sports,
planning in Korea, Taiwan, Kenya, Honduras, and Iran in entertainment, and such socially negative news as crime- In
studies reported by Sweeney (1977). There is some doubt, general, trivial information substantially dominates the content
however, whether exposure to large-scale family planning over information relevant for development. Gutierrez Sanchez
programs are comparable to exposure to other kinds of media and McNamara (1968), Gutierrez Sanchez (1966), and De Vries
programs. Many governments and international agencies have and Echevarria (1967) all found that the content of the mass
given special emphasis to such programs, minimizing other media did not hold much use for peasants in Colombia, as it
social services. Also. It is clear that family planning has not met more the needs of large fanners than-those of the
reached those rural poor woo are without access to the mass peasants. Cordera (1973) found a similar lack of information in
media. the daily newspapers of Costa Rica concerning agriculture, the
Frey (1966) concludes from his study in Turkey that although major activity of the country. Boca (1969) suggests from a study
total exposure figures were not very high, this did not preclude in Peru that the press in Latin America is deliberately oriented
the impact of the mass media on rural life. Frey’s data, together against social change for peasants and is at the service of the
with two other studies in Turkey by Kiray U9S4) and Sewell large landowning elites. Other studies suggest that, oven where
(1964) indicate an increase in mass media exposure that substantive information is available, the language of most
accompanies rural-to-urban migration. Frey also provides a newspapers, including agricultural newspapers, is beyond the
comparison with exposure studies in other countries (Table understanding of the peasants or does not correspond to their
2.2). Although these studies are somewhat dated, they provide culture (Beltran, 1371).
a useful cross-cultural comparison for the time. As was true of Studies on the content of radio show that preference for the
the previous data on access, one finds it difficult to draw trivial or non-development-oriented subjects was even more
generalizations from Frey’s data. Respondents in these seven considerable than for the press, and the content of radio was
studies were not alike, nor were they all selected in ways that alien to most peasants (for example, Pasquali, 1963;
satisfy all the requirements of random selection. Frey’s conclu- Felstehausen 1968).
sion from this comparison is tentative; “The mass media Some of the most interesting research concerning content has
would seem to be generally capable of reaching an impressive been done for television. Salazar (1962) and Pasquali (1967), in
sector of the peasantry, though one can be sure that another Venezuela, found a high percentage of violent programs and
and perhaps somewhat larger sector will not be reached at all” stereotypical plots and characters showing middle-class indi-
(Frey 19G6). viduals and U.S. nationals in a positive light and lower-class
Content people in a negative light. Rincon (1968), also in Venezuela,
studied the content of television and radio serials and argues
that the stereotypes in the content falsify reality and pervert the
average taste of the masses. Marques de Melo (1969), in his
study of television soap operas in Sao Paulo, Brazil, suggests an
evasion-inducing mechanism in operation for audiences of
these programs. A Colombian researcher, Bibliowicz (1973),
suggests that the content of soap operas reinforces the
perceptions of class immutability. In a study that looks more at
effects than only at content, Colomina de Rivera (1968)
interviewed housewives in Maracaibo, Venezuela. She found
that a large percentage of the housewives believed that the
problems presented in soap operas were identical to theirs and
that the solutions offered could help solve their own problems.
Although more work beyond just content analysis needs to be
done in this area, the tentative results give much reason for
That the mass media are unequally distributed across the
concern for the contribution of this type of mass media
population is in itself a negative factor characteristic of underde-

129
 content to development objectives and the attainment of Jamison, and Lau (forthcoming) cite evidence that there is a
DEVELOPMENT

greater social equity. consistent, although small, positive relationship between

In concluding this section, the distinction between commercial education and agricultural productivity. The Basic Village
programming and purposive (development communication) Education project in Guatemala (Academy for Economic
programming must be recalled, as well as the consequences on Development 1978) also showed that adoption of new
access, exposure, and contest. The impact o;,’ these two types of agricultural practices was one social benefit that was related to
program content on rural development might be very different. exposure to a special agricultural radio program. Different
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Further research might study the differential impact of commer- information might also have possibilities for positive social
cial and development programming on rural audiences and outcomes in different aspects of peoples’ lives. For example,
further specify the model to see what affect sources with White (1977) found that Honduras villagers exposed to
different orientations might have. A more refined content development radio messages adopted health practices signifi-
analysis that distinguishes between latent and overt content and cantly more often than they did agricultural practices. The author
looks at Ideological as well is cognitive message content would believes that this is because the adoption of health practices was
help to improve the knowledge concerning the effects of helped by existing women’s organizations in the rural areas and
contest on both thought and action. that these practices did not demand added resources whereas
agricultural practices were constrained by lack of credit and land.
Information and Social Outcomes
Hall and Dodds (1977) cite evidence of social outcomes such as
The most important factors in the mass media model outlined
latrines built, in a massive public health program in rural
earlier in this chapter are the outcomes—especially the social
Tanzania. Other positive results have been found in experimen-
outcomes. Information outcomes are the cognitive, affective,
tal use of radio spots: to get mothers to adopt nutritional
and attitudinal consequences of the audience access and
practices in Nicaragua and the Philippines (Cooke and
exposure to, and comprehension of, the media content. The
Romweber 1977), and to increase the use of contraceptives, in
previous review of research has indicated that even when lower
Colombia, Costa Rica, and the Dominican Republic (Sweeney
socioeconomic groups have sufficient levels of access and
1977).
exposure, the irrelevance of content will lower levels of
exposure in a kind of self-regulating fashion. Research concern- To summarize, there is a twofold problem in the outcome area.
ing the communication effects on the gap in knowledge among First, the general mass media are not found to promote
different social groups (Ticheonor, Donahue, and Oline 1970; positive social outcomes to any large extent. This may not be
Shingi and Mody 1976) suggests that one reason why some surprising when one recalls the limited exposure of many poor
people learn more than others from the media is the self- audiences to media and the overwhelmingly irrelevant messages.
selective nature of the audience. Although all groups may have Still, the poor may use what media are available as best they can
access, those that are better off are more likely to take advantage in trying to substitute for extension agents or other sources of
of the information available. Thus, although there might be information. Second, when the media are used purposively for
general potential exposure, the real exposure between poorer development communication projects, there are some indica-
and better-off members of the audience will differ, and the tions that they can promote some change; but, even here, under
audience with better education and higher social status will favorable circumstances, constraints limit the impact to modest
expose themselves more and gain more from the information. positive outcomes in some but not all cases.
Only where relevance of the content is specifically geared to Factors affecting Media Exposure in
lower socioeconomic groups through appropriate feedback India
mechanisms, and information appropriate to their needs is These data came from a large three-nation study of diffusion of
developed, will this knowledge gap possibly be halted or innovations done in the mid-1960’s (Rogers, Ascroft, and
reversed. Even this might be of limited value if the underlying Roling 1970). Data for the study were gathered in eight Indian
unequal distribution of not only information but. also of villages in 1967 (N = 680). Three of the villages were in Andhra
resources is sot taken into consideration. Pradesh (N = 210), two in Maharashtra (N = 246), and three in
Too often, in planning development communication projects, it West Bengal (N = 224). Villages were chosen so as to be in the
la assumed that there will be an impact if people would only same or contiguous blocks within stares. All of the farmers
attend to the message. But, as Gruning (1971) points out in his who were interviewed in each village were those who cultivated
study of Colombian peasants, the important question may not 2.5 acres of land or more and were 50 years of age or younger.
be whether appropriate information is lacking but whether The media behavior of the very poorest sector of farmers
resources needed to put the information into practice are (those with less than 2.5 acres) are therefore not included in the
available. Research (O’Sullivan, 1978a) has shown that agricul- study. In most cases, the respondent was head of the house-
tural information may not be able to make any significant hold.
impact on productivity when it is applied where the farmer is The general audience for the mass media showed radio, at 76
already operating at maximum efficiency on a very limited percent, to be the most commonly attended medium. Film was
landholding. next, with 66 percent of the audience, and newspaper last, with
Nevertheless, within structural constraints, there is some 32 percent. Although there was little difference among SES
evidence that under certain circumstances communication and groups (low, medium, and high on the three indicators of land,
education can contribute to social outcomes. Lockheed, income, and economic caste) In radio listening and film

130
attendance, the audience for newspapers was consistently from newspaper reading helps to explain our earlier finding that

DEVELOPMENT
the higher SES groups. newspaper exposure is the only mass media that has some
The general positive relationship between higher SES standing intervening effects on innovation knowledge and adoption.
and greater exposure to media is sustained by the evidence Farmers from higher socioeconomic groups are more likely to
shown in the Table. have both more contact with change agents as well as greater
exposure to newspapers, but no causal implications can be
Newspaper exposure suggests the strongest elite bias. The
drawn.

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correlations are reduced most for newspaper reading, indicating
that education has a stronger intervening effect for this medium
than for radio and film. Newspaper reading is again shown to
be the most unequally distributed medium across the various
social strata.
Trends similar to those for landownership are evident for the
other three variables of education, income, and economic
status. These results indicate a dear pattern of bias in mass
media exposure among the Indian farmers of the sample. As
one moves up the social hierarchy, however it is measured,
exposure to media increases.
Bivariate Relationships between Socio Economic Variables and
Mass Media Exposure in India. (N = 680). The correlations
reported here are significantly different from zero at the I
percent level and Indicate that, in general, the higher an indi-
vidual is on one of the SES indicators, the more likely the
exposure to the three media.
The study shows relationship between media exposure and
Socio Economic Listen to Read a
Variables Radio
Exposed to Film
Newspaper socio-economic factors. Radio was the most equally distributed
Income 0.27 0.21 0.32 across socioeconomic groups, where as exposure to newspapers
Land ownership 0.17 0.10 0.35 has the greatest socioeconomic bias. More than mass media
Education 0.25 0.23 0.50 change agents had impact on the people.
Caste economic status 0.16 0.13 0.31
Conclusions and Implications
To assess the role of mass media Information in certain social Questions of access and exposure and the impact of mass
outcomes, mass media exposure was tested as an intervening media on equitable rural development cannot be considered in
variable between socioeconomic factors and knowledge about, isolation from each other, nor can one component of the
and the trial adoption of, health and agricultural innovations to model be assumed from the other. To have a detailed under-
see whether mass media significantly affected the-direct relation- standing of the communication environment of rural
ship between SES and adoption of innovations. Four populations, one needs to consider the role of each of the
composite indexes were used for the innovation variables of components of the model in the overall process of media use
knowledge and trial for both health and agricultural innova- and social change.
tions. The results suggest that except, in some cases, for Mass media are unequally distributed in developing countries,
newspaper exposure the information received from the mass between cities and rural area, and within rural areas. Television is
media did not play an intervening role in the knowledge that the mass media with the greatest elite bias in most developing
farmers had concerning the innovations or whether they decided countries, and radio is the most generally available. However,
to try the innovation. This is the case for both health and even radio is quite unequally distributed across the social strata.
agricultural Innovations. When one also considers questions of content and the
The data, suggest that change agents were the most important usefulness of mass-mediated information, it is not inappropri-
source of information concerning innovations and their ate to conclude that the majority of rural people in
adoption. When asked now they came to know about various underdeveloped countries live m a state of “under-communica-
agricultural innovations, 8.6 percent of the farmers indicated the tion”. The evidence suggests that despite the rapid expansion
mass media, whereas 52 percent replied that they heard through of radio to almost all areas of the world in the last two decades,
a change agent or other interpersonal channel. The mass media great inequalities still exist that hinder the potential use of mass
were used most for information about the district headquarters. media In development.
To compare change agents as a channel of information with the The distribution of mass media and of development informa-
partial correlations controlling for mass media exposure, similar tion availability in rural areas mirrors the unequal distribution
partial correlations were computed that controlled for change of other resources. Even where mass media are widely available,
agent contact. The results indicate that change agents are a much serious reservations remain concerning the contribution of the
more important channel of information for farmers than are information to a more equitable rural development. This is
mass media. The high correlation of change agent contact with

131
 particularly the case with commercially oriented mass media in
DEVELOPMENT

rural areas.
Certain Implications emerge concerning future research,
development communications theory, and the Implementation
of mass media projects. Information is not an independent
variable m the development process but is dependent upon
other factors in the larger political and economic context of a
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particular society. Information must be considered in relation to

other variables and structural constraints. This view is not to
suggest that information is unimportant in development but,
rather, that one should examine what prior limitations exist and
what preconditions are necessary for Information to -make a
difference.
Clearly, one needs to go beyond individual-blame theories of
underdevelopment or, put another way, to avoid an inappropri-
ate amount of attention being placed on individual change
variables in the development process. Greater emphasis should
be placed on systemic and structural variables. One should not
overcompensate for previous important omissions by focusing
only on structural variables but, rather, should consider
structural and individual variables in a dialectical relationship.
This balance is essential for examining questions of stratifica-
tion and equity in rural development, as well as the information
it might provide in how to reach different audiences in the rural
population, in the hope that, at least marginally, information
can play a role in improving the lives of rural people.

Note

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 DEVELOPMENT
LESSON 17:
THE POWER OF COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION TO SOCIAL CHANGE

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Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to of agriculture. Printed media, in India, played a vital role to
spread the message from “lab to land” which led to the “Green
To learn how different Media & information changes the rural scene
Revolution”.
Media technology has been accepted as an effective tool to Limiting factors in Effective use of media
bridge the geographical distance between the message-senders
The use of media in extension however is not without
and receivers. Extensive use of electronic and print media in
limitations. While some countries like South Korea and Taiwan
support of agricultural extension, diffusion of information
successfully used media to support conventional extension as a
technology, social reforms, education and health awareness etc.
complementary component, its use in Sub-Saharan Africa
can be seen all over the world.
evoked no positive and tangible results. Obviously, use of
Radio was used to educate the children of farmers in Australia communication media in isolation, can not prove an effective
and New Zealand in the 1930s, for the first time. In most of tool of extension. In the absence of access to education,
the developing countries, radio has been used for awareness technical skill, appropriate infrastructure, material resources, land
generation and agricultural extension programmes. The reforms etc., media campaign alone is unlikely to eliminate the
extension of the expert voice at an acceptable cost is the prime inequality in rural areas. Printed materials and electronic gadgets
justification for its use in countries lacking financial resources, do not put food in the mouth of the hungry, clothe the naked
skilled manpower and necessary infrastructure like road and heal the sick (Mody, 1991). Printed media serves little
communication etc. Several studies have examined the role of purpose in the villages of third world countries, dominated by
radios in places where agricultural radios are known to be illiterates.
available. Kidd (1968) found that 57% of his Nigerian samples
Although, ability to read and write is not a prerequisite to use
listened to the agricultural radio. These included 17% who told
the electronic media for the purpose of extension, they can not
someone also about what they had heard and 23%, who
be used effectively in multi-lingual societies and areas having
reported that they had improved their agricultural practice as a
different agro-climatic zones. In places like Nepal, where a
result of listening to the radio. The Indian Institute of Mass
national agricultural radio programme serves farmers who are
Communication found that in zones served by special farm
planting different crops in different climatic zones in different
radio, people were 20% more likely to report it as their source of
time schedules and with different technologies feasible, there is
information about High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds than
no hope of generating programmes with very much specific
people in areas with less farm radio. There was also some
advice for all farmers (Hornik 1988).
tendency of framers in the special radio areas to report greater
adoption of HYVs (Hornik 1988). Broadcasting units in most of the developing countries are
centrally controlled and highly bureaucratised with little field co-
The use of television, radio, video and film, all over the world,
ordination. The programmes are produced by those who have
has not only reduced the gap of information but has also
no time and interest to interact with the audience. The routine
contributed to the economic growth. Use of communication
broadcasts meant for farmers (viewed as fatalists by producers
for development caused rapid economic development in
and announcers) do not always succeed in creating positive
countries like Taiwan and South Korea (Hornik, 1988). The
response among farmers, whose needs are rarely studied before
“Satellite Instructional Television Experiment” in India
preparing the bulletins. At times, the top-down structure of
contributed to the agricultural production and enrollment of
media system seems to contribute to the development of
children in schools. The popularity of educative entertainment
culture of silence, particularly in States ruled by dictators, instead
programmes shows the effect of television on the overall
of supporting extension work in rural areas.
process of development. Simultaneous audio-visual presenta-
tion of reports and messages minimizes distortions and helps Theoretically, media technology has the capability to bridge the
transforming traditional society into progressive society. geographical distance without any scale bias. However, in
practice, the messages prepared by subject matter specialists in
Printed media have been used to support rural extension in
text book language either prove irrelevant or incomprehensible
African subcontinent. Publication of large number of rural
for the poor ignorant peasants. The “know-it-all” experts may
newspapers with increasing popularity is an indicator of their
be rewarded for presenting a message on the latest capital
usefulness in the rural areas. Posters, leaflets, newsletters etc.
intensive technology, meaningless for farmers living in the
convey accurate and clear information through pictures,
complex, diverse and risk-prone environment.
diagrams and words. Rural libraries and newspapers help in
retention of literacy and continuing education, participatory Effective use of media is affected due to lack of appropriate
management, sharing of experiences including market informa- infrastructure in rural areas. Printed materials rarely reach the
tion etc. In India and Thailand, Rural libraries have been used as rural areas to the desired extent because of poor road commu-
centres of continuing education and learning of new techniques nication and transportation facilities. Television and videos

133
DEVELOPMENT
cannot reach the masses in remote areas without electrification Modernization enabled telephones, teleconference facilities, and
of villages. other telecommunication fast utensils to promote faster
Electronic media in popular perception has been identified as a economic developments in business.
channel of entertainment. Despite recommendations of In Philippines the “The enter-educate” project, a multi media
communication experts to use them for upgrading skill and project for young people, used entertainment videos, produced
extension purposes, they are being used by rulers, producers in collaboration with top artists aimed at promoting sexual
and advertisers for promotion of political interests, profits and responsibility among Metro Manila adolescents.
COMMUNICATION

entertainment, etc. Both, electronic as well as printed media, are TV and Radio also were used to alert young people about
controlled either by government or business houses with top- AIDS and HIV transmission and to take precautions against
down structures and no scope for community participation in them, through posters, brochures and newspaper advertise-
the process of production. Programme producers are isolated ments, T-shirts and bookmarks. Both these projects used
from the farmers they serve. Rural news papers depend heavily telephone hotlines to answer calls for help, which ensured callers
on government for financial and material support and lack identity.
skilled manpower to give accurate expression to the needs and
Minds of the wise were the store of information and wisdom
aspirations of the rural people.
in the good olden days. Kings and people used to visit them
However, it may be logical to conclude that the use of media, for guidance and advise. Their wisdom and knowledge were
which in itself is neutral, can prove a milestone for extension written down and stored in books and libraries became the
programmes with objective application, if the structural and storehouse of knowledge. But the growth of literature created
infrastructural deficiencies discussed above, are addressed to the problem of searching, storing, and getting access to.
simultaneously.
In this microchip era computers began to take the place of
We live in a world of communication explosion. New commu- libraries. This information system enhanced access and simulta-
nication technologies (NCT) like computer, fax, internet, neous sharing, transmission and manipulation of data. Their
Cellular phones, Information Super Highway, is directing, and use for efficient management and handling of data and
setting the pace and quality of development of all nations. By information has grown significantly in many less developed
converging the NCT with productive process communication countries in spite of their severe economic constraints.
has become a critical element in development process. Early
Now the predominant world economies have become informa-
communication was seen only as a component to development.
tion based. Economics of scale are giving way to economics of
From being the superstructure it has become the infra structure
networking. Hence growth industries particularly in the
of modern societies.
developed countries are information industries. Following these
Access to the vast store of knowledge and experiences has changes, business corporations in developing countries are
become a prime concern and need for any economic develop- enthusiastic about the new technology involving the conver-
ment. The internet which is now revolutionizing the world and gence of computers, telecommunications, the challenge of
people have become the sign of elite transmission of informa- satellites, cellular phones etc.
tion. These new facilities have literally changed the world into a
This new IT has its own implications and impacts on the
‘Electronic Global Village’ or a Global market of Ideas.’ They
developing countries. The country has to decide whether they
revolutionized the world with its speed and style. They created
need such a advanced and expensive communication system.
new concepts for business, education, relationship and even
Operation of these high tech. instruments need professional
development.
know how and experienced technicians which these countries
Through the scientific breakthrough such as computers and lack and has to depend on the western developed countries for
satellites, “maximum effects were expected, usually vertical flows their assistance. The country also has to train its own citizens in
were promoted, economic development was emphasized and these areas. A large amount of capital allocation is needed for
western domination prevailed.” (Lent,1987) The concept of keeping abreast with the modern information systems.
communication changed into a visual, interactive and personal
These fast changes if do not coincide with infra structure it is
communication. (Shariffadeen, 1995)
dangerous. Media makes the world a consumerist society. To
They are made to hold up a mirror in which people can view meet the demands of the people Government may depend on
their own reality as a critical first step in participatory develop- the foreign aid which turns out to be thorns on the path of
ment. Films and video shows were made available to enhance development. People go to cities for better life, giving the
peoples self-awareness and self confidence and to effect change government additional problems, and a fall in the agricultural
through empowerment. It was first used and proved efficient in sector.
New Found Land and later used in the poor countries in
Again, when NIT and NCT come to a society, where there exist
Labrador, Alaska India and Nepal.
a lot of inequalities, it will further widen the gap.
People watch their problems, how others solved it and came to
In spite of these problems these NT provides faster dissemina-
consensus and action. In these processes, the animator has of
tion of information and innovations to farmers and to all
course a key role to play in animating discussion and to bring
people of all strata of society. It produces radical transformation
them to a consensus and to a planned program for action.
which enables people who loves in ‘cloistered communities’ to

134
break their chains and to come into the main stream of The rapid and spectacular advances in the mass media, particu-

DEVELOPMENT
modernity. larly in the fields of broadcasting, film and audio-visual
The new education through these new communication technology promise quicker and wider dissemination of
technologies reach faster to students. Teaching pedagogy information. However, the rural sectors in developing countries
changes from teacher oriented to student oriented program. do not necessarily benefit from [hex ‘advances; the human and
These will surely remove blind faiths from the people. material resources in paw countries do not always permit the
access of the masses to me media and vice versa.

COMMUNICATION
NIT and Agricultural Development.
Despite all the technological advances in communications, it is
• Better educated farmers are better able to deal with, and have
becoming increasingly apparent that the mass media such as
greater access to external information sources called ‘Early newspapers, broadcasting and film in their present form cannot
adopters of information’ (Choudhri 1979, cited by Hornick, adequately perform the roles defined for and expected of them
1988) by the development paradigms the 1960s. The mass media do
• It has a positive effect on their allocative ability. not reach enough of the Third World population with credible
• Farmers get a favorable attitude towards change, openness to and relevant information that they needed for real social change
new ideas and techniques. (Nesman et all, 1980; cited by to take place in their lives. Media ‘experts’ have finally discovered
Hornick) in this decade what the peasants have known for centuries! the
• Farmers comes to know the techniques of farm operation,
valuable contributions that grass-roots media are capable of
market operation. making.

• Easy to bring them together and to organize them. This

The use of traditional or folk media to support and promote
ensures better and fast feedback and enable people participate national development programmes in Third World countries
in economic development plans. Training can be easily done. seems to be ‘upstaging the paradigms of the 1960s that
emphasized bigness in mass media development, non-
Using Folk Media in Development participatory, unidirectional information imbalance, and that
Programmes played up development in terms of economics at the expense
The 1970s and 1980s have seen the emergence of new and more of people’s values, beliefs, attitudes and the societal needs’.
complex technological innovations in communications that
The new paradigms of development now in currency in many
have resulted in greater efficiency and accuracy in the gathering,
Third World societies seek to emphasize the quality of life —
processing, transmission and dissemination of information
including the integration of traditional and modem systems of
and feedback. They have also created such an impact on the
communications, labour-intensive and appropriate technology,
mass media that they have become one of the most visible,
self-reliance, user-oriented strategies, and popular participation
pervasive and dominant influences in modern man’s life.
in development planning and implementation.
These new communication technologies, however, have
Involvement and participation of the community are the basis
concentrated their focus mainly on the delivery system, and may
of effective communication. In order for communication to be
have, wittingly or unwittingly, disregarded me cultural contexts
truly instrumental in bringing about social change, it must be
in which they may have to operate. The technology of these
based upon the existing values and belief system of the
innovations in the communication industry remains in the
community, as well as upon the built-in, respected, and trusted
hands of Western or industrialized societies, while the people
communication channels, like the folk media.
of the less industrialized nations have yet to understand and
master the intricacies of the more technologically-oriented As Coseteng (1981) puts it: What the mass media in its high
media. This situation can only reinforce ‘the already existing stage of development have failed to realize is that existing side
poverty gap which development planners are concerned about by side with them on an actual village level that is quite different
in closing, if not bridging’. from the global village infrastructure ... is another form of
media, one which even antedates them—the traditional media
of communication ... Nevertheless, traditional media still
survive and are used as meaningful channels of communication
in traditional or developing societies. Their unobtrusive nature
is, perhaps, the reason why they have been ignored for most of
the time by the mass media-oriented communication experts
and development planners. Indeed, they are still viable forms
of human communications.
Fortunately, many development planners and decision makers
in the Third World now appreciate the value of using tradi-
tional or folk media as an alternative communication strategy in
development programmes. This may have resulted from their
growing concern with cultural imperialism and the ineffective-
ness of the mass media in reaching those who need change
Likewise, this situation can only fan the controversy over the
most. These planners and decision makers have started to take a
issue of cultural imperialism perceived as being perpetrated by
hard, serious, second look at the alternative of using traditional
industrialized countries over the poorer ones.

135
 or folk media as channels for development-oriented messages even as they reject those old forms, ideas and techniques which
DEVELOPMENT

and as a means of generating local participation in planning and have ceased to be meaningful or functional to the society they
decision making for social action programmes. “There is a serve. Thus a new concept like family planning ... can work (its)
renewed interest in the use of the folk media for development way into the culture and be absorbed unconsciously into the
as “newer concepts of development” advocated such themes as group’s value system and adopted into their pattern of
local participation and integration of indigenous media and behaviour.’ Coseteng adds that it is this dynamic element of the
mass media’. folk media which could be harnessed for social change and
COMMUNICATION

According to Wang and Dissanayake (1982) ‘The value of the development.

indigenous communication systems development process Experts’ Meetings on Folk Media
seems to have gained recognition from many planners in the It was in the early 1970s when the idea of using the folk media
Third World now, and the emerging new paradigm for to promote development programmes became the subject of
development also advocates the involvement of local resources international discussion. In 1972 and 1974, Unesco organized
such as indigenous media and channels for development two ‘experts’ meetings’ in which communication scholars,
purposes because they are locally oriented, easily accessible and government bureaucrats, and folk media specialists and
relatively inexpensive.’ practitioners met to discuss how folk media and mass media
The MacBride Commission Report (1980) summarizes it thus: ‘ could be used in a specific development programme, namely,
Even where modem media have penetrated isolated areas, the family planning. These two conferences are today generally
older forms maintain their validity, particularly when used to regarded as the most extensive attempt to examine the issue of
influence attitudes, instigate action and promote change. folk media in development.
Extensive experience shows that traditional forms of commu-
nication can be effective in dispelling the superstitions. archaic
perceptions and unscientific attitudes that people have inherited
as part of tradition, and which are difficult to modify if the
benefits of change are hard to demonstrate. Practitioners of the
traditional media use a subtle form of persuasion by presenting
the required message in locally popular artistic forms. This
cannot be rivaled by any other means of communication.
The Folk Media
What precisely are the folk media? There is a wide range of
human activity and practices which could be classified under the
term folk media. They can include the customs, traditions,
beliefs and practices embodied in folklore. As forms or channels
of communication, however, they could be defined as ‘those
verbal, action, aural, and visual forms which are known as
familiar to the folk, are accepted by them, and are addressed to
or performed by and/or for them for the purpose of entertain-
ing, informing, enlightening, instructing, and educating’
(Coseteng and Nemenzo, 1974). It was in London in 1972, at the experts’ meeting on the
As folk creations or expressions, the folk media have more or integration of folk media and mass media in family planning
less distinct or identifiable forms, their own conventions or programmes where it was realized that traditional media could
rules of organizations, and their own techniques or methods reach more effectively the grass-roots level of the population
of presentation. But more important, these forms contain not readily accessible to the more technological mass media. The
messages or meanings expressed whether directly through meeting did not only generate renewed enthusiasm for the
music or distinct non-verbal symbols or deduced from the traditional media; it has also made the possibility of using these
totality of the elements of the forms themselves: but generally media fur development, either by themselves or with the help
understood by the audience because the meaning is derived of mass media, closer to reality, as most of the delegates in
from their common folk life and experience. attendance came from developing or traditional societies. The
experts acknowledged and accepted that the folk media as
The folk media can include folk songs, folk poetry, dance,
communication channels exert a dominant influence on the life
puppetry, clown shows, story-telling, proverbs, riddles, folk-
of the rural folk.
plays or drama, etc. Some examples are the Chinese opera, the
Indian Yakshagaana, the Indonesian Wayang Kulit, and the In the 1974 meeting in New Delhi, the seminar-workshop
Philippine Zarzuela. focused specifically on the discussion of the potentiality of the
various folk media forms and the technique of their production
Coseteng stresses that ‘folk media, like all forms of communi-
as well as integration with the mass media for motivational
cation or expression, are dynamic as they are enduring. They are
purposes- Various forms of Indian music, puppetry, dance and
subject to change and adaptation; they incorporate within their
drama were used as illustrative case examples during the
various forms new ideas, new forms, methods, and techniques,
meeting. This particular seminar-workshop is notable for it

136
generated a number of guiding principles on how to use the involved in such medias radio, television, or cinema. ‘The

DEVELOPMENT
traditional or folk media for promoting development audience for folk media provides instant feedback to the
programmes. performer or performers and to the communicator if he is
present.’ Folk media are sensitive and can be adapted very
Folk Media and Development
quickly according feedback.
Communication
Development necessarily involves people. For development to In instances where the performers are knowledgeable about
development programmes and cooperative, they can serve as

COMMUNICATION
take place, the people directly involved in it must be able to
understand, accept, and act upon new ideas. It is not only a discussion leaders and change-agents, particularly before and
matter of providing more and better technology. It also calls for after performances.
education and communication. And education and communica- And relative to the mass media, folk media can provide fresh
tion programmes in support of development efforts can use and interesting programme material for radio, television or film,
many channels, including the folk media (Ranganalh, 1980) making them more attractive and acceptable to both urban and
Historically, the folk media have often played a role in the rural audiences.
communication and promotion of new ideas and the adjust- Some Issues in Using Folk Media for
ment to a new social or political order, apart from its traditional Development Programmes
role of preserving and teaching established values. For example, Wang and Dissanayake (1984, 1982) raised some issues
in India, Indonesia, and the Philippines during colonial times regarding the use of folk media in development programmes.
or in wartime occupation when the mass media were under the They admit that there is great potential in using the various
control of an alien power, the folk media have been used to forms of folk media in development campaigns but that there
ridicule the oppressors, present strategies for resistance, and rally is a lack of research or academic interest in this particular area of
popular support for nationalist and independence movements communication. While some studies on the folk media have
(Ranganath, 1980; Bonifacio, 1972; Brandon, 1967). been undertaken, many of these are descriptive in nature and
In development communication, it is assumed that informa- the scope often limited to one type of media in one geographi-
tion. instructional, and persuasive or motivational cal area. This echoes an earlier observation of Coseteng (1981)
communication are carefully planned inputs of development. where she said that some rather extensive studies on the folk
Invariably, a multi-channel approach is employed, with the media, (generally referred to as folklore) in the Philippines have
various forms of the folk media fitting into the whole scheme been done by students and scholars of Philippine culture:
of communication strategy. Folk media can be used as channels anthropologists, sociologists, historians and other writers.
for transmitting and reinforcing messages to specific groups of Their work, undoubtedly are valuable contributions to literature
audiences, so that they learn to consciously and actively partici- on the folk media. But more often than not, their contributions
pate in the attainment of national development objectives are confined to their particular specialization in this broad field
which contribute 10 their general well-being and the improve- of study.’
ment of their environment. Wang and Dissanayake add that in may of the folk media
As H.K. Ranganath (1980) puts it: “Development — or studies, concepts were inadequately formulated and many
adaptation to the realities and possibilities of one’s time — is a serious questions left unanswered. They maintain that serious
continuing process, and traditional entertainments (or folk studies on the folk media should address themselves to at least
media) have often been instrumental in encouraging and three issues:
guiding this adaptation-’ In his book Using folk Entertain- • the impact of using folk media on their own growth;
ments to Promote National Development he specifies the
• the evaluation of effects of using folk media in development
decided advantages to using the folk media in development
campaigns; and
communication efforts. First of all, they are familiar to audi-
ences who may be more disposed to attend their performances • the problems associated with the extension and/or
and to have more positive feeling about what they see and hear. integration of the folk media with the more modem mass
media.
Folk media are flexible; they are capable of giving local relevance
to communications by adapting them to local situations The first issue deals with the question of whether or not the
through the use of dialects or by incorporating specific refer- folk media are destroyed or enriched when they are used
ences lo customs and traditions that help to fit the instrumentally in development-oriented campaigns.
communication into a familiar context. They are also in a Bordenave (1975), among others, has expressed concern that
manner of speaking, portable, for many performances of folk the use of folk media and customs for development purposes
media shows are of the traveling or roadshow types. They are can lead lo cultural genocide. He said that,
easily moved from site to site. In general folk media presenta- Development thinkers’ obsession with goal achievements and
tions are also inexpensive lo mount. not with human growth may take up these folk media … as
When a new idea or development program is presented to its another set of instruments for changing people’s way of
target audience through the folk media instant feedback is thinking, feeling and behaving. And this not the purpose and
possible. The audience can evaluate it and react to it face-to-face, function of the traditional communication media!... I am afraid
without having to adjust to some of the perceptual problems that as soon as the people realize that their folk songs, poems,

137
 and art are being used for political propaganda they will let them In fact, as Brandon puts it, the major aim of traditional
DEVELOPMENT

die. communication systems is to communicate messages. This is

Compton, in reply, says that “although this fear is based n an inherent in the system. In most periods of human history
enviable, altruistic concern for the preservation of cherished people have assumed than the major aim of art was communi-
forms of expression of a local culture, it may be unwarranted cation. Whether the an was painting or music, dance or poetry,
provided that folk media are sensitively used in ways that artistic creations were intended to have some meaning for the
consider certain basic precepts and principles.’(Compton, 1982). reader, the listener, the viewer. It has only been during the last
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fifty years or so that another school of thought regarding the

To assure their survival, a proper balance must be maintained
function of art has come into being. According to this view, an
between the use of the folk media as a means to achieve specific
may have as its sole aim the self-expression of the artist, and
ends (such as development objectives, although this may be
the artist may profess no interest at all in what if anything, the
translated into entertainment for the primary audience) and
art work he creates communicates to others. This most recent
their use as an outlet for the expression of the creative talent of
theory on the function of art is almost entirely a product of
the artist. A failure to main-lain this balance may result in either
Western societies. It is an expression of intense interest in the
a loss of an appreciative audience or an inspirited performer.
individual, a reflection of a strongly egoistic view of life and the
human process.
In Southeast Asia, the art of theatre has always been considered
a means of communication. Theatre artists have expected
audiences to understand what a play was about; audiences have
expected to be able to understand what was being staged before
them. Sponsors have assumed that certain ideas, beliefs,
emotions, and attitudes—and not others—were being
communicated through dramatic performances which they
arranged or paid for. At no time, even today, has the art of
theatre in Southeast Asia been used by artists primarily as a
means of self-gratification. There have been no Dadaists, nor
Surrealists as there have been in American and European theatre
An additional and related issue is the degree of emphasis and (Brandon, 1967).
adaptation to he given to the ‘form’ of folk media as against Wang and Dissanayake say that the problem of evaluating the
the ‘content’ which a given folk media is intended to carry. ‘An effectiveness of the use of folk media in development
underlying fear is that arbitrary decision by “development- programmes must be seriously confronted. Development
minded” outsiders about the type messages (content) that can planners and researchers must be clear on the indicators of
be transmitted through a particular art (form) can result in the success. They maintain, rightfully that it is not enough to record
medium losing its appeal to its traditional audience who have attendance and audience reaction, or measure the knowledge
learned lo anticipate specific foci for that medium. Obviously, gain and attitude change relative to folk media performances.
there is a subtle process of properly matching form to con- These do not guarantee that the development-oriented
tent...’. messages have had any real impact on the audience. They
As Adhikarya (1974) recounts: “The apparent success of the maintain that apparent behavioral changes seem to be the best
Indonesian Communists in organizing dalang (puppeteers) indicators of success. The two recommended a more systematic
and supporting heavily propagandized performances (of and scientific evaluation of similar efforts in the future.
wayang puppet plays) is less an indication of the adaptability of This particular issue has not been lost on development planners
the form than it is an example of astute use of the form. The in Third World countries. In the Philippines, for example,
issues stressed by the Communists were largely international development theatre and folk media projects of the National
issues, issues that would be controlled and settled by the higher Population Programme have built-in system atic monitoring
powers in the country. Support of these issues, at an early stage and evaluation components to determine indicators of
required no change in the life of the average Javanese - only an behavioral change (Valbuena, 1980), Likewise, a recently
abstract change in attitude”. concluded AMIC-UNEP study on using traditional media for
Wang and Dissanayake maintain that ‘in fact, change is a built-in environmental communication in Indonesia, Philippines and
strength of indigenous communication systems allowing them Thailand (Valbuena, 1987). But much still remains to be done.
to transfer development messages without the danger of self- In integrating the folk media with the mass media, they cite the
destruction7 (198). They add that, “the uses of indigenous ideal pattern where the former are used to arouse the audience’s
forms of communication for development purposes may not feelings and create an atmosphere for change, followed by the
do harm or restrict their growth if their nature is well under- use of the latter for presentation of more detailed information
stood. If well-designed the use of an indigenous and vivid illustration, and finally capped by a face-to-face
communication system for development purposes will not discussion for feedback and assessment of additional informa-
have a negative effect on the system as some have feared.” tion needs of the audience. This pattern may be seen in the
operations of the Mahaweli Community Radio project of the

138
Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation. The There has been a phenomenal growth in media of mass

DEVELOPMENT
project makes use of folk media both for communication after independence.
entertainment as well as for the introduction
of development-oriented messages which
may later be presented in more informative
fashion through the various programmes
aired over the radio and then further

COMMUNICATION
reinforced and assessed by extension
workers interacting with listeners in the village (Valbuena, 1988).
The two communication scholars further say that it is necessary
to conduct cost-benefit analyses of the different integrative uses
of folk media and mass media for more substantial progress to
take place in the field.
In summary, Wang and Dissanayake state that there is an urgent
need for more and better research in the general uses of
traditional or folk media for development purposes. They add
that, not only has the study of indigenous communication However, at the time of crisis and national event like elections,
systems largely been neglected in the past, but the evaluation of the traditional ways and means of communication have proved
communication systems which manifest interaction between their importance. The Indian government being aware of the
indigenous channels and the mass media has also been fact always tried to make use of small and alternate media for
overlooked. the purpose of development. For publicising development
Using Folk Media for Development in schemes under the five-year plans, so as to motivate the people
India to participate, programme called the Integrated Publicity
The folk and traditional arts have been used for moral, religious Programme was launched in 1953. In the following years the
and socio-political purposes. India has a long tradition of mass sister organisation viz. Song and Drama Division was started
communication, specially oral communication and folk arts. The for organising entertainment programmes with the help of
folk art, typical of the tribal and rural life all over the world, is local theatrical group or parties of local or folk artists. The other
the spontaneous expression of the people shaped by them, to popular media in other regions are also combined. They are
suit their own needs. More than 2500 years back in India, the printed words, exhibitions, photographs, puppet shows and
religious leaders likes Buddha and Mahavir made use of the dance dramas. The selection of the media depends on the
language of the people in order to preach their religion to the message and the characteristics of the audience. The occasions
masses. Thereafter the art of telling stories of god (Harikatha) such as fairs and festivals are utilised to gather the people for the
development so that the rural masses could be educated with performances and displays.
respect to the subtle concepts of religion and social values. This The Song and Drama Division of Indian Government
is the reason why we have a unique phenomenon in India that functions at the three levels, at its headquarter in New Delhi, at
the illiterate peasants are familiar with the fundamental tenets eight regional centres in various parts of the country and there
of Hinduism, Buddhism Jainism etc. In the following are nine sub-centres at the district headquarters. The division
centuries throughout the country, there were such attempts has departmental troupes, sound and light units and more than
through the ‘Bhakti’ movement by great leaders and philoso- 400 registered parties, which are made up of eminent perform-
phers. The great temples of India built through the ages were ers in the folk arts. During 1991, it presented thousands of
not only the places of worship but are also full of sculpture, programmes all over the country as it is mentioned in the
which enlightened the masses about the episodes in the epics- Annual report of 1991-92.
The temples were also centres of learning where great scholars The Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity (DAVP) is a
held their discourses in the afternoons and evenings. multimedia agency, which produces material for macro as well as
In the present century, Mahatma Gandhi possibly the greatest micro media. The specialised service is being offered in areas of
mass communicator of all times aroused millions of illiterate exhibitions, designing and printing booklets, folders, posters,
people to participate in the freedom struggle against the mighty hoarding banners and kiosks etc. The important themes being
empire through oral communication. He inspired to use other covered are national integration, communal harmony, health
traditional media of entertainment such as songs, dramas, and family welfare, girl child and prevention of drug abuse etc.
puppets and other folk arts for spreading the massages The traditional and alternate media are used by the departments
especially in the rural areas. such as National Saving Organisation, Life Insurance Corpora-
Though there is a tendency of viewing the folk media as tion, Health and Family Welfare etc.
outmoded, unchanging and extremely rigid form of mass The Field studies at the village level in two different states
media, it is far from the truth. Although the basic form and the Maharashtra and Tamilnadu have concluded that the most
structure of the various folk art form have changed very slightly effective method of communicating the message of the ‘small
over the centuries, the messages conveyed have always moved family norm’ is through personal contact, demonstration and
with the times or rather have been contemporary. interaction. These are the three important aspects of folk media.

139
 Drawbacks 1. Speech and meetings and Discussions
DEVELOPMENT

Though the government made wide use of traditional and The country has rich traditions hence talk and speech is the
alternate media there are several severe criticisms. The limitations life of rural India. This way of communication is totally in
are pertaining to the kind of message and the management of control of the poorest person.
it. Indian society is not individualistic like the western world. It
1. Too much emphasis on publicizing their own achievements is more community and family oriented. As a result the art
COMMUNICATION

and intention has lowered the credibility of the government of interpersonal and group communication has flourished.
media. People like and enjoy talking. The techniques like use of
2. The structure of official media did not permit body, cultivation of voice and gestures are imbibed in the
decentralization in production of material; as a result the people through the cultural exposition.
urban and middle class bias seriously hampered the 2. Meetings and Group Discussions
development objectives. The message is transmitted by the There is a tradition in the rural areas to have informal
staff of the project (sender) to the people (receiver) meetings where a lot of the information is shared, feelings
Sometimes, their opinions are taken but always at prescribed are ventilated, doubts are raised, decisions are taken and
stages and feedback are taken without major consequences. problems are solved. Informal meeting have proved to be
This type of limited or nil participation has proved incapable much more productive than the formal ones.
of bringing about social change. The process itself needs to
3. Demonstrations and Exhibitions
aim at making people and more responsible if the goal is
that of development. It needs to promote a dynamic of The Department of Health and Family Planning extensively
knowledge creation for all the protagonists in question. uses these media. Simple charts, paintings and models can be
conveniently carried into the rural areas. They provide an easy
3. Though the government has promoted folk media to some
way of informing the illiterate people about the symptoms,
extent the mass media received much greater attention. They
the causes, curing process and the prevention.
have been projected as if they are the only effective media in
this society. In the process folk media have been Though very little property is required a lot of preparation
systematically and subtly destroyed. The mass media is so and different talents are being used. If the exhibition
violent and forceful that it has impaired the senses of material is prepared with the local resources it is very useful
common individuals to an extent they cannot receive any for creating awareness and dissemination of information.
other mild form. 4. Performing Arts.
NGOs and Folk Media In the field of performing arts there are mainly two
Government is not the only agency working for the develop- categories:
ment and social change. The other even more committed sector a. Traditional forms of art or folk art.
is of activists and voluntary organisations. The rulers and b. Indian adaptation of art forms of other culture.
capitalists control the mass media. Mass media without know
The following forms have been widely used for development
how, the infrastructure and funds cannot be used effectively.
communication:
The change agents though committed but working with limited
funds have no reach to the mass media. They are left with the 5. Songs and Story telling:
only option of using media, which is within their control. The Every work, act, festival and incident has a song for the
alternate and traditional media have provided the answer. There expression of feelings. These are sung in a group with each
are certain in built advantages. They are; and every participating in it. The tunes are familiar as and
1. The know-how is simple and associated with the old Indian when required for better expression and conveying desirable
traditions hence expertise is available even in remote areas. It messages.
is not a gift of the western world. The story telling is a form where various methods are
2. The finance involved is less and infrastructure is easily observed. The mythological political and social themes are
available in the less developed areas. interwoven with the contemporary messages in an
interesting way. Along with prose the poetry is also
3. The poor people in the remote areas have familiarity with the
combined which makes the presentation more gripping. The
media hence the messages get across easily.
musical equipment though used is limited in number and
4. They do not create the sense of powerlessness among the locally made.
common people which in turn hampers the growth and
6. Dance, Drama and Dance-drama:
development
There are different folk dances of different regions. There are
There are many traditional forms common through out the
festivals and occasions when the whole community - rich and
country and special to a particular region. The other small media
poor, small and big, men and women come together and
which are not traditional but possess the elements common to
enjoy collectively. This provides an opportunity for better
that of the folk art, and they are within the control of the
understanding of each other; especially women find a
common people. These media which can be described as micro-
platform where they can express their feelings. (The known
media is divided into three categories

140
 forms are Garaba of Gujarat, Bhangra of Punjab, Lavni of educational use. This form has flourished in Orissa, Kerala

DEVELOPMENT
Maharastra etc.) and Tamilnadu.
7. Folk Theatre: There are other modern variations in the original forms,
In India there are communities traditionally occupied in the which do not require elaborate preparation and highly skilled
folk theatre. It is a family profession for them. They move performance. The voluntary organisations make wide use of
from one village to the other and arrange their performance. puppet plays on alcoholism, unionization, environment and
health education with manageable funds by using such

COMMUNICATION
The format of the theatre is well -known but the messages
of different kind are carried from place to place. They provide adaptations.
a link between different communities in different regions 9. Street Theatres:
and integrate the different culture. The folk theatre has played Drama performed on the street or in the open grounds is
major role in political and social changes. Through the form, termed as street theatre. It is a form of theatre, which goes to
messages are carried out and values are perpetuated along the people and is performance amongst them. It required
with the popular entertainment. Normally the form has a minimum equipment yet provide two way communication
loose structure, which allows lot of innovations and by wiping out the line between the audience and the
improvisation. The use of satire and humorous presentation performers.
gets difficult messages across easily.
Street theatre as it is known today can be traced back to its
(The popular forms are Bhavai of Gujarat, Tamasha of direct lineage with the Russian Revolution in 1917. In India
Maharastra, Nautanki and Ramlifa of northern part, Jatra in it appeared in the 20th century, as the awareness of the
Bengal, Yakshagan in Karantaka and Therukoothu in freedom struggle. In 1944, Bijon Bhattacharya, a founder of
Tamilnadu.) Indian peoples Theatre Association (IPTA) gave
8. Puppetry: momentum and spread the stories of the exploitation of
This is a very exciting media. It attracts anybody from a child peasants by the landow’-iers.
to the aged. The content, which normally offends people in The street theatre is greatly influenced by Brecht’s epic theatre,
power, if delivered by the actors can be put in the mouth of peter Brook’s Rough theatre and Badal Sircar Third theatre.
the puppets. This is an indirect way of addressing the issues As it is written by a well-known activist, Safdar Hashmi,
in question. “The history points out very clearly that the theatre
development as agitation propaganda (Agit-Prop) on the
streets, at factory gates, markets, dockyards, Playgrounds,
Barnyard and so on. It is political in nature and became a
voluntary instrument of the democratic temper of the
people. It is also an interpreter of daily events and
development. It has played a role in the process of national
awakening in the countries like Spain, Vietnam, Japan,
France, Cuba, USA and UK.
As it is discussed earlier folk dramas enacted in public squares
as the street play. Folk media are intimate with masses,
readily available at low cost. Also relished by different age
groups and provides instant feedback and so do the street
plays. Hence though influenced by the western theatre it is
There are four popular styles of puppetry flourishing in accepted by common people in India readily.
different regions.
Women’s groups in cities and rural areas have used street
String puppets or Sutradharika: This style is found in the theatre to raise social consciousness on the issues like dowry
states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Orissa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu deaths, exploitative advertisement, legal rights etc. In Kerala
and Andhra Pradesh. State the Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) has
Rod puppets: These puppets are used in west Bengal. They employed street theatre to popularise science and literacy.
are large in size and fixed to bamboo sticks, which are tied to 10. Jatthas (A Group March):
the puppeteer’s waist.
When the goal is to mobilise people in large number of
Shadow puppets: The shadow puppets are flat figures made villages it is more effective to combine different media. This
from tanned hide and painted with vegetable dyes. They are is done by organisation of Jatthas by walk. A group of
illuminated from behind so that their shadows fall on a people with relevant media moves from one place to the
transparent cotton screen. The stories projected are taken other, mobilising people on the issue and building
from the epics Ramayan and Mahabharat. They are popular awareness.
in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Orissa.
It is community effort where different groups join together
Hand Puppets: Hand puppets or glove puppets are simple and conducts Jatthas. This needs planning, public relation
to prepare and perform and hence they are very popular for and publicity. But when entire community is involved

141
 organising does not become difficult. The very fact of the
DEVELOPMENT

involvement of the community ensures the success of the

programme. The combination of powerful and attractive
micro media assures the impact.
In 1990 Bharat Vignyan Jattha - a national movement was
supported by the Ministry of Human Resource
Development in which more than 500 villages were covered
COMMUNICATION

in the country. The objective of the march was to popularise

science for cultivating scientific temper among the common
mass of the country. The success of it initiated Jatthas on
other issues in following the years.

Note

142
 DEVELOPMENT
LESSON 18:
ROLE OF THE PRESS & RADIO IN DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNICATION
Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to circulation of 519,000, is published in seventeen cities. There
also are seven other daily newspapers with circulations of
To learn what is development journalism
between 134,000 and 477,000, all in English and all competitive
To learn how development journalism leads to development with one another. Indian-language newspapers also enjoy large
To learn what is development broadcasting circulations but usually on a statewide or citywide basis. For
To learn how radio can be utilized for development example, the Malayalam-language daily Malayala Manorama
circulates 673,000 copies in Kerala; the Hindi-language Dainik
Compared with many other developing countries, the Indian Jagran circulates widely in Uttar Pradesh and New Delhi, with
press has flourished since independence and exercises a large 580,000 copies per day; Punjab Kesari , also published in Hindi
degree of independence. British colonialism allowed for the and available throughout Punjab and New Delhi, has a daily
development of a tradition of freedom of the press, and many circulation of 562,000; and the Anandabazar Patrika , published
of India’s great English-language newspapers and some of its in Calcutta in Bengali, has a daily circulation of 435,000. There
Indian-language press were begun during the nineteenth are also numerous smaller publications throughout the nation.
century. The combined circulation of India’s newspapers and periodicals
As India became independent, ownership of India’s leading is in the order of 60 million, published daily in more than
English-language newspapers was transferred from British to ninety languages.
Indian business groups, and the fact that most English- India has more than forty domestic news agencies. The Express
language newspapers have the backing of large business houses News Service, the Press Trust of India, and the United News of
has contributed to their independence from the government. India are among the major news agencies. They are headquar-
tered in Delhi, Bombay, and New Delhi, respectively, and
employ foreign correspondents.
Although freedom of the press in India is the legal norm—it is
constitutionally guaranteed—the scope of this freedom has
often been contested by the government. Rigid press censorship
was imposed during the Emergency starting in 1975 but quickly
retracted in 1977. The government has continued, however, to
exercise more indirect controls. Government advertising
accounts for as much as 50 percent of all advertisements in
Indian newspapers, providing a monetary incentive to limit
harsh criticism of the administration. Until 1992, when
government regulation of access to newsprint was liberalized,
controls on the distribution of newsprint could also be used to
The press has experienced impressive growth since indepen- reward favored publications and threaten those that fell into
dence. In 1950 there were 214 daily newspapers, with forty-four disfavor. In 1988, at a time when the Indian press was publish-
in English and the rest in Indian languages. By 1990 the ing investigative reports about corruption and abuse of power
number of daily newspapers had grown to 2,856, with 209 in in government, Parliament passed a tough defamation bill that
English and 2,647 in indigenous languages. The expansion of mandated prison sentences for offending journalists. Vocifer-
literacy and the spread of consumerism during the 1980s fueled ous protests from journalists and opposition party leaders
the rapid growth of news weeklies and other periodicals. By ultimately forced the government to withdraw the bill. Since the
1993 India had 35,595 newspapers—of which 3,805 were late 1980s, the independence of India’s press has been bolstered
dailies—and other periodicals. Although the majority of by the liberalization of government economic policy and the
publications are in indigenous languages, the English-language increase of private-sector advertising provided by the growth of
press, which has widespread appeal to the expanding middle India’s private sector and the spread of consumerism.
class, has a wide multicity circulation throughout India.
The press in any democratic country plays a vital role in creating,
There are four major publishing groups in India, each of which moulding and reflecting the public opinion. It is a fundamental
controls national and regional English-language and vernacular institution of our society. It contributes a great deal in shaping
publications. They are the Times of India Group, the Indian political, social and economic development in the country. The
Express Group, the Hindustan Times Group, and the press is also intimately concerned with the functioning of the
Anandabazar Patrika Group. The Times of India is India’s state and the policy it follows. It touches almost every aspect of
largest English-language daily, with a circulation of 656,000 our public life.
published in six cities. The Indian Express , with a daily

143
 The press in India functioned as a crusading agent for the of development journalism is the deliberate and active role in
DEVELOPMENT

freedom movement of the country prior to Independence. Its pressing for change (Kariithi 1994: 28). It is geared towards
contribution to our freedom struggle was substantial. The mobilising the people for national development. Bourgault
freedom of the press in India, however, received a setback in (1995) sums up the goals of development journalism as “
June 1975 when the Emergency was proclaimed in the country. promoting grassroots, non-violent, socially responsible,
Three ordinances were promulgated on 8 December 1975. One ecologically sensitive, personally empowering, democratic,
of them repealed Parliamentary Proceedings (Protection of dialogical and humanistic forms of communication”. In Africa,
COMMUNICATION

Publication) Act, 1956. By the second ordinance, the Press the mass media fulfill an educational role which they are not
Council was abolished. The third. Prevention of Publication of necessarily called upon to assume in First World countries
Objectionable Matters Ordinance, 1975 provided for stringent (Ansah in Ngugi 1995: 9). News about development is
action against publications which excite disaffection against the important in stimulating further development. A development
constitutionally-established government, incite interference with journalist must give the facts, interpret them and draw conclu-
production, supply or distribution of essential commodities or sions, which must then be promoted, that is, brought home to
services, create disharmony among different sections of the the people in a way they will understand.
society and indulge in indecent, scurrilous or obscene writings. The Potential of Development Journalism
The government also imposed censorship on the newspapers. Despite the negative views about development journalism,
The government which came into power in March 1977 restored there have been relative successes. In Africa, where there is a
Parliamentary Proceedings (Protection of Publication) Act, 1956 severe lack of educative facilities, media, especially broadcasting,
and repealed the Prevention of Publication of Objectionable are seen as a substitute for formal education. Where there is no
Matters Act, 1975- The censorship was also abolished- The teacher and a shortage of books, broadcasting is used as a
Press Council was revived. The press again came into its own. substitute.
It is true that only a small percentage of people in our country
come under the reach of the press because of widespread
illiteracy and limited circulation of newspapers. This percentage,
however is extremely important as it constitutes the intelligen-
tsia, the vocal section of the community which not only creates
and build public opinion, but also provides leadership to the
society. The views of this section cannot be ignored.
The influence of press on the people in any country is admit-
tedly a great deal more than the circulation statistics. This
explains why the press becomes the first casualty when dictator-
ship is imposed on any country.
Introduction to Development Journalism
The theory and practice of promoting development began with
the assumption about the media’s power to promote positive
change in the Third World. In Africa, development was deemed
historically necessary, given the structure of post-colonial
backwardness and poverty. Encounters with problems such as Presently in Malawi, a community radio station has been set up,
poor education, inadequate agricultural practices and a lack of called Radio Dzimwe. It was set up in the Mangochi area
political mobilisation led to the utilisation of the mass media because it was found to have an extremely high rate of illiteracy.
which presented a huge potential for reaching huge audiences One of its aims was to encourage the women of the area to go
(Ngugi 1995: 5). Through the media, knowledge and skills to school because traditionally they were expected to stay at
could be imparted and change could be achieved. Hence, home. Also in Malawi, radio youth programmes were set up
development journalism - a rubric that academics and journal- which focussed on education and development. Aids awareness
ists have found convenient to describe the special situation of was its main focus of its programmes which gave the youth a
the media in Africa. However, development journalism in Africa chance to speak for themselves. According to Prescott Gonani
faces immense problems. It appears that the fear of allowing of the Malawi Broadcasting Corporation, these radio
the media to be used for any purpose other than political programmes proved successful.
control has prevented the use of development journalism to Development journalism is imbedded in the context of a
promote positive small-scale change. general management concept of the planning and implementa-
What is Development Journalism? tion of development programmes that is it is ascribed a quite
Domatob and Hall (1983) state that by its name, development instrumental, socio-technological character. The journalist
journalism recognises the reality of underdevelopment. The working within these prescribed norms will become comparable
term implies that development is a valid social goal and that the in aspects of his profession with the on-site leader of develop-
media have a contribution to make towards it, that is, the media ment projects. Development journalism is then synonymous
are expected to actively pursue this role. The main characteristic with a “grass roots approach”, that is, it is decentralised and

144
participatory. It must not limit itself to the communication the context of removing the acqiescent outlook special mention

DEVELOPMENT
channels of the mass media alone but also use the traditional has to be made of the role of women who in many societies are
communication media. This development journalism is still regarded and treated as second class human beings.
primarily “local journalism” in the sense that the journalist In summary, the socio-technological development journalism
should be rooted in the local culture concerned. outlined here is characterised as purpose-rational and ethically
It cannot be stated often enough that the most important responsible. It is pragmatically oriented to the objective of
component of development journalism is credibility, which is achieving higher quality of life. Apart from being the advocate

COMMUNICATION
most readily won by the media’s adequately advocating the of the interests of the population, another of its major tasks is
interests of the affected people, which means inter alia articulat- to act as a buffer to exaggerated demands and to emphasise
ing criticism of the government. It must be remembered in this goals achievable in a longer perspective. In terms of its value
connection that in most developing countries there is a vast gap premises this journalism is clearly oriented to democracy and
between what government representatives say about the emancipation.
freedom the media have in their respective countries and the
Development Journalism as the Fifth
truth. Probably only a free media system is able to contribute to
Theory of the Press
rooting out corruption, this fundamental evil in developing
The basic idea in Siebert et al.’s ‘Four Theories of the Press’ is
countries, by revealing and pillorying it. However, the demand
that a society determines what communication system it will
for press freedom is practically unfulfillable in most developing
have. Thus the Authoritarian Press System was born under
countries because the governments always regard the mass
authoritarian regimes and Libertarianism emerged in democratic
media as something potentially very dangerous. Adequate for a
countries like Britain and US.
start would be a phased freedom of the media system, perhaps
at local or regional levels, i.e. corresponding to the experience Authoritarian Model: In authoritarian model, state is more
horizons of the recipients. This would on the one hand secure important than the individual. Individual interests are kept
the credibility of the media and on the other hand prevent a under state interests. An individual is happy, when he is a good
short-term “endangering” of the political system, i.e. trigger citizen, that is, when he obeys the state and the state will take
resistance from those with the political power. care of him. Here the role and aim of the press is to serve the
state.
Asserting such a development journalism depends decisively on
whether the rulers of a developing country can be convinced Libertarian Model: This ensures freedom of the press. The
that free communication is in the interests of the entire system, individual is free to choose, discus and proclaim whatever truth
whereby interests means that national autonomy is achieved or they find out. Here the individual is more important than the
preserved and the material standard of living is lifted by state. In this system society becomes a ‘free market place of
planned processes of social change. But such guidance of the ideas.’
system presupposes functioning feedback mechanisms. Free Social Responsibility theory: This theory is a convergence of the
communication does not mean abandoning management; on both previous theories. Media is to proclaim the truth, but for
the contrary it increases the potential for steerage. Development the good of the individual and state. NGOs acted and reacted if
journalism is not only to advocate externally set aims to the these media became silent.
recipients but at the same time through continuous feedback Soviet Totalitarian Theory: The media is owned and controlled
from them fulfill the function of examining whether the and directed by the state. Individual has to obey, belief state.
development measures are succeeding or not. The form of
Development communication Theory: To this group, a fifth
development journalism sketched here proceeds from the
theory made entry in the 60’s. It was Development communica-
premise that development policy measures run under the
tion theory. It originated in the postcolonial nations, which
perspective of the entire system, wherein those responsible
gained their freedom in the 40’s.
must satisfy local and/or regional needs and developments to
avoid failures and friction. By ongoing feedback from the The dialectical superiority: The authoritarian thesis gave birth to
people on the ground with the help of development journal- Libertarian antithesis. They together gave birth to a synthesis
ism which should also be the advocate of the recipients a called social responsibility theory. From this synthesis again
process of learning the rules of play of democracy can at the emerged an antithesis ie. Soviet Totalitarian theory. Again a
same time begin at local and/or regional levels, i.e. it can be synthesis took place, leading to Development journalism. It is
learned what loyal opposition means. surely superior to all other theories as it possess all the good
qualities and enhance the betterment of the human beings.
Fundamentally the most important task of development
journalism can be seen in removing the acquiescent basic Cultural foundation: The first four theories explains human
attitude towards one’s own destiny which is so closely tied up beings’ relationship to the state, while development communi-
with poverty. Such a passive, authoritarian world view is cation deals with the relationship with the environment. Each
expressed in the attitude that we cannot control events but are words, spoken or written; each act, thought of or acted out
in the hands of God. In this context one talks of learned affects the society. Therefore they must be used with utmost
helplessness, or the “hopelessness-helplessness” syndrome. discretion, benevolence and purpose.
Sagan sees learned helplessness as the main reason for natural Treatment of silence: It also agrees that silence also is some-
disasters’ claiming so many victims in developing countries. In times needed. In India ‘Maunabhrata’ is considered as more

145
 powerful than the rhetoric sometimes. But the Sophists used to farming as I am.” Reddy said they have jobs in the city and are
DEVELOPMENT

cry,” There is no wisdom like silence.” considering setting up businesses of their own.
Gandhian Outlook: While the consideration of conventional Kothapally is blessed with rich black soil but little rain. It is not
journalists were, ‘proximity, timeliness, prominence, significance a poor village - according to ICRISAT the watershed
and conflict, the value of development communication were programme has increased farmer incomes in the village to about
personal and social transformation, purposiveness, pragma- 20,500 rupees (about 445 U.S. dollars) per hectare. The village
tism, relevence and scientific. children look healthy, are well clad and bright-eyed. Yet water is a
COMMUNICATION

luxury, which is why Reddy uses drip irrigation too in his fields:
Reporting Rural Issues
”It’s worked well, and the government subsidy makes it
ENVIRONMENT-INDIA: Water Management Keeps
affordable.”
Farmers Afloat
Then there’s the compost that he feeds his sorghum crop with.
Goswami, Rahul. HYDERABAD, India, Jul 22 (IPS), 2003.
Prepared from farm waste by vermiculture, it costs Reddy four
Narayan Reddy, a sorghum farmer in the central Indian state of rupees a kilogramme, but he knows his money is returning to
Andhra Pradesh, pointed out two wells adjoining fields near his the village economy - the group of women that maintains the
village. ”There’s still some water in them at the bottom,” he vermiculture shed say they can save up to 30 rupees a day from
said with some pride. ”If we hadn’t built check dams and their sales.
percolation tanks, we would have had none.”
The water management project had initially focused on
Those water management techniques have indeed helped implementing soil and water conservation measures and crop
Reddy’s village of Kothapally, which is home to about 1,500 improvement techniques for individual farmers.
people and lies about two hours away by road from Hyderabad,
An ICRISAT scientist said that when the project group first
the state capital that is considered India’s biotechnology hub.
spoke to the village residents about trying out their techniques,
Reddy though had more on his mind than biotechnology Reddy had carefully sized them up, apparently gauging their
aspirations when IPS met him. ”If it doesn’t rain soon we’re in sincerity before agreeing to cooperate. Thereafter, they contrib-
trouble,” he said. ”It’s been two years of below-average rain and uted to build community structures.
this village at one time had people migrating away. No rain and
The enhancement of food productivity, said Jayanta
that could happen again.”
Bandyopadhyay, professor at the Centre for Development and
The region does not get very much rain at all - about 760 mm a Environment Policy of the Indian Institute of Management in
year, which hardly compares with, say the Konkan coast in Kolkata, ”is both needed and possible, without any extra drop
western India, for which 3,500 mm a year is routine. Even so, of water being used for irrigation”.
the structures the villagers built have helped recharge the
‘’If only India can increase its food productivity by a small
groundwater table around Kothapally.
fraction and improve its distribution, food security for all
In part, they have been designed according to a water manage- people can be assured,’’ Bandhopadhyay told a group of South
ment model promoted by the International Crop Research Asian journalists here at a workshop last month on water and
Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), which is one of sanitation for the poor.
the 16 global centres of the Consultative Group on Interna-
The meeting was organised by the Geneva-based Water Supply
tional Agricultural Research (CGIAR).
and Sanitation Collaborative Council and the Forum of
The management of the village’s watershed, which began in Environmental Journalists of India.
June 1999, has increased water levels, expanded green cover and
Of particular interest, added Bandhopadhyay, is how enhanced
enhanced productivity of crops, particularly of maize and
water-use efficiency in irrigation may be another way of
sorghum, says ICRISAT.
increasing food production. Indeed, according to ICRISAT, the
Spearheaded by the crop research institute and including a Kothapally project is being replicated in China, Thailand and
consortium of partners, like the state government’s Drought- Vietnam with funding from the Asian Development Bank.
Prone Areas Programme and the Rural Livelihood Programme,
Narasimha Reddy, resident of the village watershed association,
and centrally-run bodies like the Central Research Institute for
explained how food production can be dramatically increased.
Dryland Agriculture and the National Remote Sensing Agency,
the Kothapally project has become a model of watershed ”Much of our farm area was under cotton cultivation,” he said.
development. Kothapally and the surrounding regions contain black soil,
where traditionally cotton has been grown. ”But with this crop
Now, Reddy and his neighbours seem used to visitors descend-
there were more expenses and less benefit.” The village elder
ing upon them, displaying varying levels of interest in the
also points to lower insecticide use as a cost saving.
systems and structures of rural Andhra Pradesh.
”Now we intercrop maize and chickpea, which gives us higher
But it is not really as rural as it seems out there in the fields of
profit and helps control pests,” he went on. ”We use an extract
chickpea, maize and pigeonpea. The industries that surround
of the ‘neem’ seed to spray crops, and have planted a variety of
the state capital - where the farmer’s children seek to make their
pigeonpea that is high-yield - where earlier we harvested 50
careers - lie just over the horizon.
kilogramme per acre today it is 500 per acre.”
One of his sons, he told IPS, has an MBA degree. Of the rest
he said: ”They work in Hyderabad and aren’t as keen about

146
Just as important for the village and the farmers is the improve- development, that should be removed. One of them is urban

DEVELOPMENT
ment at the catchment level. The more than 100 bias.
water-harvesting structures the village has constructed can The present radio system broadcasting has a strong urban bias.
capture an extra 15,000 cubic metres of water. Characteristically production, transmission and listening facilities
That can make the difference between a good and a bad crop for are concentrated in the cities. Only a fraction of the total
many of the village’s farmers - or the difference between a number of radio receiver even today is in the rural areas. Apart
degree and none for a farmer’s son. from the radio broadcasting infrastructure being urban based,

COMMUNICATION
overwhelming majority of the programmes are planned and
Box
produced with urban audience in view. Often one hears the
Eminent Development Journalist Bags argument that what is the point in giving strong rural orienta-
the Magsaysay Award tion to the programme when most of the radio owners are
Poudel Keshab, 2002. Nepal News, AUG 02 - AUG 08, 2002. concentrated in the cities. It is a logical argument. But who is
Bharat Dutta Koirala won the prestigious Ramon Magsaysay responsible for this imbalance?
Award, 2002. Established in honor of the third president of Those who are responsible for planning and producing
the Philippines, the award recognizes individuals and institu- programmes have very little in common with the rural audi-
tions in Asia that work successfully for the welfare of the ences. Born - brought up and educated in urban centres, they
people. Koirala won the award, recognized as the Asian Nobel can hardly have empathy or sympathy for rural audiences. They
Prize, for his contributions to initiating development journal- are ‘professionals’ and their professionalism is seen as the ability
ism in Nepal. to use the symbols (language) and style of presentation familiar
During his tenure as chief editor of Gorkhapatra, Koirala to educated urban population. The major consideration for
introduced a weekly village profile column covering the issues these professionals is now their peer group will see their
of development and change taking place in rural areas. Koirala ‘professionalism’ not how the audiences will react.
remains a source of inspiration to many Nepalese journalists, Radio broadcasts began in the country in 1927, with two
having encouraged them to write on development issues. He privately owned transmitters at Mumbai and Calcutta. These
has helped to enhance professional journalism in Nepal with were taken over by the Government in 1930, and operated
development at its core. In his long career, Koirala has made under the label of Indian Broadcasting Service. In 1936, this
many contributions to bring changes in all spheres of the was changed to All India Radio (AIR), and was made a separate
media, including printing technology and reporting. department. Since 1957, the service is known as Akashvani, and
Be it the concept of wall newspaper, opening the country’s first at present, functions not only as a means of wholesome
community radio station or training journalists in development entertainment, but also as a medium to educate and inform
reporting, Koirala has played an important role in developing people in every nook and cranny of the country.
Nepalese mass media. All India Radio’s network comprised six radio stations in 1947.
Koirala contributions to the development of community radio All India Radio has at present (as of March 1996) 185 radio
in Nepal have been immense. After six years of hard work, the stations which includes 177 full - fledged stations, four relay
government issued the license for Radio Sagarmatha. Nepal has centres, one auxiliary centre and three exclusive Vividh Bharati
more than half a dozens community radio stations airing commercial centres. During 1995 - 96, eight radio stations at
programs in different parts of the country. Mussoorie, Rourkela, Puri, Joranda, Jowai, Daman,
Mokokchung and Diphu have been added to the entire
Awarded by Knight Journalism Foundation a few years ago,
[Link] are 146 MW transmitters, 50 short - wave
Koirala is still active in promoting development journalism,
transmitters and 89 FM transmitters. AIR, at present, provides
community radio and inspiring youth toward journalism.
radio coverage to a population of 97.3 per cent spread over 90
Koirala has always maintained a low profile in public but few
per cent area of the country. The concept of local radio station
journalism programs have seen the light of day without his
was introduced during the Sixth Plan when six stations were
active contribution. He started his career in journalism as chief
planned as pilot projects. The number of local radio stations in
reporter of The Rising Nepal in 1965 and became editor of
India today is 72.
Gorkhapatra daily and executive chairman and general manager
of Gorkhapatra Corporation. Besides serving as general The FM service of AIR, Delhi was launched 24 hours daily, on
secretary of Nepal Press Institute, Koirala is executive producer 14 February 1995, followed by AIR Mumbai, Calcutta and
of Young Asia Television. Chennai.
AIR stations broadcast more than 9000 programmes on family
Power of Radio in Development
welfare every month from almost all stations in all languages /
Radio has immense power to reach the ‘unreached’. The waves
dialects and in all formats. The importance of the girl child,
can reach remote corners of the country. It is fast, inexpensive
pulse polio immunisation, rights of children and the care of
and sows the seeds for development through communicating
pregnant women and children are some of the issues that are
development messages like that of family planning, health
given prominence to. AIDS is another high priority issue dealt
issues, environment issues and national spirit.
with. Each year the Akashvani Annual Award is given to the
But there are also some problems with Radio. There are some best programme on family welfare.
biases that prevent radio from playing significant role in

147
 phone-in interaction as a regular broadcast format is not a tried
DEVELOPMENT
Case Study 1: AIDS Awareness for Truck
Drivers through Interactive Radio one and hence unique.
Truck drivers are one of the high-risk groups for HIV infection. All India Radio, Bhopal in association with Rajiv Gandhi
As they are always on the move chances to educate them is Literacy Mission and District Educational Training Institutes
difficult. The Bhopal Radio in collaboration with the State tried this as a weekly programme. The broadcast programme for
AIDS cell hit upon a novel idea and proceeded to execute it one full hour was extended further through the 19 relay stations
systematically and successfully. The primary aim was to attract to cover the entire state. It was synchronized with an on-going
COMMUNICATION

the truck drivers and ensure their participation in the training program conducted every Thursday afternoons for
programme. primary school teachers in Madhya Pradesh. The teachers were
Step 1: Since the truck drivers were known to seek entertainment encouraged to put in their questions through direct long
by tuning in to music in the late nights between 11 p.m. and 12 distance phone calls. The money was reimbursed to them. On
midnight, suitable time slots to broadcast film songs of their an average, about 35 queries were answered during the hour-
choice during this time were chosen. In between the songs, the long programme. The success of this venture led to it being
messages on HIV/AIDS were inserted. For this, the reporters extended for one full year.
used to go to check posts or roadside restaurants where the
Case study 3: Empowerment of Women
drivers took their dinner and initiated dialogues with them. The
through Interactive Radio
drivers were then informed about the date of broadcast and
The radio scored over television in a women’s empowerment
requested to tune in accordingly without fail.
project. Women seemed unwilling to participate in television
Bhopal is the capital of Madhya Pradesh, the largest state in programmes aimed at bringing out the gender bias, empower-
India with 19 Radio Relay Stations. The length from one corner ment of women etc. in a male-dominated society. Radio served
to another of the same state sometimes is more than 1000 them to ask their question in complete secrecy with no binding
kms. Usually, the programmes were broadcast the very next day on them to reveal their true identity. But the problems were
so that the driver could listen to his voice, his favorite song; mostly genuine and needed proper guidance. This is exactly
along with the message. what happened in Bhopal. There was an instance when the wife
Step 2: Once the confidence is brought about, then slowly the of one of the senior officers of the station who was an
reporters started collecting details of the driver’s lifestyles, their alcoholic, requested the experts to treat her husband medically as
habits including sexual behavior. While this is an extremely well as psychologically.
sensitive matter and usually no driver accents his faults, a small There was the instance when children talked to the UNICEF
percentage among them did reply in the affirmative. They were Representative on how to behave when the father and mother
then given counseling to dispel superstitious beliefs, if any. are engaged in a quarrel. The children also asked him for
Step 3: The drivers often complained of fatigue, back pain, guidance if both the parents are employed and they were left
stomach upsets, cough, allergy etc and the AIR did talk to alone at home. The Radio phone-in could successfully make the
medical experts and started giving them advice. children participate during the sessions highlighting the rights
Step 4: The programme then took another turn and reporters of the child. Phone-in counseling came in handy during mass
were given mobile phones so that they can travel with the truck campaigns like ‘Pulse Polio’ where the Radio carried the message
drivers and it can be broadcast simultaneously. The truck drivers and performed its role as a responsible mass medium. During
were surprised and delighted to get the songs of their choice the continuous transmission mode broadcast listeners’ requests
within a minute from a distant radio station. Also simulta- were carried out only after confirming that the listener had
neously the medical experts in the studio solved their problems. completed his duty of immunizing his child.
Step 5: The programme had ‘live’ elements as well as recorded Case Study 4: Group Singing Lessons through Interactive Radio
portions. The Radio Station informed the families of the driver Interactive Radio can play a vital role in bringing together people
in advance of the broadcast schedule. This enabled them to separated by thousands of kilometers by combining the use of
know of his whereabouts and that he was doing well when satellite technology and the telecom revolution. National
they heard his voice. And it proved to be a morale booster. integration and the feeling of belonging to one country can be
Though the project was not continued due to shortage of achieved if this technology can be used to teach patriotic songs
funds. The programme was a great success. Radio was very and other traditional music to the children.
effective to deal with sensitive issues like HIV infection, as no Radio using IN SAT 1B Satellite, linked the children of Leh on
HIV infected person would like to appear on the screen or the Himalayas, the children of Pon Blair in the Bay of Bengal,
would like his identity to be revealed to the masses. But the children of Lakshadweep Islands in Arabian Sea, the
counseling for HIV infected persons who needs immediate children of Shillong in Meghalaya and others at the metropoli-
attention and who does not need hospitalization and who has tan centres and taught them in entirely new language Tamil.
no access to experts through pre-fixed time slots/ HIV-AIDS They were taught a patriotic of song of the poet Subrahmanya
Helpline broadcasts could contribute much. Bharathi through this mode and the climax was that these
Case Study 2: Primary School Teachers children separated by thousands of miles sang the same song
training through Interactive Radio which was received by the listener as though they were in one
Teachers Enrichment Education &. Training through distance place.
education is a well documented experiment. The two-way live

148
 DEVELOPMENT
LESSON 19:
POWER OF TELEVISION IN DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNICATION
Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to led to demands to increase the autonomy of Doordarshan;
these demands ultimately resulted in support for the Prasar
To learn how television can be utilized for development
Bharati Act.
To learn how development-oriented soap operas can be produced
The 1990s have brought a radical transformation of television
The national television (Doordarshan) and radio (All India in India. Transnational satellite broadcasting made its debut in
Radio, or Akashwani) networks are state-owned and managed January 1991, when owners of satellite dishes—initially mostly
by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Their news at major hotels—began receiving Cable News Network (CNN)
reporting customarily presents the government’s point of view. coverage of the Persian Gulf War. Three months later, Star TV
For example, coverage of the 1989 election campaign blatantly began broadcasting via satellite. Its fare initially included serials
favored the government of Rajiv Gandhi, and autonomy of such as “The Bold and the Beautiful” and MTV programs.
the electronic media became a political issue. V.P. Singh’s Satellite broadcasting spread rapidly through India’s cities as
National Front government sponsored the Prasar Bharati local entrepreneurs erected dishes to receive signals and trans-
(Indian Broadcasting) Act, which Parliament considered in 1990, mitted them through local cable systems. After its October 1992
to provide greater autonomy to Doordarshan and All India launch, Zee TV offered stiff competition to Star TV. However,
Radio. the future of Star TV was bolstered by billionaire Rupert
The changes that resulted were limited. The bill provided for Murdock, who acquired the network for US$525 million in July
the establishment of an autonomous corporation to run 1993. CNN International, part of the Turner Broadcasting
Doordarshan and All India Radio. The corporation was to System, was slated to start broadcasting entertainment pro-
operate under a board of governors to be in charge of appoint- grams, including top Hollywood films, in 1995.
ments and policy and a broadcasting council to respond to Competition from the satellite stations brought radical change
complaints. However, the legislation required that the corpora- to Doordarshan by cutting its audience and threatening its
tion prepare and submit its budget within the framework of advertising revenues at a time when the government was
the central budget and stipulated that the personnel of the new pressuring it to pay for expenditures from internal revenues. In
broadcasting corporation be career civil servants to facilitate response, Doordarshan decided in 1993 to start five new
continued government control. In the early 1990s, increasing channels in addition to its original National Channel. Program-
competition from television broadcasts transmitted via satellite ming was radically transformed, and controversial news shows,
appeared the most effective manner of limiting the soap operas, and coverage of high-fashion events proliferated.
progovernment bias of the government-controlled electronic Of the new Doordarshan channels, however, only the Metro
media. Channel, which carries MTV music videos and other popular
Since the 1980s, India has experienced a rapid proliferation of shows, has survived in the face of the new trend for talk
television broadcasting that has helped shape popular culture programs that engage in a potpourri of racy topics.
and the course of politics. Although the first television Pro-Development Soap Operas: A Novel
program was broadcast in 1959, the expansion of television did Approach to Development
not begin in earnest until the extremely popular telecast of the Communication
Ninth Asian Games, which were held in New Delhi in 1982. A soap opera is a form of dramatic serial mainly intended to
Realizing the popular appeal and consequent influence of entertain, and represents a unique genre of television program-
television broadcasting, the government undertook an expan- ming that has very specific characteristics. Three of these
sion that by 1990 was planned to provide television access to 90 characteristics are: the sponsorship and broadcasting of soap
percent of the population. In 1993, about 169 million people operas are usually controlled by advertisers or commercial
were estimated to have watched Indian television each week, networks; their production costs are relatively low in compari-
and, by 1994, it was reported that there were some 47 million son to other television serials; and their content is composed of
households with televisions. There also is a growing selection slow-moving, multifaceted plots of women’s fiction (Cantor
of satellite transmission and cable services available. and Pingree, 1983).
Television programming was initially kept tightly under the The beginnings of the television soap opera can be traced to a
control of the government, which embarked on a self-conscious number of sources, including the eighteenth-century English
effort to construct and propagate a cultural idea of the Indian novel, newspaper comic strips, traditional melodramatic theatre,
nation. This goal is especially clear in the broadcasts of such and the radio soap opera (Cantor and Pingree, 1983; Keeler,
megaseries as the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata . In 1980). Although television producers in the United States have
addition to the effort at nation-building, the politicians of successfully utilized the soap-opera format, the original
India’s ruling party have not hesitated to use television to build melodramatic genre of the soap opera was not completely
political support. In fact, the political abuse of Indian television

149
 adapted to the medium of television (Berrueta, 1986). Key of researchers created six series of telenovelas with educational
DEVELOPMENT

elements of the melodramatic genre, such as the moral and and pro-social content. By using the soap-opera entertainment
dramatic coherency of the characters in a story, are often ignored format to attract large audiences and commercial advertisers,
in American soap operas. Televisa’s soap operas promoted educational themes and pro-
Soap operas have consistently been one of the most popular social values that encouraged development practices in Mexico.
types of television programmes in the US. A survey indicated Sabido’s innovative idea of combining educational pro-social
some 50 million Americans considered themselves fans of at content in an entertainment-oriented dramatic serial was
COMMUNICATION

least one soap opera. Soap operas are also the most popular sparked in part by a lesson learned from Simplemente Maria,
genre of television programming in Latin America and India, (Just Simple Mary), a Peruvian telenovela (Brown, 1988; Singhal
and have expanding audiences in many other Third World and Rogers, 1988). This television series told the rags-to-riches
nations. Because of the ubiquitous nature of the soap opera as story of a slum girl, Maria, who became successful by using her
a communication phenomenon and its widespread popularity, sewing skills to make clothing for the family by whom she was
it is important to trace its historical development and diffusion employed. As Maria’s customers expanded to friends of her
in the Third World. employer, she purchased a Singer sewing machine; and in turn,
The introduction of the soap opera into the broadcasting Singer purchased advertising time on the programme. During
media of the Third World can be traced to the influence of the 1970s, when Simplemente Maria was broadcast in other
American radio soap operas as they spread mainly through Latin American nations outside Peru, the programme achieved
Cuba and into South America during the 1930s. These popular high audience ratings and the sale of Singer sewing machines
short dramatic stories, called radionovelas (radio novels) in sky-rocketed, much to the delight of the Singer company.
Spanish, became a staple of the airwaves in Latin America Sabido, an astute observer of the Simplemente Maria success
during the 1940s. story, reasoned that if a soap opera could motivate people to
With the diffusion of television throughout Latin America buy sewing machines as a means of increasing their income and
during the 1950s and 1960s, radionovelas eventually gave way to standard of living, then a soap opera could also be used to
telenovelas (television novels). Telenovelas, the Latin equivalent promote literacy, family planning, and health education. Sabido
of American soap operas, are the dominant genre of television believed more people would adopt development practices if
programming in Latin America. They are extremely popular television could promote the pro-social values and beliefs that
with television audiences and have generated large profits for encouraged such behaviours.
sponsors (Rogers and Antola, 1986). For example, typical The first pro-development television soap opera produced by
prime-time telenovelas have been watched by an estimated 50 to Sabido and his research group was Ven Conmigo (Come With
60 million viewers in Brazil (Caparelli, 1982; Rogers et at, 1989), Me), and was aired by Televisa in 1975-76. One of the major
have received audience ratings of over 30% in Mexico (Sabido, purposes of Ven Conmigo was to promote adult literacy
1981), and have generated lucrative profits (Singlial and Rogers, (Rogers & Antola, 1986). The programme was extremely
1988). successful, achieving an average ratings of 33. Ven Conmigo was
Although both American soap operas and telenovelas have a major influence in motivating 600,000 more people to enroll
shared popularity and financial success, the social content of in adult literacy classes in 1975-76, than had enrolled in the
telenovelas does not reflect the social content of American soap previous year (Rogers et at, 1989). This represented a 63%
operas. With the exception of a few dramatic serials produced increase in the number of enrolments, a percentage that
by the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN), and a few contrasts sharply with the 7% increase in enrolment the year
isolated episodes of network television serials, American soap before Ven Conmigo was broadcast, and the 2.5% increase the
operas are not designed to promote pro-social beliefs and year after the broadcasts had ended.
behaviour. Given these encouraging results, Televisa produced a second
Pro-social content has appeared in a small portion of American- pro-development soap opera called Acompaname (Accompany
produced television programmes. For example, situation Me), which was broadcast in Mexico in 1977-78. Acompaname
comedies such as All in the Family, Maude, and The Cosby achieved audience ratings of 29% and promoted family-
Show focused discussion on important American values and planning practices (Sabido, 1981). During the time it was
beliefs such as equality, freedom of clioice, and family harmony. broadcast, the number of family-planning adopters at govern-
The highly viewed ABC mini-series Roots, and its sequel, ment health clinics increased by about 560,000; and there was a
Roots: The Next Generations, also focused on the values of marked increased in the sale of contraceptives throughout the
equality and freedom (BalI-Rokeach, Grubc, and Rokeach, country (Sabido, 1981).
1981). Such values are considered to be pro-social because they The successes of Ven Conmigo and Acompaname were
promote beliefs and behaviour that are socially desirable and followed by the production of Vamos Juntos in 1979, which
beneficial to members of society (Rushton, 1982). promoted better treatment of children; El Combate the same
In many Latin American television soap operas, pro-social year, which promoted the themes of adult literacy and national-
content is purposefully designed into the programmes. One of ism; Caminemos in 1980, which promoted sex education for
the first television producers to utilise pro-social messages was teenagers; and Nosotras las Mujeres in 1981, which promoted
Miguel Sabido, Vice-President of Research at Televisa, the the welfare of Mexican women.
private Mexican national television network. Sabido and a team

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The impact of Mexico’s pro-development soap operas spawned

DEVELOPMENT
the production of similar soap operas with pro-social messages Traditional Soap Opera Pro-Development Soap Opera
in other Third World countries. The first country to learn from Entertaining Entertaining & Educational
the Mexican experience was India. In 1983 S. S. Gill, then the Value Erosion Value Reinforcement
Secretary of India’s Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Morally Incoherent Morally Coherent
visited Televisa’s research institute in order to learn how Mexico Unrealistic Realistic
created their pro-development soap operas. Gill and a number Atheoretical Development Theoretical Development

COMMUNICATION
of other Third World government officials were invited to a Produced mostly in the United States Produced Mostly in the Third World
meeting in Mexico by David Poindexter, President of the
Centre for Populations Communications International (CPC-I), The first distinction between traditional and pro-development
a non-profit organisation headquartered in New York which soap operas is that the former type is entertaining but not
provides consultation on communication and development deliberately educational. Traditionally, soap operas were
projects. Poindexter made an arrangement with Televisa for designed primarily to attract large audiences and sell commercial
these Third World officials to learn how Mexico was using products. Even the coining of the term ‘soap opera’ was
television to promote family planning. derived from the major soap manufacturers that sponsored
them. The attraction of large audiences achieved by producers
Hum Log
of American soap operas is almost exclusively through
When Gill returned to India, he decided to implement what he
entertainment. Education has not been much of a concern to
had learned at Televisa by organizing a team to create an Indian
American soap-opera producers.
soap opera that promoted pro-social beliefs and practices in
India. Gill’s efforts resulted in the production of Hum Log (We In contrast, pro-development soap operas have had a dual
People), India’s first television soap opera, which was broadcast purpose from their inception: first, to attract large audiences and
in 1984-85. Hum Log was designed to address some of the become commercially successful; and second, to subtly yet
social problems that plagued Indian society, such as uncon- purposefully convey educational themes and pro-social mes-
trolled family growth, the mistreatment of women and sages that promote development Although educational benefits
children, the evils of dowry, and alcohol abuse. Hum Log went can be obtained by watching American soap operas, such
on the air in India on 7 July 1984, and ended on 17 December learning is incidental and not planned.
1985, after 156 episodes. The second major distinction between traditional and pro-
Like the Mexican pro-development soap operas, Hum Log was development soap operas is the nature of their value content.
both popular and financially successful. Broadcast in Hindi, one Pro-development soap operas are designed to promote specific
of several major languages in India and spoken predominantly pro-social beliefs and practices. For example, Hum Log
in the North, Hum Log achieved audience ratings of 65 to 90% promoted the values of family harmony and female equality in
in North India and 20 to 45% in South India. Doordarshan, India (Brown, 1988). Manohar Shyam Joshi, the scriptwriter for
the Indian television network, producers of Hum Log, and the Hum Log, had these values in mind when he created the
Hum Log cast received an estimated 400,000 letters in response characters in the television series (personal communication, July
to the programme (Singhal and Rogers, 1989). Hum Log’s 1987).
popularity in India was unprecedented (Mitra, 1986). In contrast, American-produced soap operas are not intended
In May of 1987, Kenya followed the Mexican and Indian to promote specific values. Although communication research-
experiences and began broadcasting Tushauriane, (Let’s Discuss) ers have contended that specific values, beliefs, and behaviour
Kenya’s first pro-development soap opera. Tushauriane is are reinforced and disseminated by American soap operas
promoting family-planning practices and is the most popular (Buerkel-Rothfuss and Mayes, 1981; Cantor, 1979; Cantor and
television programme on Kenyan television. Pingree, 1983; Carveth and Alexander, 1985; Goldsen, 1977;
Sutherland and Siniawsky, 1982;
Differences between Traditional and Pro-
development Soap Operas Tan and Tan, 1986), social messages have been incidental to the
The pro-development soap operas produced by Televisa in primary focus of attracting large audiences. Isolated episodes of
Mexico differ in several characteristics from American-produced certain American soap operas have focused on socially relevant
soap operas. Overall, pro-development soap operas are more problems such as AIDS, alcoholism, cancer, child abuse, drug
educational, value specific, morally coherent, realistic, and addiction, and rape; but generally have not attempted to
theoretically designed than traditional soap operas produced in promote values and moral beliefs that alleviate such problems.
the United States. A third major distinction between traditional and pro-develop-
ment soap operas is with regard to the moral dilemmas
dramatised in the content. Traditional soap operas are
oftentimes morally incoherent, meaning no clear moral
distinctions are made between good and bad moral choices
(Berreuta, 1986). Even the ‘good’ moral characters of soap
operas frequently violate social norms of good moral
behaviour, confusing the audience about what constitutes
‘good’ or ‘bad’ behaviour.

151
 Perhaps the most graphic example of this incoherence was based on Milton Rokeach’s (1973, 1979) belief system theory of
DEVELOPMENT

created by the producers of the American soap opera Dallas. value stability and change. Using principles derived from these
During the 1986 television season, Bobby Ewing, a character of four theories, Sabido and his team developed a persuasive
Dallas, was typecast as a relatively good moral character whose communication strategy to build a theoretical framework for
behaviour was contrasted in the series with his brother, J. R. pro-development soap operas (Sabido, 1982).
Ewing, who represented an immoral character. After Bobby was Indian producers in part utilised a similar theoretic framework
killed in the 1986 season and then resurrected in the new 1987 in creating Hum Log, although the incorporation of theory by
COMMUNICATION

season, his character was totally changed, and he became worse the creative producers at Doordarshan was not as methodical as
than his brother JR. Although this is a very unusual example, was the use of theory by the programme producers at Televisa.
the existence of moral incoherence is common in American S. S. Gill and Manohar Shyam Joshi, the originator and writer
soap operas. of Hum Log respectively, indicated that they were quite aware
The characters in pro-development soap operas are more of the theoretical orientations used to develop the Mexican
morally consistent because they represent role models of pro- soap operas, and stated they used similar theory in the creation
social and antisocial behaviour. Although there is change in the of Hum Log (personal communication, July 1987).
moral development of characters over time, the positive and Finally, the last distinction to be noted in the present analysis is
negative consequences of moral choices are more clearly that traditional soap operas are produced mostly in the United
portrayed and the use of stereotypes is more graphic (Berrueta, States, whereas pro-development soap operas are produced
1986). mostly in the Third World. Although many soap operas
A fourth distinction between traditional and pro-development produced in the Third World have been solely for entertain-
soap operas is in the story plots of the programmes. Tradi- ment, a large percentage have promoted educational themes. In
tional soap operas are commonly unrealistic because they do not contrast, no soap operas in the United States to date have
give an accurate portrayal of life as experienced by most of their consistently and purposefully incorporated educational themes
viewers. Content analyses indicate American soap operas distort or promoted pro-social beliefs and behaviour.
images of the real world and relay misleading information, such
Implications to Development
as information about social problems and health-related
The growth of pro-development soap operas in the Third
matters (Alexander, 1985; Cassata et al., 1979; Estep and
World has important implications for scholars, mass-media
MacDonald, 1985; Goldsen, 1975; Greenberg and D’Alessio,
officials, and others interested in development communication.
1985; Pingree et al., 1979; Tan and Tan, 1986).
First, pro-development soap operas break down the false
Rather than depicting the lives of the social elite and misrepre- dichotomy between ‘entertainment’ and ‘educational’ media.
senting the majority of the public, pro-development soap Media effects research indicates that educational programmes can
operas have concentrated on the lives of the middle- and lower- be highly entertaining, such as Sesame Street. Likewise, entertain-
class urban dwellers. Although content analyses of ing programmes can be highly educational, such as in the case
pro-development soap operas are not readily available, our of Latin America telenovelas. Most media programmes have
content analysis of Hum Log reveals that most of the characters both educational and entertainment qualities. Therefore,
were depicted as middle-class urban dwellers; and the television, radio, and other programmes should not be
programme themes dealt with typical problems faced by Indian identified as either ‘educational television, radio, etc.,’ or
families living in urban areas. ‘entertainment television, radio, etc.’ The entertainment-
The fifth distinction noted here is that traditional soap operas eduation strategy employed by pro-development soap operas
have little or no theoretical foundation; whereas pro-develop- eliminates this false dichotomy.
ment soap operas are theoretically based. Rather than being A second implication addresses the moral issues that surround
guided by a systematic theoretic orientation, American soap the use of pro-development soap operas. Who is going to
operas are produced by a negotiated struggle between those decide what is pro-social and what is antisocial? Should
who value the content for its commercial purposes and those governments that control media decide; or private television
who value the cultural, social, or artistic aspects of the content companies? How about the mass audiences? The answers to
(Cantor and Pingree, 1983). such questions are not simple. Although most people would
In contrast, producers of pro-development soap operas agree that AIDS prevention is good, drug abuse is bad, dowry
employed the use of theory to persuade viewers to adopt pro- is wrong, and so on, the issues of AIDS education in American
social beliefs and practices. Mexico’s pro-development soap schools, drug testing in Britain, and women’s equality in India
operas emphasised five essential components: a large audience are all controversial.
appeal; an emphasis on cultural archetypes and stereotypes; an Finally, positive role models are needed to produce pro-
emotive nature; a promoter of pro-social values; and a pro- development soap operas. This blurs the distinction between
moter of pro-social behaviour (Sabido, 1982). an actor or actress’s private life and role as a television character.
In order to create the promotion of pro-social values and For example, producers of Hum Log had to drop the family-
beliaviour, Mexican researchers made direct use of Albert planning theme in the programme when one of the actresses, a
Bandura’s (1977, 1986) social-learning theory, Eric Bentley’s role model for promoting birth control, became pregnant in real
(1964) dramatic theory, and Miguel Sabido’s (1982) theory of life. Audiences influenced by pro-social beliefs and practices
tones. They also incorporated a number of important principles embodied by television role models are affected by the private

152
lives of these individuals. This necessitates finding special than any other mass medium. TV watching in today’s house-

DEVELOPMENT
entertainers willing to fulfill such demanding public and private hold is as much basic in nature as is eating or sleeping. Its
roles. immediateness increases its effectiveness more than any other
media - how common is our experience of switching on TV
An Appraisal
without any particular purpose of watching any specific
Ever since glamour girl television especially its recent incarnate
programme and watching it without giving any particular
color television appeared on the scene our policy makers and
attention to what is playing on the screen, even while carrying

COMMUNICATION
planners have shifted their attention more or less completely to
out routine household chores. And this is how normally TV
television. Step-motherly treatment Reeled out to radio in the
exists in our lives: occupying most of our subconscious most
last two five year plans is too glaring to warrant any statistics.
of the time when we are awake.
Our policy maker and planner have convinced themselves that
TV being audiovisual medium is far more powerful than radio The reach of television is today almost universal. Unesco
and therefore Television legitimately deserves the lion share. conducted a worldwide study on media violence between 1996
and 1997, the largest ever-intercultural study on this subject.
No one would deny that used properly television can be a very
The study, which involved more than 5,000 12-year-old pupils
powerful medium. The key word here is ‘properly’. How is the
from 23 countries, found that 97 per cent of the school areas in
television being used today? Who has access to it? As long as
its sample could be reached at least by one TV broadcast
policy makers and planners can see themselves and their peer
channel. Ninety-one per cent of the children have access to a TV
group and late night adult movies on the T.V. screen, they could
set, primarily at home.
not careless how the medium is being used and for what
purpose. As long as some ‘positive publicity’ is given to the While accuracy in measurements of television penetration is not
plans and schemes ‘designed’ and ‘implemented’ by the easy, available estimates show that television has had an equally
government who cares how television is used. In recent years phenomenal growth in India too. The latest report of the
there has been phenomenal growth of television at the neglect international investment bankers Saloman Smith Barney, “Asia-
of radio. If our policy makers and planners were really con- Pacific Television - the Big Picture”, put television penetration in
vinced and concerned that the electronic media be harness for India at about 31 per cent, “not as high as in China”. The
development this would not have happened. The intended report, however, displayed optimism about the future growth,
beneficiaries of most development programmes - the poorest saying that, “while we do not expect the Indian economy to
have no access the ‘powerful’ medium - T.V. Obviously the grow as fast as China through to 2005, there will be sufficient
power of TV medium is being used to make the life of the growth in at least two components of the television industry
urban elite a little more ‘interesting’. growth equation - penetration and income - and through it, ad
revenue and subscriber revenue.” The report estimated that the
When it comes to it, what does television provide? One of the
number of television households would grow from 65
most debilitating forms of narcotic addiction yet devised. A
millions in 1999 to 80 million in 2001, to 98 million in 2003
daily dose of hypnosis containing an abundance of direct and
and would reach 120 millions in 2005. The Times of India,
indirect suggestion, much of it negative and all of it absorbed
however, recently reported that the number of households
subconsciously, with unpredictable consequences…. An artificial
owning TV has already crossed 82 million, out of which about
substitute for everything real. The ultimate magic show in
70 per cent are connected through cable.
which nothing is what it appears to be. The modern equivalent
of the Evil Eye, which, in the words of a historian of witch- The growth has been outstanding, considering the fact that in
craft, ‘could harm children simply by looking at them’. The 1980, the number of TV sets in India was approximately 1.6
most pernicious and pervasive of all threats to the environment million, which then increased to 6 million in 1986, and to 32
- and yet the only such threat that can be eliminated by the million by 1994.
touch of a button. Changing Audience Habits
It is not possible to disentangle the influence of the experimen- Parallel to increase in television’s reach, there have been changes
tal stimulus itself from all the other interactive influences in audiences’ watching habit. More and more people are today
occurring during an experiment. It is thus not possible to spending more time watching TV today. As the worldwide
specify the extent to which the behaviour of research subjects is study by Unesco showed, children all over the world spend an
the result of the intended manipulation of the experimenter, or average of 3 hours daily in front of the TV screen. That is at
the result of unintended interactions generated during the least 50 per cent more time spent with this medium than with
experiment. Any experimental study, which claims to have any other out-of-school activity, like home-work, being with
found scientific evidence in support of TV viewing as a cause of family or friends, or reading. The Second World Summit on
specified effects is misleading, to say the least. Television for Children, held in London in March 1998, was
The two polarized views on the powers of television are told that watching TV is now the number one after-school-
indicative of the intensity of the discussion that the issue has activity for 6-17 years [Link] to Washington-based
generated. In general, the effects of mass media, especially TV-Free America Group, American children spend an average of
portrayals of violence in them, have been the subjects of 4 hours a day watching TV; they spend only 39 minutes a week
worldwide public and academic discussion for several decades in meaningful conversation with parents. According to the
now. But at the center of this discussion, almost invariably, is BBC’s research department, the national average for 1989
television as it has taken a significant place in our lives more among the British was 3 hours 46 minutes a day.

153
 In India, the National Readership Survey 1997 shows that the globally. The media violence overkill is an ingredient in a global
DEVELOPMENT

time spent on watching television has increased to more than 13 marketing formula imposed on media professionals and
hours a week amongst all television viewers. This is a 12 per foisted on the children of the world.
cent increase since 1995. Audiences of households with access to Violence is a stable and integral part of the world seen on
satellite and cable channels spend 25 per cent more time - 16.5 today’s television. Even programmes targeted at children are not
hours in an average week - watching TV. The audiences in the free of violence. In the United States, violent scenes occur about
top eight metros watch more television than those in smaller 5 times per hour in prime time, and between 20 and 25 per
COMMUNICATION

towns. hour in Saturday morning children’s programmes. The

The amount of time today’s audiences spends watching TV depictions of violence are camouflaged in humor, so it is
shows how important a place television has come to occupy in difficult for uncritical viewers - especially children — to realize
our lives. Not only it is the most important means of commu- what they are consuming. The commercial mechanism of
nication among the mass media, crucial to viewers’ need for violence - this is one of the two most important ingredients
information and entertainment, but also it casts significant used in almost all forms of television broadcasting for attract-
influence on their behaviour, attitude and lifestyle. As Nilanjana ing viewers, the other being sex - leads to manipulated use of
Gupta points out, scenes depicting violence. The exploitation of violence occurs in
Much of our knowledge, many of our attitudes, the topics of many different forms - only some explicit and the others not so.
conversation at work the next day, the brand of soap we pick up However, perceptions of violence can differ as widely as their
at the grocery store, the cartoon characters on our children’s forms, depending on social and cultural contexts, viewers’
clothes, our aspirations - almost every conceivable aspect of our personality, age and environment, among other things. For
lives is touched by this medium: yet, like eating or sleeping, we instance, a study carried out in Germany by Werner Fruh on
accept it as just another part of our daily routine, uncritically and violence perception also arrives at large perception differences
unknowingly. such as in the case of age groups when differing types of
It is this “subliminal communication” that television is capable violence and the form in which it is shown are included.
of which has worried social scientists and psychologists. • Direct violence portrayed on the screen is more clearly
Commenting on research into subliminal communication, identified as having a violent content than verbal violence.
Norman Dixon has written: ‘The most striking finding to date • Physical violence is more strongly experienced than psychic
… is that subliminal effects appear negatively correlated with violence.
stimulus energy. The further below threshold, the weaker or
• Violence directed at people contains a higher violence content
briefer the stimulus, the stronger its effect.’ Which means, the
for the viewing public than say violence directed at property
viewers’ “state of half-attention” during the time they spend
and things.
before or around TV is ideal for “insertion of suggestions”
into their subconscious. This fact is behind the commercials • Real violence, as shown in the news and in documentaries, is
being shown in between programs by advertisers who know perceived by the viewers as containing more violence than the
very well that viewers use “breaks” for brief work like going to same violence shown in a fictional form.
toilet or fetching something from kitchen or refrigerator. Playfair Most of the violence we see in films and television programmes
explains the process of “indirect suggestion” that works here. are crude not only in nature, but also in form also. The depic-
tions include a wide spectrum of violence from direct physical
Faces of Violence
assaults on humans, animals and inanimate things to domestic
Violence obtains attention. Perhaps this is because attention is
violence and verbal assaults, which may not be construed by
part of an old mechanism dating back to the early development
many viewers as violence per se. Depictions of sex in otherwise
of human beings. Early man learnt how to look closely at
non-violent programmes too can be frightening for children for
dangerous situations so as to be able to defend him and
whom the act is beyond comprehension.
survive. Television uses this for its own end. There is a danger
that television, battling for the attention of the viewers, may The other less obvious forms of violence are: reality violence
place more value on showing unusual pictures than pictures seen in news, documentaries and real-life-based programmes;
providing information. Violence is a demonstration of power. the aggressiveness of production techniques used in sound,
Its principal lesson is to show quickly and dramatically who can camerawork and editing; interactive video games that encourage
get away with what against whom. That exercise defines users to shoot and kill “enemies”; and internet sites that offer
majority might and minority risk. It show one’s place in what demo versions of such games and do-it-yourself information
Gerbner calls the societal ‘pecking order’. Most television and on assemble of bombs and weapons.
movie producers, who export their products, need a dramatic There is a vast array of approaches to presenting violent
ingredient that requires no translation, “speaks action” in any material, as there is to its perception. In terms of its visual
language, and fits any culture. That ingredient is violence. As presentation, the violence may occur in front of the camera and
Gerbner points out, be shown with graphic details. Or it may occur off-screen but be
Formula-driven media violence is not an expression of clearly implied. Violent acts may be shown in clinical manner in
freedom, popularity, or crime statistics. It is a de facto censor- close-up shots, or they may be shown from a distance, in long
ship that chills originality and extends the dynamics of shots. Characters involving themselves in violent acts may be
domination, intimidation, and repression domestically and presented - through various scripting tools - in many different

154
ways and there may be different reasons for different characters Network shows 14 hours of the stuff, Doordarshan and other

DEVELOPMENT
being violent. So also, the results of violence shown may be channels like Zee, Star Plus, Sony and MTV too have their own
widely different, including both the pain and suffering of slots. On their menu are various kinds of cartoons - some of
victims as well as the outcomes for the perpetrator or perpetra- them with mindless violence - such as Teenage Mutant Ninja
tors. Turtles, G. I. Joe, Batman, Spiderman, Superman, He Man,
Alladin, Flash Gordon, Defenders of the Earth, and Duck
Animation Films
Tales. Two cartoon shows — The Simpsons, and The

COMMUNICATION
Animation films - or cartoons, as they are popularly known -
Flinststones - are of a different class, with good stories told in
and televised shows of the World Wrestling Federation (WWF)
interesting manner through good clean humour and clever
are the leaders in violent content and sponsorship value in this
ideas, without resorting to violence to capture its audience. But
genre. Along with cartoons and WWF show, there are two
these two cartoons use typical American humour, because of
major areas that have recently turned into virtual battlefields:
which children in other countries less watch them.
violent computer games and the live coverage of violence.
In depiction of actual physical and behavioural violence, WWF Reality Programmes
shows perhaps outclass the rest of porgrammes. A detailed Reality programmes, like news bulletins, documentaries and
Indiana University investigation of 50 WWF Raw episodes real-life crime-based programmes, often show real-life violence.
telecast in 1998 on the USA Network found a staggering Violence used in news for the most part do not have any link
amount of profane or risque incidents. Researchers counted with crime: rather politically motivated violence - such as
1,658 instances of a character grabbing or pointing to their own demonstrations, arsons, riots, clashes with police etc. - are more
crotch - roughly eight every 30 minutes, not counting the slow- likely to be featured. Because violence has more news and visual
motion instant replays. On an average, there was less than 36 value, often political and extremist groups resort to violence to
minutes of wrestling in a two-hour show. There were 609 get noticed my mass media. Personal crimes and violence are
instances of wrestlers or others being struck by objects like reported by media more than any other form of violence, but
garbage cans or nightsticks. “Somehow they managed not to what is shown in news bulletins is mostly the effect of such
hurt each other,” said Walter Gantz, a professor at the Indiana’s crime and violence on victims.
Department of Telecommunications. “I am not certain that a Television coverage of wars by implication contains a lot of
10-year-old realizes that they are skilled at doing this. violence. How violent it can get was obvious during the Gulf
Contrary to the parents’ conception, cartoon films can be equally War when television worldwide for the first time carried live war
violent. And several studies have established that most cartoon pictures. Filmmaker Shyam Benegal condemns such coverage
programmes today seen on television contain violence in pointing out that it leads to desensitisation of the viewer.
quantity that may be unsafe for regular viewing by children. I would say the most reprehensible thing that happened
According to a study conducted by Quebec’s Laval University, recently was the air attacks on Iraq, and Clinton was watching it
cartoons have 68 per cent more violence than any adult show. like it was a performance. Hundreds of thousands of people
At their impressionable age, children love to watch the slapstick were suffering, thousands of tonnes of dynamite was explod-
humour, the fantasies and the actions in animation films. ing all around them. While we were sitting in front of our
Watching cartoon characters being blown to pieces or run over television sets, impatiently waiting for the bombings to begin.
by a bulldozer make children laugh because they know after all Now, that is the worst kind of pornography of violence, and
these hazardous attacks by the antagonists their favourite we’ve not stopped it, we’re not even capable of stopping it, are
characters are going to return to life, as active and violent as ever. we?
Mickey Mouse was a cute, well-mannered, little mouse that had Documentaries and real-life crime-based programmes, on the
very mild mannerisms and gestures. Mickey Mouse was the other hand, show personal violence and crimes, re-constructing
epitome of peace and goodness. He was the protagonist to the events of the past. In these depictions, violence is predomi-
core and there were no shades of gray in him. People adored nantly physical and shown in graphic detail. Indian television
Mickey Mouse for being such a gentleperson. Walt Disney’s has recently produced such programmes on almost all leading
philosophy was to have characters as black and white with very channels. India’s Most Wanted on Zee (which was later withdrawn
few traces of gray. The themes that he chose for his subsequent by the channel), Bhanwar on Sony and Apraadhi on Star Plus are
feature films, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Pinocchio, all based on real-life criminal cases, though they vary in treat-
Bambi and other short films just reiterated that fact as these ment and focus. India’s Most Wanted has often been compared to
films had characters which represented in black or white. The America’s Most Wanted, which mostly concentrates on actual
prince and the princess had to be good all through and the police raids. But producer and director Suhaib Ilyasi points out
witch was an evil person with absolutely no goodness in her that his serial is closer to BBC’s crime feature of the early 90s,
soul. Disney condemned the blacks and glorified the whites in Crime Stopper.
all his films. Violence did exist, but an acceptable level. It is not just programmes that contain violence, but many of
The success of Bugs Bunny and Tom and Jerry led to rapid the programmes’ promos and commercials utilize violence too.
growth in animation films production. Fifty years after Bugs There are logical reasons why so many promotions feature
Bunny appeared, cartoon programmes are a popular ingredient scenes of violence. Promos have only a very short time to show
of television channels around the world. While the Cartoon something interesting enough to attract the viewer. Most
promos contain several scenes thus complicating efforts to

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 explain the plot in 10 or 20 seconds. With so little time, the committed as an act away from public gaze: in the privacy of a
DEVELOPMENT

easiest things to feature are those that require little explanation: room, in the jungle but always in a lonely, isolated spot. The
violence and sex. voyeuristic gaze in this particular instance also includes an
incestuous one, since the brother is tied up at a height and has
Computer & Video Games
perforce to witness the rape and death of his sister.
But now with violent video games we have entered a realm
where instead of being the passive receivers of images of Today’s hero moves around in a group (Anil Kapoor is the
quintessential mob-hero - refer, for example, to his role in Ram
COMMUNICATION

human death and suffering, we are pushing the button that

inflicts human death and suffering on another human being. Lakhan, 1990), in the way the underprivileged instinctively move
The growing threat to our children - and their parents - from in a clannish group. It is not as if Amitabh Bachchan as the
violent video games is not just an extension of violent persona par excellence of the seventies and eighties did not have
television and movies, it is a whole new world, and a quantum friendship with other male characters - as, for example, in Sholay
leap in danger. where he and Dharmendra are partners in petty crimes. How-
ever, an aspect of the personality that he always cultivated was
Violent video games are the mental equivalent of putting an
that of a loner, and a nonchalant one at that.
assault rifle in the hands of every child - a friend of mine refers
to them as “murder trainers”. By sitting and mindlessly killing Acts of violation committed against the father, sister or mother
countless thousands of fellow members of our own species are what are responsible for the rebirth in violence of today’s
without any ramification or repercussions, we are teaching skills hero. The storyline in the films of the fifties and sixties,
and concepts and values that transfer immediately anytime they whether they dealt with romance or gangsterism, often rested
get a real weapon in their hand. on a tension between familial and social relationships. In the
films of the 70s, the family showed signs of breaking up, with
Typical of the standard violent genres are: mythical adventure
the father getting lost either morally or physically. This loss
(Dark Vengeance), war (Total Annihilation) and “point and
defined the hero’s being. Today it is the family and by extension
shoot” - the most dehumanising kind - (Damage Incorporated
the community, as territorial notions, that are to be defended at
and Blood Bath). There is a rating system, akin to the one for
all cost by the hero.
movies, maintained by the Entertainment Software Rating
Board. Dark Vengeance and Total Annihilation are ‘Teen 13+’ It is in this context that the hit of the late 1980s Phool aur
for animated violence; Blood Bath is ‘Mature 17+’ for realistic Kaante is interesting. It deals with the ‘lost father’ returning very
blood and violence. Damage Incorporated is not rated. decisively to reinstate himself emotionally and physically into
the ‘family’. This inversion of the popular 70s theme possibly
Games where the death wish spills over in no measured
was as much a factor in the film’s success as the new type of
proportions and could very well overflow into real life. Psy-
violence it ushered in. Nageshwar Rao, the city’s leading
chologists say that with the increasing addiction of computer
underworld don, kidnaps his own grandson to force his
games, the bombshell of violence has already started to
estranged son and daughter-in-law to come and live with him.
explode. Teenage violence is expressing itself in the increased
He is finally killed in an encounter with a rival gangster and his
suicide rates and the preponderance of school bullies and
‘surrogate’ son, who has been with him through thick and thin
instances of actual physical violence in the campus.
and expects to inherit the ‘empire’, is now incensed at Rao’s
Some internet sites that offer game demonstration programmes affection for his biological son. In the gangster films of the
do not use ratings and do little to block children’s access to 1970s, it is the hero who, estranged from his real father,
violent games. This added to weak adult supervision and gravitates towards a surrogate one from the underworld.
poorly enforced or displayed violence ratings bolster children’s
After the long spate of violence-oriented films upto the mid
access to such games.
nineties, melodies, interspersed with stories of teen romance,
Community Violence have made a comeback in commercial films. It was Maine Pyar
Several films today, notable among which are Tezaab (1989), Kiya that initiated the return to melodies in films. A record
Angaar (1993) and Gardish (1993), show the community number of audiocassettes of this film were sold and the
participating in the fights between the hero and the villain as popularity of the songs outdid hits of the preceding decade.
mute spectators. This is an absolutely new and frightening The film was produced by Rajshri Productions who were
aspect of ‘mass’ culture that cinema has internalised. The known for their small-budget, modest-return films based on
spectators are mute and will not interfere or intervene, or even rural, non-violent themes and featured new stars and a new
give evidence later. They watch within the frame and magnify director. The film became a super-hit, surpassing Sholay, mainly
the terror of the violence that is being experienced. Their very because of the popularity of the songs. But even in these
passivity is a background against which physical violence stands successful comedies, the use of violence is mandatory at least in
out in stark contrast. One of the most devastating of such resolving the conflict between the rich and the poor.
mass scenes in recent times has been in Jigar (1993) where the
protagonist’s sister is raped publicly in a square to teach the
Different Types of Violence
One of the biggest concentrations of violence is on Sony’s
brother a lesson. The mother runs from pillar to post and even
sister pay channel AXN Action TV, which depicts nothing but
tries to enlist the help of a policeman nearby, but to no avail.
mindless violence 24 hours a day. Some of the films aired on
The girl then publicly commits suicide. Rape has always been a
the channel are B-grade action movies. WWF fights also
staple ingredient of the villain’s villainy, but it has always been
contained a large quantity of mindless violence: men and

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women throwing each other around all over the place with gay • Become “immune” to the horror of violence;

DEVELOPMENT
abandon, kicking, punching, hitting “where you like it”. • Gradually accept violence as a way to solve problems;
In fact, even Discovery Channel, which is considered by many • Imitate the violence they observe on television; and
parents to be harmless for children, shows violence in the form
• Identify with certain characters, victims and/or victimizers.
of animals chasing each other and killing them.
Extensive viewing of television violence by children causes
Research monitored programmes on five channels over nine
greater aggressiveness. Sometimes, watching a single violent

COMMUNICATION
days. It found 759 distinct incidents of violence across the
programme can increase aggressiveness. Children who view
channels, which included Doordarshan National and Metro,
shows in which violence is very realistic, frequently repeated or
Zee, Sony and Star Plus. Zee led the channels with 365 inci-
unpunished, are more likely to imitate what they see. The
dents, while Doordarshan Metro was last with 62.
impact of TV violence may be immediately evident in the child’s
The study identified as many as 59 types of violence - audio and behaviour or may surface years later, and young people can even
visual, physical and psychological - were identified by the study. be affected when the family atmosphere shows no tendency
Threats, slapping, screaming, shooting, assaulting, uttering toward violence.
expletives, pushing, clobbering, stabbing, mental torture, eerie
This does not mean that violence on television is the only
sound-tracks, threatening music were de riguer on all
source for aggressive or violent behaviour, but it is a significant
programmes on all channels. A good many were unnecessarily
contributor. Factors which can be mentioned as being able to
long depictions of violence. Over one-third of the “violence-
influence the effects of television violence alongside the general
types” appeared in 25 per cent of the episodes monitored. The
cultural system and the sub-system one lives in are the imbed-
episodes were in the genre of horror, murder, mystery and
ding (or better the lack of imbedding) in peer groups as well as
suspense thrillers.
personality traits such as self-esteem, intelligence and gender. All
One shocking finding was that serials like Shapath, Aahat, in all, the children’s aggressive behaviour patterns and percep-
Shaktimaan, Anhonee, Kohra, — all horror or violence-ridden tions are a mirror of what they experience in their real
serials — had sponsors in Cadbury’s (confectioners), Johnsons’ environment: frustration, aggression, and problematic circum-
(baby products), Kissan (jams, squashes and ketchups), Parle-G, stances. Peer influences, family role models, social and economic
Chyawanprash, Horlicks, Complan and other health drink status, educational level and the availability of weapons can each
makers. All these advertisements targeted children as consum- significantly alter the likelihood of a particular reaction to
ers, making it obvious that children constitute a major part of viewing violence on television.
these programmes’ viewership. In fact, most serials made no
effort to conceal the fact that they regarded children as the prime
viewer of horror and crime-based programmes. The study Note
noted that Aaahat, Anhonee, Bhanwar, India’s Most Wanted
and X-Zone received top ratings, for audio effects among the
four to six years age group.
However, there were a few positive trends as well: On certain
days there was a low degree of violence in serials. Occasionally,
there were a few programmes - such as Just Mohabbat,
Amanat, Saans and some of Doordarshan’s soaps which had
no violence, but appealed to the intelligence of the viewers.
But such serials are not able to counter the popularity of thriller
serials. A survey conducted by IMRB has revealed that there is a
growing class of viewers being weaned away from the never-
ending soaps to detective serials. The reason, according to the
survey, is that detective serials are far more action-packed than
soap operas. The list of the “action-packed” serials included
Mohandas B.A.L.L.B., India’s Most Wanted and Saturday
Suspense on Zee; CID and Bhanwar on Sony; Bullet and Vakeel
Jasoos on DD Metro; Saboot, Kohraa and Yeh Hai Raaz on
Star TV.
In a separate study, the Centre for Advocacy and Research found
controversial and popular Shaktimaan to be replete with
violence. In one episode there were 17 acts of violence within a
span of 25 minutes, including assaulting, slapping, punching,
shooting, strangulating, burning, pushing and stabbing.
Effects of Violence
Hundreds of studies of the effects of TV violence on children
and teenagers have found that children may:

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DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 20:
INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to components. What are needed are technical skills to specify;
design, integrate, operate, and maintain advanced IT systems.
To learn the development potential of new communication technologies
Indeed, the IT industry is a high value added industry which
To learn how internet can be used for national development
many countries covet. Then: is nothing wrong with setting up
Communication is one of the most fundamental characteristics such an industry, if it is well supported. However, there is no
of human society. To be human is to communicate with one’s conclusive evidence to suggest that a country that is strong in
fellow beings. The purpose of communication is to be able to the production of IT equipment is also adept at applying the
know each other, to share experiences and aspirations and, technology. Similarly, then: is no evidence to suggest that the
therefore, to help each other achieve greater progress. application of IT requires a strong IT industry. On the contrary,
With the introduction of telecommunications, first through many countries are good at applications without having a
telegraph and then voice communication, we began to have strong base in IT production.
communication at a distance. IT Development and Society
Many different concepts have been used to describe this To be sure, the new communication era is the child of techno-
transformation. One of me earliest notions was expounded by logical advancement and innovation, especially in the recent past
Marshall McLuhan who envisioned the rise of me electronic We cannot imagine these developments taking place without
global village. Kobayashi of NEC coined the term CAC for giving doe recognition to the advancements in microelectronics,
computer and communications, describing the marriage of computer hardware, software engineering, and telecommunica-
passive communications and the computer as a processor and tions systems. However, mere is a tendency to disregard the
manipulator of information. With the arrival of broadband social and cultural pull factors, as opposed to the technological
ISDN, we will have bandwidth on demand, integrating push factors.
telecommunication, data communication, and broadcasting in Economics tells us mat supply and demand are the critical forces
one common channel. Multimedia communication across the that govern market behavior. Technology would not have
globe will become a reality-This has led to the concept of VIP in advanced so rapidly had it not been for the social and cultural
communications— visual, interactive, and personal. Also with demands that provided the economic impetus for new
the wide availability of satellite systems we will be able to products and services. Social change is what drives TT. A closed
communicate with anyone, anywhere, at any time. feedback loop also operates me other way—IT advancement
While these turn of events are generally welcomed by developed promotes even greater social change, and so it goes on without
and some developing countries, many of the latter are generally any end in sight.
overwhelmed by it and are often paralyzed into inaction. Many influential books and papers have been written on the
IT Application versus an IT Industry nature of this cultural change, its transformative consequence
One fundamental issue that has to be resolved at the outset is over societies, and the reasons behind it— ranging from the
whether all nations should endeavor to have an IT industry. social and cultural, to the economic and even management
There is no doubt mat every nation dial aspires to progress perspective. The present era is characterized by me rising
must develop applications of IT according to its own needs. importance of information and knowledge in all spheres of
Yet, for many countries, there is still confusion as to whether human activity, whether individual and personal or collective
they should have an IT industry as well. Certainly, for some and social. Access to information and knowledge has become
countries, the IT industry has become an important constituent essential for social and economic development More important
of the economic pie. Malaysia is one such example, as is me case than mere possession of information and knowledge is the
with Taiwan, me Republic of Korea, and Singapore, among ability to use them well. The real content of IT is not technol-
others. ogy but knowledge. And the real purpose of possessing
knowledge is the enhancement of cognitive, mental, and
However, for many other developing countries with no special
intellectual power.
resources or reasons to build up an IT industry, this should not
become an issue, it is not really essential to have a domestic IT Thus the future measure of progress is me ability to acquire and
industry in order to use IT effectively. But to re-emphasize the use knowledge. Land, labour, and capital will become insignifi-
point, every country must be able to develop key IT applications cant in comparison. This is what is meant by the knowledge
required as part and parcel of its development programme. society. People and human resources become the key resources
Knowledge and skills are essential to develop such applications, of any nation. Human intelligence and creativity are the real
for which production capacity in IT is not necessary. Using the forces behind wealth creation and the achievement of a higher
concept of ‘make some, buy some’, applications can be easily quality of life.
created by acquiring widely available hardware and software

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 DEVELOPMENT
Since the application and exploitation of FT ultimately involve faster and more effective communication. On the other hand, if
active participation of people and depend on their intellectual command and control is required, as in some production
ability, social and cultural change is the root of its development- environments, that can also be done.
This brings in another concept vital lo our discussion—
revolutionary versus evolutionary change. The experience of
many countries suggests that IT development and application
is an evolutionary process rather than a revolutionary one

COMMUNICATION
simply because of the cultural element. People need time to
learn and adjust to the new technology. Also, the new technol-
ogy requires time to initiate sustained change in social
organizations and production environments. Recent studies,
for example, have shown that productivity increase is only
evident now after more than 40 years of IT application.
Even though the evolutionary process must be allowed to run
its course, there is no reason why it cannot be accelerated. The
means of doing this is by proper planning using me strategic
approach. Long-term targets must be identified and key The main issue in the social context is the provision of a
resources mobilized to meet these targets. Ownership of critical positive environment for the acceleration of development
parts of the plan must be established and measurable outputs through efficient use of the knowledge-based economy. This
identified for each. implies support systems that promote access to, and application
of information and knowledge. Infrastructure has to be created
Impact and Issues of the New to enable people to apply information for personal develop-
Communications Era ment. New forms of human and management organization
The impact of the new communications era is too varied to be should be promoted, which will enable optimal use of
easily pinned down. In this discussion we will concentrate on knowledge for learning, social interaction, and decision making.
the economic, social, and cultural impact. The economic impact
Cultural change is the most difficult issue to deal with, as it
revolves around the increasing information intensity in me
touches upon the very personality and values of people as
production and delivery of goods and services. Furthermore
individuals and members of society. The new communications
due to the globalization of information services without
era opens up a completely new paradigm where the democrati-
restrictions on time and space. new forms of business processes
zation of access to information can lead to a real
are made possible that transcend lime and space. As a result
democratization of opportunities. However, this possibility
there is a transformation and restructuring of economies
may just be an illusion that only a few will want to believe.
around the globe.
Technology always behaves as a double-edged sword. Instead
These are the reasons for the shift from the production of of narrowing the gap between the haves and the have-nots,
goods to services, and me rise of professional and technical new technology may actually widen it. Disenfranchisement of a
services as opposed to operational tasks. Added value, product large proportion of the population may be the end result.
differentiation, and product and service integration all come
Those in the deprived category may not even be able to start
about from the creative use of knowledge and effective
when others have already moved on to Ac advanced stage. This
application of IT. These are the same reasons that the Uruguay
applies equally within a particular nation or between nations in
Round of the GATT negotiations included services as part of
the international arena. The ultimate result will be the same—
the global trade liberalization process which also focused on
the domination of one group over another. In observing
intellectual property. The key issue for developing nations is
developments on the international scene, it is clear that the
how to reposition their economic activities with me increasing
Western nations have a clear lead. This is manifested not only in
intensity of knowledge and IT. Technology is one of (be
the technological context, but also in the cultural and social
sensitive factors. Domination by the developed countries as
sense where Western values are paramount and are being
manifested by ownership of intellectual property is one
propagated actively through education, entertainment, and the
possible cause of conflict, which has to be resolved.
mass media. It does not help that much of international
In the social sphere, development has shifted from the physical communication is carried out in English and other major
to the mental and intellectual. Human development is now me European languages.
focus of national planning. At the individual level, it is the
Economic, social, and cultural imperatives are active breeding
availability of, and access to, opportunities for personal growth
grounds for political conflict Culture will become increasingly
that matter. For social organizations, IT opens up new forms
important in international relations as military and ideological
of organizational structure’s that will enable new ways of
threats ebb. Open global communication will bring cultures and
interaction between people. As already noted, IT favours neither
civilizations in face-to-face interaction for the first tune in
centralization nor decentralization, but makes both more
human history. Already there is talk of the clash of civilizations,
efficient. As a result networks of people with common interests
with the perceived threat to Western civilization arising from
can easily be constructed on a global basis as exemplified by the
civilizations in the East. The end of history has also been
Internet. Traditional hierarchies can be flattened to make way for

159
 predicted, with the ultimate triumph of Western culture and superhighway. This ill-defined term means many things to
DEVELOPMENT

values over other alternatives. different people. Global communication is not new. Nor is the
Even though such views may not generally reflect the attitudes interconnectivity of computers through the global telecommu-
of the common man, they do not help in allaying the worst nications network. Thus the global information highway already
fears of developing nations who are being persuaded to open exists for most countries. However, three key features differenti-
themselves up to global access. However much we may wish to ate the future superlative form from present networks: wide
downplay the political and economic domination of developed bandwidth, multimedia in the same communication channel,
COMMUNICATION

nations, it is a fact that must be addressed. A more equitable and geographical reach. Some of the key technologies enabling
world for open social and cultural exchange must be established this advancement are fiber optic transmission, ATM switching,
if we wish to sec the realization of the new communication era. data compression, and open systems standards.
We must team to recognize and value the validity and unique- Due to the high cost and technical complexities involved, it is
ness of all cultures. And there should be no attempt to no surprise that only the most advanced nations actually have
subjugate others to one’s own values and culture. information superhighway projects in place. Most developing
Two other critical issues which span all three economic, social, nations are generally unable to mount a large-scale project of
and cultural dimensions must also be addressed, especially in this kind for several reasons. First, the telecommunications
the context of developing nations. First, human resources are in infrastructure is weak. Second, the human resources required are
short supply to develop and operate IT systems. Worse still is, simply not available. Third, the capital investment necessary is
the weak ability of the general population to use and manipu- beyond the capacity of most countries to raise. Finally, we need
late information employing modern IT systems. A programme to ask the basic question: What is an information highway for?
of information acculturation on a mass scale has to be orga- In answering the question, we may be able to specify a more
nized including IT literacy. modest, yet effective, information highway project which may
be within the reach of many developing nations.
First, they need a good infrastructure to promote development
in education, health, social services, and economic functions.
Second, efficient and reliable communication is required to
facilitate the practice of knowledge-based work, whether in the
government or the private sector. Third, communication
services must be made available widely to enable economic
activities to become more information based. It may be argued
that for these purposes it is not essential to have a superhigh-
way. What is required is a good highway with the potential to
grow into one that is super in the future.
Two basic requirements underlie the usefulness of an informa-
tion highway: the physical infrastructure, and the information
content. The physical infrastructure has to have sufficient
geographical distribution to reach a large part of the population.
Second, the communication and IT infrastructure is generally
Cost factors have to be controlled by proper selection of
weak in developing nations. A correlation has been established,
technology and priorities. Standards will also have to be
for example, between teledensity and economic development. A
judiciously chosen. Efficient and reliable service will only come
good telecommunications infrastructure promotes growth and,
about with the presence of competent technical staff. The
vice-versa, economic development creates demand for telecom-
second component, information content, is very often forgot-
munications. Therefore, developing nations have to pay special
ten. Information servers available and accessible to all are
attention towards establishing a more widespread, reliable, and
essential. This brings the question of sources of information,
efficient telecommunications infrastructure.
their access mechanisms, and the ability of the people to use
Likewise, per capita expenditure on computer systems and such information. Issues of standards, technology, technical
services is low in developing nations, far below that of the skills, and IT literacy again arise.
developed world. The issue here is not simply to increase
The experience of the Internet is worth re-examining. Begin-
expenditure, but bow to do it to achieve the best results.
ning as an open communication environment serving a few
Knowing how fast technology is changing increases the
developed countries, it is evolving into a giant global network
complexity of making choices and priorities. At the same time,
for many different kinds of users. Some of these users are now
however, developing nations have made little investment in
in closed groups. Some information is now only available for
out-of-date technology. They could avail themselves of an
sale, no longer free. Lately, Internet has also begun serving the
excellent opportunity to exploit the latest technology and the
commercial community, apart from research and education, the
most modem systems if they plan wisely.
government, and the military. Yet one feature remains un-
The Information Superhighway changed: anyone can be linked to Internet. Only access to certain
Many of the issues discussed earlier converge in the latest groups and information is restricted to some. The lesson for
manifestation of the new communications era, the information developing nations is that anyone can join the club and they

160
must. A certain degree of goodwill has been created in a spirit through the formal education system. This requires an

DEVELOPMENT
of sharing. But in order to gain access to critical information one efficient planning system matched by the capacity to carry out
must earn respect and have something of value to share with the necessary task.
others. 4. Strategic planning and management
Development Strategies A strategic approach is essential to guarantee the achievement
It is imperative mat developing nations approach the new of national objectives. Since the transformation envisaged

COMMUNICATION
communications era in an organized manner, with proper will involve every member of society, and every organized
pluming and strategies for action: group, a programme that mobilizes all me critical resources is
1. Creating a shared vision of the new communications era necessary. Objectives, priorities, resource allocation strategies,
and key national programmes need to be formulated.
It should be positively accepted and widely promoted, that
Realizable targets should be established, and key players to
the new communications era will engender a transformation
perform specific functions identified. The restructuring of
of human society. Our way of life, culture, and values will be
critical organizations in the government and private sectors
changed. Intellectual prowess will become the most
should also be considered, to make them more amenable lo
important factor for human development, feeding from
the application of higher levels of information content.
information and knowledge to propel human societies to
greater heights of achievement. Mental and cognitive skills One of the most critical aspects of this planning process is
must be developed and applied effectively in creative technology acquisition and development. Institutions and
knowledge-based work environments. Such radical concepts organizations must be created to perform this task. In some
need to be discussed openly and disseminated widely in cases, specialized institutes to carry out R&D need to be
order to create a shared vision of the new communications established. Otherwise the capacity to develop new
era. Without a vision that is shared by all members of information systems will remain weak, leading to over
society, it will not be possible to plan and execute a dependence on foreign suppliers. One strategy that has often
programme of social restructuring requiring their active been overlooked is government procurement. Since the
participation. government is a significant buyer of systems and equipment,
it is worthwhile to have an offset programme in co-
2. Intensifying the Process of information acculturation
operation with suppliers that will also enable the nation to
A shared vision is the foundation for the process of acquire technology and skills.
information acculturation. This leads to the assimilation of
5. Accelerating the development of the communications
new values towards bringing about a positive change in
infrastructure
attitudes and behavioral patterns. Intensifying this process
requires effective use of the formal educational system, as Two complementary components make up the
well as other informal mechanisms. The objective is to communications infrastructure; the ‘hard’ and the ‘soft’.
inculcate new cultural values towards information and ‘Hard’ components are computers, telecommunications, and
knowledge on a wide scale. It is also necessary to measure the data networks- ‘Soft’ components are the information
effectiveness of the acculturation programme so that contents, such as databases and information servers. Both
corrective action can be taken where necessary. are equally important. Developing nations are weak in
practically all areas, but telecommunications deserve special
The assimilation of the knowledge culture by society will
emphasis, especially in rural areas. Its critical importance and
lead to a more equitable balance between technology push
high capital cost are conflicting demands that must be
and social pull. Rapid advances in technology have put many
resolved. One route that has been taken by many countries
people at a grave disadvantage: they have become paralyzed
successfully is deregulation and privatization. However, this
by the onslaught of new products appearing with ever
may not be relevant to all nations, since they may face
decreasing life cycles. IT development, on the other band,
different circumstances. Per capita expenditure on computers
should be based on human social and economic needs, and
and services is low in most developing nations and should
this should determine the course of technology exploitation.
be increased. There is no real norm. Each country should
3. Generating the necessary human resources allocate sufficient funds to ensure that critical mass is
The transformation of work will render many skills and jobs achieved in key areas application.
irrelevant. The automation of work, involving simple 6. Technology assessment and forecasting
information processing in particular, will make many office
The accelerating pace of advancement in technology demands
workers redundant. However, there are many job
that nations possess some means and capability to assess
opportunities for those with the capacity to acquire new
and forecast economic, social, and other impacts. Forecasts
skills. This scenario is unfolding at an accelerating pace.
are essential in the planning process, while assessment of
Short-term and long-term strategies will have to be
impact will enable the maximization of benefit while
addressed. In the short term, it is necessary to organize
minimizing risk. Scenario budding is also useful towards
conversion courses to enable working people to acquire new
understanding the total impact of the transformation on the
skins- so as to become useful to new information-oriented
economy and society. Finally, nations should have the skills
job environments. For the longer term, proactive education
programmes should be formulated and implemented

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 to merge technology trends into specific application areas that learning. Not all Asian countries are the same. But they all seem
DEVELOPMENT

are important for their development objectives. to have a similar respect for knowledge and the innate desire to
7. Initiating and facilitating organizational restructuring learn. This is, perhaps, one positive trait that may well become
the success factor for all developing nations.
The need to restructure organizations should now be taken
for granted. Increasing information intensity will require new The new communications era should not be perceived as a
forms of organization. Although such restructuring will purely technological phenomenon. Its ultimate impact is social
and cultural, although technological advancement is the key
COMMUNICATION

need to be done in both me government and private

industry, in many developing nations the government enabler. This new era invites a change in social and cultural
should take the lead. The government can be the role model patterns. At the individual level it raises the importance of
by creating proof-of-concept demonstrations in its own mental and intellectual ability. For society at large, it engenders
operations. Others will then be encouraged to follow suit. new forms of social organizations, .Economic restructuring will
The government through its influence may also persuade key result from information intensification in the production and
sectors of private industry to perform this restructuring delivery of goods and services.
process and be an example to others. While the IT industry is important to some countries, the
The Open Strategy is one approach to development. The effective application of IT is necessary for all. The development
Information Age focuses on the mind and intellect. Learning of IT follows an evolutionary path involving all the three
and knowledge acquisition are fundamental processes for forces: technological, social, and cultural. This process can be
progress. The following seven principles of the Open Strategy accelerated through proper planning involving a strategic
can be made the foundation for a strategic national develop- approach.
ment programme in advanced communications. Internet in Developing Countries
First, communication systems should be open in the sense of Many developing countries, through the use of new cellular and
being user-driven. The user should have full control over access satellite technologies, are moving directly into the information
to information, its sources, and the nature of his interaction age. bypassing the wired stage at significantly lower costs
with toe sources. (Owens. 1994)- Some developing countries have had national
Second, it should be open in the geographical context. Global policies since the late 1970s and 1980s, to enable the growth of
communication net works should be established to open up new technologies- Many of these countries have now set up
the availability and accessibility of information resources and their own networks which are already connected to or are in the
human expertise, no matter where they are. process of getting access to the Internet today. This connection
has made it possible for Third World countries to access
Third, it should be open with regard to cost. The final cost to
information available in developed countries.
the user should be reasonable, so that we can narrow the gap
between the haves and the have-nots. Many Asian countries such as Singapore. China, India, and
Malaysia are making progress in the area of computer networks.
Fourth, it should be open technologically. The technologies
Asian countries collectively form only a small percentage of the
used should be available to all at a fair price and should be
total number of Internet users worldwide. When Japan is
simple enough to be easily implemented.
excluded, the numbers are further reduced-However, the
Fifth, Standards of implementation should be open, meaning growth rate is high and the impact can be significant.
that Open Systems Standards are employed to promote the
In Singapore, the National Computer Board established a
interconnection and sharing of hardware, software, and
project in 1991 called ‘IT2000: Vision of an Intelligent Island’
systems. The total implementation cost will thus be reduced
that emphasized a national information infrastructure
and future system growth assured.
(Johnstone, 1994). Telecommunication networks are being used
Sixth, it should be open from the political point of view. Access for purposes such as trade and health services. Singapore
to information and knowledge should be made available Network Services has developed the Tradenet EDI system.
without regard to a nation’s political stance, the religion of its Tradenet links traders in Singapore to Customs, the Trade
people, or its racial make-up. Development Board and other agencies and helps carry out
The seventh and most important principle is that it must be transactions such as import/export declarations and certificates
open in the cultural sense. The relationship between the user of origin. Tradenet was established in 1989 and within a year 90
and the information supplier must not assume that the latter per cent of the traders were on the system. Another example of
has cultural superiority. Communication is a value-laden activity, a successful network is the Medinet, which is used for process-
and it must be conducted with an open mind. ing medical claims (Malamud, 1993).
The recent transformation of some countries from poor China has achieved progress in computer networking in recent
developing nation status to economic juggernauts has been years. By August 1993, relay CINet-L (China InterNetworking
nailed as the so-called ‘East Asian Miracle’. However, economic discussion Lists) were formed with the aim of getting the
success is only the superficial manifestation of a culture that Internet to China and to facilitate information flow both inside
promotes positive values, attitudes, and priorities. In many the country and the outside world. The China News Digest
East Asian countries, these seem to be in congruence with the (CND), an online news distribution organization distributes
needs of the present era, which emphasizes knowledge and daily news worldwide. Started in March 1989, CND was the first

162
to start an on-line Chinese language weekly, which now has a was upgraded with a $70 million investment to allow transmis-

DEVELOPMENT
circulation of about 40,000. Johnstone (1994) reports that since sion of multimedia images in 14 major cities and to increase
February 1994, the Peking government requires that interna- transmission speeds in 70 more cities by the end of 1994.
tional network activity be registered with the Ministry of Public Nicnet is linked through 635 satellite dishes around the country.
Security which supervises the computer networks (Gach, 1993). Nicnet is also connected to internet and other international
In Malaysia, Jaring, the proposed research network, is meant to networks and databases through 64-kbps links, one through
support ‘multidisciplinary collaborative research, development SprintNet in New York and another through an Indian

COMMUNICATION
and educational activities’, aid ‘integrated development strategy company’. Indian Scientists now have access to images from the
through computer networking’ and have ‘worldwide connectiv- US National Aeronautics and Space Administration at their
ity for global communication and information exchange’ fingertips.
(Malamud, 1993). Ernet, the Education and Research Network, connects India’s
Even in Africa, which is ‘the world’s least electronic continent’ prestigious engineering schools, the Five Indian Institutes of
(French, 1994) and where ‘telephones are still often a luxury’, Technology (IITs) and the Indian Institutes of Science in
efforts are underway to use the Internet to close the informa- Bangalore, besides many other educational institutions. Ernet
tion gap. French reports that Barbacar Fall, a Senegalese has over 250 nodes in the country and helps break hierarchical
journalist and communications expert, envisages a future where barriers by providing younger scientists direct access to informa-
throughout the continent one could exchange information tion. Educational uses of networks include active exchange of
through the Internet. Only about 50 people out of the 11 information between researchers in India and abroad. Dissemi-
million Senegalese now use the Internet. Fall is trying to revive nating Indian news to graduate students abroad is among the
the Pan African News Agency (Pana) through a network of many uses of computer networks, according to Dr S. Ramani,
satellite equipment. director of the National Center for Software Training.
Internet is being used for commercial purposes with initiative
Internet in India
from both Indian businesses and foreign collaborators.
India has industrialized rapidly in the past two decades, and
entered the information age in the 1980s (Singhal and Rogers, Power of the Net
1989). Today there is wide diffusion of television, the video Internet is opening up new highways of opportunities in India,
cassette recorder, and a surge in the expansion of cable televi- it is being used for purposes such as national planning, scientific
sion and the computer industries- Liberalized import policies, research, higher education, and business. While the Internet
during Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi’s rule in the mid 1980s, provides access to the latest information from around me world
encouraged the establishment of the Center for Development almost instantly, overcomes problems of lack of library
of Telematics (C-DoT) and promoted the adoption of resources and, perhaps, helps prevent educated Indians from
microcomputers in government projects. ‘From 1984 to 1988, migrating abroad, there are several problems that need lo be
the number of computers increased ten-fold, (and) the considered.
computer industry’s revenues increased four-fold’. One of me major problems is mat India still has an underde-
The government of India operates many networks linking the veloped telecommunications infrastructure and there are several
defence industry, research institutions, top universities, and million people wailing to get a telephone. This hitherto
administrative departments. The government has set up government-controlled sector was opened lo competition
country-wide communication networks such as Nicnet, used for allowing foreign firms to invest only in the latter part of 1994
government administration and planning; Ernet, used for (Jacob, 1994). However, India has looked towards satellites to
research in education; Railnet, used by the Indian Railways for eliminate the need to depend on a local infrastructure. In fact,
ticketing, scheduling, and planning (Rao, 1994); and Indonet, engineers are reinventing network usage by coming up with
which provides access to specialized information through novel methods of overcoming technical problems.
satellite communication and VHF/ microwave radio (Singhal Another issue of concern is the lack of funds. In India, ‘The
and Rogers, 1989). economic situation was certainly a prime stumbling block in
Just as it has in the developed countries, the technology has pulling together a real research network’ (Malamud, 1993).
now entered the realm of the private sector. Some of the There is also competition among the networks to receive a part
Indian companies that offer commercial networking services are of the scarce funding resources. For example, when Nicnet was
Business India Information Technology, Data-pro Information upgraded, Emet would have wanted some of the money
Technology, and Icnet. Public companies like Videsh Sanchar invested in that endeavour for itself (Mangla, 1994).
Nigam Limited (VSNL)and the Computer Maintenance A frequently asked question is whether the Internet will help
Corporation (CMC) also offer similar services. bridge the information and economic gap between developed
Nicnet (the nationwide computer network of the National and developing countries. Examples mentioned earlier—such
Informatics Center, NIC, which comes under the Planning as Indian scientists working with American scientists on joint
Commission) is used by the government to plan and monitor projects communicating -through the network, exchange of
the country’s five-year development plans in the core sectors of trade information through the commercial networks such as
the economy such as agriculture, industry, transportation, rural Texnet, and access to the latest information from databases
development, and education (Rao, 1994). In early 1994, Nicnet across the world— certainly appear to indicate that it is possible

163
 to bridge the information gap. Those who have access to this a threat or an opportunity would depend on various factors
DEVELOPMENT

technology will benefit by it. As to whether it would narrow the including who uses it and how it is used within the social
economic gap would depend on many complex factors such as context.
the level of literacy and economic development in the country,
whether the information is being used appropriately, whether
resources are available for the development of the information Note
infrastructure as well as developmental projects, and whether
COMMUNICATION

there will be a trickle-down effect from those who have access

and control of the new technology within the country to those
who are deprived of it.
Over the years, the government of India has exercised various
degrees of control over the flow of information. Till recently,
radio and television were government controlled. Though the
press has been free, the government has controlled information
under various social and political circumstances. The largely
unrestricted freedom of information flow on the Internet could
cause problems.
An issue of interest is whether, and to what extent, the Internet
would aid participatory communication in development
projects. The interactive nature of the technology enables
interactive distance learning and teleconferencing. The M-bone
technology, ‘allows (Internet) viewers and listeners to be
broadcasters themselves’. While the decentralizing nature of the
computer could be an advantage, it could pose a threat to those
who have the power and control. However, for the Internet to
reach the typical villager who is illiterate and poor would take a
long time. Participation would, at least initially, be confined to
those who are responsible for planning and implementing
development programmes.
Another major concern is that of the direction of information
flow across national borders. Research in the area of transborder
data flow has indicated that most of the flow has been one
way—from developed countries to developing countries. Will
the Internet facilitate a more balanced flow, or will the same
domination continue? In India, the Internet is at the initial
stage of diffusion, and the percentage of users is low compared
to the US, for example, besides, the number of database
accessible from outside the country far outnumber those
available from within.
The question of network security is a matter of concern in
developing and developed countries alike. ‘But what happens if
criminals get onto the net, distributing pornography, perhaps,
or sending stolen records from one company to a rival, or
military secrets from one country to the next? Where and how
should the walls of privacy on the net be constructed, and who
should be allowed to build gates through them?’
The Internet is encompassing more areas of the world rapidly
and it is not yet clear what impact this could have on developing
countries. The technology is new and many of the concerns are
common to both developed and developing countries alike.
Unlike other technologies like the television, for example, which
spread in India mainly during the ’70s and ’80s, many years after
it entered the Western world, the lime gap in the diffusion of
the Internet in the developed and developing countries is not
much, not counting its use by the Department of Defense in
the US. Therefore, one cannot really learn from the mistakes
made by the developed countries. The Internet is posing many
challenges in developing countries, and whether it is regarded as

164
 UNIT VI
LESSON 21: CRITICAL CONCERNS IN DEVELOPMENT
UNDERSTANDING GLOBALIZATION COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to towards service industries which is in remarkable contrast to the

DEVELOPMENT
trend towards mining and manufacturing. The advance
To learn about globalization
technology and the shift in favour of services especially towards
To know how globalization affect development the so-called knowledge industries have significantly altered the
autonomy of nation-states. In terms of resource power and
Globalization is a widely used term, which has acquired several
geographical reach TNCs far outdistance most of the nation-
meanings varying in their degree of precision, among intellectu-
states of the world.
als, media, multilateral lending agencies, business community,

COMMUNICATION
environmentalists and economists. Here we are concerned with Second, while capital flows have expanded labour flows remain
the economic dimension. The economic globalization that we unduly restricted. It may be worthwhile to note that in the 19th
are witnessing today has been continuously evolving since century there was no series restriction to the flow of labour and
World War II. upto the First World War, immigration was granted with
enormous ease.
It gained considerable acceleration during the 1980s and reached
a clear watershed in the 1990s. Broadly speaking, globalization Third, production is getting increasingly globalized. TNCs have
may be considered as a process of transnationalisation of started manufacturing ‘world models’ of some of their
capital, production and even consumer tastes and preferences on products. Also more and more goods have become ‘world
a single global logic of exchange, There is nothing amiss in products’ with components manufactured in different countries
characterizing it as global capitalism. In order to clarify the and assembled in one country only in the final product stage - a
concept further we may briefly outline the salient features of phenomenon facilitated by the wave of liberalization and
globalization. deregulation that has been engulfing the world in recent times.
In other words, the boundaries that define an industry are
First, capital has become increasingly global. Two types of
drawn across countries rather than within them. It has not
capital are relevant here - finance capital and foreign direct
only facilitated such spatially decentralized production across
investment (FDI). By its very nature, accumulation being its leit
nations it has also enabled management of far flung produc-
motif, capital is not space bound. It has always sought to
tion networks from a central place. No wonder a large part of
transcend geographical barriers as is well evidenced by its
world trade is increasingly becoming a flow between plants of
historical march, through conquest and colonization. This
the same company or a flow between companies and their
historical march has taken a radically new turn with the electrifi-
partners in subcontracting agreements.
cation of money and computerization of the market system
following the information technology (IT) revolution, Today, Four, there is a growing trend towards homogenisation of
more than in the past capital sees the world as economic consumer taste largely promoted through advertisement by the
territories for its expansion. global media. (Also see section 3.0). A wide range of commodi-
ties from nylon thread to Honda motor bikes are seen in all
Internationalisation of finance capital is one of the most
parts of the world. Coca-Cola is a favorite drink all the world
distinguishing characteristics of globalization “Currencies,
over. McDonalds, Kentucky fried chicken are aggressively trying
commodities, government and corporate bonds all are now
to get such universal acceptance.
issued and traded around the clock and around the world”.
(The Economist April 27, 1991). Cross-country banking which Five, economic globalization has been promoted and legiti-
was negligible in the past has grown to gigantic proportions. mized by international institutions like the IMF and World
With Transnational Corporations (TNCs) not. requiring much Bank through their stabilization and structural adjustment
outside capital, large banking funds necessarily will have to seek policies and programmes and by the World Trade Organization
outlets on a global scale. There are also large funds, such as (WTO) through its innumerable multi-lateral Agreements.
mutual funds, pension funds, hedging funds etc. seeking GATT negotiations before the Uruguay Round, were concerned
profits through out the world. Stock markets operate round the only with trade. Such suffixes like trade-related, trade-in are
clock through out the world and move in instantaneous speed added to bring in fresh issues like services, intellectual property
thanks to the IT revolution. Governments in balance of rights etc. Thus we have the General Agreement on Trade-in
payments (BOP) distress, government companies and corporate services (GATs), trade-related investment measures (TRIMs)
giants needing capital raise loans or issue bonds or raise money and trade related intellectual property rights (TRIPs) and so on
through global deposit receipts (GDR) or American deposit Though all services are now brought under GATs, special rules
receipts (ADRs) in the commercial markets of the world. have been incorporated in regard to telecommunications,
financial services, air transportation etc. in which countries like
Foreign direct investment which has been largely between the
USA have an upper hand. WTO got a telecommunication
industrialized countries is increasingly entering the developing
agreement signed by 68 countries in 1997 requiring them to
countries. Also one witnesses a pronounced shift in FDI

165
 open up telecommunication services market with a stipulation of companies. The largest 100 TNCs, ranked on the basis of
DEVELOPMENT

to allow foreign companies to buy stakes in domestic operators. assets own $ 1.7 trillion assets in their foreign affiliates,
This was widely hailed by the big telecom companies of USA. controlling nearly 21 per cent of global foreign assets. In the US,
The aim of the TRIMS Agreement is to reduce ‘“the trade 25 TNCs are responsible for half of that country’s foreign
restrictive and distorting effects of investment measures” stock, a share that has remained almost unchanged during the
prevailing in nation-states (member countries) and promote last four decades.
free competition. Under the market access and national treat- The triad (European Union, US and Japan) is home to 87 per
COMMUNICATION

ment and other clauses of the Agreement, it is difficult to cent of the top 100 TNCs and accounts for 88 per cent of their
impose investment regulations and quantitative restrictions foreign assets. USA is by far the largest FDI recipient and
(insistence on use of local men and materials, local equity investor abroad. Although developed countries received a record
participation, control on repatriation of royalties and dividends $ 208 billion in FDI flows in 1996, there has been a steady
etc.) TRIMS reinforces MIGA (Multilateral Investment decline in their share of global inflows since 1989. Developing
Guarantee Agency) of World Bank in insuring and protecting countries received $ 129 billion of FDI inflows in 1996 as
capital’s income and property. against $ 32 billion in 1990, more than four times growth in six
TRIPS agreement sets minimum standards of protection for years time.
seven categories of intellectual property rights, of which patent The explosive growth of international financial and foreign
rights in which TNCs enjoy considerable monopoly is the most exchange transactions is the most dominant dimension of
important. The Agreement seeks to change the entire concept globalisation. They have trade and FDI flows to relatively
of patenting by drawing into the realm of patentability not insignificant positions. On a crude reckoning, we may say that
only inventions but naturally occurring life forms, a factor that around $ 2 trillion of finance capital move round the world in
can have far reaching implications for an agricultural country like search of profit everyday. Assuming that there is 300 working
India with long standing agricultural practices and rich days in a year, the annual financial transactions work out to $
biodiversity. 600 trillion. But compare this with the world merchandise trade
Member countries will have to change their national laws and of around $ 10.4 trillion and world GDP of $ 27.8 trillion in
rules to be in conformity with the international understanding 1995. The decoupling of the real and financial world is almost
agreed upon - indeed a big step towards globalization. The complete. Finance capital has reduced the world into a casino in
changes in laws required are in areas as diverse as finance, which the participants play snakes and ladders with the lives of
portfolio management, equity, services, patents, copyrights, millions of people. In this casino the stakes of the nonplayers
ecology, health, culture and the like. are far higher than that of the players as the latter affect real
world variables like interest rate, inflation, exchange, investor
TNCs are important in the process of globalization in terms of
confidence and the like.
the size of their operation and as a growing manifestation of
the globalization of capital. That the number of transnational The Logic and Theoretical underpinning
corporations which was only 7000 in 1970 jumped to 37000 of Globalisation: A critique
with more than 150,000 foreign affiliates in 1991 and to 45000 It is difficult to discern the economic logic of the emerging
parent firms in 1995 with 280,000 affiliates itself is indicative of globalization except as the expansion of capital in search of
their global presence. With an estimated $ 7 trillion in global profit and accumulation. The policy-theoretic framework
sales in 1995 - the value of goods and services produced by the underlying the IMF-World Bank’s structural adjustment
foreign affiliates - international production outweighs exports programmes which seeks “integration” of national economies
as the dominant mode of meeting foreign market demand by a with global economies has been widely documented. The broad
factor of 1.2 to 1.3 since 1987. basis is the neoclassical theory of competitive capitalism and free
In 1996, the global FDI stock was valued at $ 3.2 trillion. Its international trade. As the World Development Report (WDR)
rate of growth over the past decade (1986-1995) was more than (1991) puts it: “Competitive markets are the best way yet found
twice that of gross fixed capital formation, indicating an for efficiently organizing the production and distribution of
increasing internationalisation of national production systems. goods and services. A consensus is gradually forming in favour
The world wide assets of foreign affiliates, valued at $ 8.4 of a ‘market friendly approach’ to development” (World Bank,
trillion in 1994 also increased more rapidly than world gross 1991). The three World Development Reports (1990,1991 and
fixed capital formation. In fact about 70 per cent of the global 1992) which together “constitute a trilogy on the means and
payments of royalties and fees constitute transactions between goals of development” (World Bank, 1992) make it explicit that
parent firms and their affiliates. the essence of the market - friendly approach consists in
removing all types of “distortions” (meaning deviations of an
FDI flows have set a new record of around $ 350 billion in
economy from perfectly competitive norm (Lal, 1984) intro-
1996, a 10 per cent increase. Cross border Mergers and Acquisi-
duced by “misconceived” government interventions and
tions (M&As) are playing an important role in boosting FDI.
promoting free trade and export led growth. To promote
The value of such M&As increased by 16 per cent to $ 275
efficiency privatization of public sector enterprises is the only
billion. The number of cross border inter-firm agreements also
answer. Trade tariffs and all barriers that restrict free flow of
has increased from 1760 in 1990 to 4600 in 1995, Despite the
goods and finance will have to be dismantled or reduced to an
growing number of foreign affiliates, a good part of FDI
irreducible minimum. Trade restrictions even as a measure to
continues to be concentrated in the hands of a small number

166
control environmental pollution is considered inefficient” back up their demand. Globalization virtually becomes the

DEVELOPMENT
(World Bank, 1990). Given TRIPs and TRIMs and free trade integration of the interests of those who have exchange
under the global regime, near monopolistic, access to the entitlements. Production structure and pattern naturally will be
planet’s resources is ensured. As Samir Amin (1997) puts it: geared to meet the needs of these “haves”.
“The much vaunted environmental concern of these (capitalist) The epistemological malady implied in economics discipline
countries is simply not to let others be equally irresponsible” giving cognitive license for unlimited resource exploitation for
(Amin Samir, 1997). generation of exchange values as against the generation of use-

COMMUNICATION
The theory of globalization sets out the development path for values for the community has become a convenient theoretical
the so-called developing countries (developing towards the underpinning for the promotion of globalization.
developed capitalist countries). In the words of World Devel- Third, the trio-IMF, World Bank and WTO - has legitimized
opment Report (1991) Economic theory suggests that the sway of capital over the global territories and in this process
productivity and per capita incomes world converge across legitimized the “recolonisation* process that is underway. It is
countries over time, assuming that the countries which are now interesting to recall Partha Chatterjee (1994): “If there is one
developing get access to the new technology introduced by the great moment that turns the provincial thought of Europe to
industrial countries” (World Bank, 1991) While technology will universal philosophy, the parochial history of Europe to
take its natural course via market forces and the rules of the universal history, it is the moment of capital-capital that is
game laid down in WTO Agreements, we cannot ignore the global in its territorial reach and universal in its conceptual
warnings (supported by simulation exercises) given in WDR domains. It is the narrative of capital that can turn the violence
(1990) on Poverty regarding any uneconomical or populist of mercantilist trade, war, genocide, conquest and colonialism
redistributive measures that may impair the welfare of the “non into a story of universal progress, development, modernization
poor” on whose savings potential growth depends, (World and freedom. For this narrative to take shape, the destruction
Bank, 1990). of community is fundamental”.
A Few Observations Throughout its history, capital has taken to a technological
First, there is an overemphasis on dismantling the role of the paradigm of growth that increasingly keeps labour/people
state. The state has to withdraw even from disciplining capital. redundant and treats them only as an item in the cost of
Will labour enjoy protection under such a regime? Who will production to be reduced as we expand. The Human Develop-
provide exchange entitlements to those who are marginalized in ment Report 1993, has clearly documented how global
the growth process? Will global market give the correct signals? capitalism has reached a stage of “jobless growth”. A produc-
Look at what happened in East Asia? Who will correct situa- tion system should provide the needs of its community by the
tions of market failures? In fact more than in any other period productive participation of its people or, more precisely, the
in history, there is a need to redefine and clarify, in the present labour force comprising it. The major ecological crises, climate
day world of growing inequalities in wealth and income, the changes and the threat to sustainable development that we
role of state and market vis-a-vis the community for whose witness today has also to be traced to the organizing principle
behalf these two institutions are supposed to function. underlying capitalism and the technological choices appertaining
Second, the bluff involved in neoclassical economics has no to it (Oommen, 1997).
empirical basis and has to be continuously exposed. Free Four, competitive capitalism and the doctrine of comparative
competition is tending to be a myth. It is untenable to believe advantage which served well the mighty British empire in
that what obtains in the world is conducive to the operation of justifying the broad pattern of international division of labour
the objective laws of perfectly competitive market. TNCs have a of the colonial era is not so handy for those who seek to justify
virtual monopoly of most vital areas of technology. High global capitalism with transnationalisation of production, intra-
military spending and supremacy over weapons of destruction, firm trade between parent and affiliates across the world, jet
control over global financial markets, certain domestic currencies speed mobility of capital in search of absolute advantage,
(eg. US dollar) emerging as international median of exchange electronification of money and so on. Not only neoclassical
and store of value, monopoly over global media are all factors economics, even development economics created to “slay the
that make the concepts of free competition, fair competition dragon backwardness” has woefully failed in delivering the
and fair trade almost a myth. USA under its super 301 and good. Development economics exonerates colonialism from
special 301 enjoys unilateral retaliation rights to secure its present-day realities. So long as it is assumed that competitive
demand. It also has several powers of economic sanctions market and free trade will “set prices right” and any government
against other countries by virtue of its super power positions. intervention is a “distortion”, unequal exchange does not exist.
Mergers and acquisitions lending to centralization and The historical reality that created the present day unjust division
concentralization of resources and power are the order of the of labour is simply assumed away. The appropriation of
day as we have already noted. The philosophy of super surplus from the periphery to the metropolis continues not
consumerism which is the hallmark of globalization is captured only through unequal exchange, but also through otherways
in the value premise that wants are unlimited (it is limited in a like brain drain, royalties, transfer pricing, official and unofficial
world of finite resources) and that there is a scarcity of resources remittances of the TNCs, the payments due to portfolio
to meet these wants. The price that is determined automatically investment etc, According to the Human Development Report,
excludes those who do not have the exchange entitlements to 1992 unequal partnership of these types costed the developing

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 countries about $ 500 billion in 1990. (UNDP, 1992). How can cut down cost for it can bring down inventory cost, thereby
DEVELOPMENT

there be autonomous development in a world where the bringing down prices and inflation. Electronic Data Interchange
surpluses are siphoned off ? can cut down the welter of red tape in inter departmental and
The question of containing inequality in wealth and income inter institutional transaction cost and time tremendously.
leave alone the question of bringing about an egalitarian society Global media has functioned as an integral part of global
is ruled out by the logic of integration into the global economy. capitalism. Therefore it too has been part of the profit - driven
It is a system that builds on initial endowment and grows system. It is the main vehicle for advertising corporate goods
COMMUNICATION

through accumulation. Therefore the growing inequalities and services for facilitating corporate expansion in a borderless
cannot be fought if everything is left to the logic of the market world increasingly facilitated by the IMF World Bank WTO
system. UNDP’s Human Development Reports have docu- regime.
mented over the years the facts of growing global inequalities. Global media has tremendous potential to electrify the thought
In short, the globalization process can usher only a world of and action centres of peoples’ mind. A 1996 survey covering 41
recolonisation, a world of dependence and domination. nations in households owning television finds that teenagers
Perhaps the best proof of dependence is the debt trap of the watch on an average six hours of television per day. Therefore it
“Third World” and the collapse of the autonomous develop- has tremendous potential for good or for bad. As a matter of
ment efforts of these countries. The total external debt of fact media has been largely used to support and sustain
developing countries has multiplied twenty-fold from $ 100 corporate ideology rooted in a process of accumulation that
billion in 1970 to over $ 2 trillion in 1995. The continuing debt rationalizes extremes of polarization in wealth, income and
burden and reverse resource flows that keep growing seem to power.
substantiate almost in unmistakable terms the “transfer To put our discussion in its perspective, even at the cost of
problem* raised by Keynes (1929) and the ‘fisher paradox the repetition, we may spell out the basic affirmation of the
more debtors pay, the more they owe”. corporate ideology or global capitalism. The organizing principle
Media and Globalization of the community’s resources and therefore the social and
Globalization process has been facilitated and accelerated thanks economic relations following from it is that market is the most
to the revolutionary changes in global media. We have entered efficient and ideal allocator of resources. Even the concept of
the era of not only e-mail, but of e-money and e-commerce and freedom is rooted in business or corporate freedom and
so on which have made rapid strides in paperless trade and everything else will be added unto you once this is assured. As
transactions. Several companies are planning to start electronic the corporate world commands tremendous resources their
banks and e-cash credit cards. The theory and practice of influence is comprehensive ranging from the production of
disciplines like economics, commerce, law all will have to processed food and medicine which are vital to human exist-
undergo change. Truly, we are entering a new world, rather than ences, to election campaigns. Be it dictatorship or democracy
the end of history. According to Yankee Group, a consulting they wield considerable clout and political muscle power. Today
firm based in Boston, the volume of e-commerce between we have powerful global commercial media systems that tend to
business to business would be $ 34 billion in 1998 and regard corporate domination as natural and even benevolent
expected to grow to $ 170 billion by the year 2000. Add to this, Dangerously enough, it is propagated that there is no viable
the consumer-to-consumer purchase will be increasing. This alternative As Edward Herman and Robert Me Chesney put it.
opens the floodgate of global market through Internet possibly “The global media are missionaries of our age, promoting the
at lower prices in reduced time. It is reported that the spread of virtues of commercialism and the market” (Herman and Me
electronic commerce has drastically brought down prices of Chesney, 1998).
certain goods like books, computers, electronic goods etc. A lot There is tremendous monopoly in media and communication
of inter mediation is brought down. But this is not the basket system. US based enterprises dominate the global media
of commodities that the poor need! market, Ten vertically integrated media conglomerates are most
prominent. The size and market power of the media giants
make it possible to engineer exclusive strategic alliances for cross
promotion with other marketing and retailing power houses.
In 1996 Disney, for instance, signed a ten-year deal with Me
Donald’s to use its 18,700 outlets to promote its global sales,
while Me Donald can use Disney to assist it in its unabashed
campaign to dominate every market in the world (Herman and
Me Chesney, 1998). These link-ups between global marketers
and media firm have become common today.
Although the Internet has tremendous potential in improving
the social and economic life of people by providing qualitatively
different type of media, politics, life style culture and the like, it
Rupert Murdoch in Bangalore has come to be dominated by commercial interest The ideology
WTO has recently called for a big push in e-commerce including and values of corporate capital basically indifferent to the
tax breaks for associated goods and services, E-commerce can increasing inequalities of income and wealth get far more well

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entrenched than any time in the past. The globalizing media it keeps people redundant? How can you destroy the life

DEVELOPMENT
always treat viewers and listeners as consumers (with special support system for short term gains and growth? Although
preference for those with higher income) rather than as citizens. economics and ecology share the same Greek root Oikos,
Internet as it has been shaping now does not seem to be a place meaning house or habitat, the twain have refused to meet. This
of free exchange of ideas, a truly participatory medium. We sort of disciplinary disjunctive has done much harm in
need a community media rather than commercial media, the understanding reality in an integrated and holistic manner.
former should serve, as corrective to the latter, besides promot- It is high time the social scientists of the world especially

COMMUNICATION
ing the process of transformation to a just society. A economists sit down to reflect on the growing irrelevance of
commercial media naturally could service only the interest of the some of their theories. What is the value of national savings in
advertisers who fund them. As they want a larger audience a world of global finance capital? How can the so called
glued to their programmes, so that effective advertisements are commodity money a medium of exchange in the world of e-
served to them, there is tremendous vulgarization and money, e-credit card, e-commerce and the paperless transactions
trivialization of the entertainment industry. The difficulties of and trade taking place in the world? How come the currency of a
reversing this trend should not mean abandoning the project country (USA) which is the biggest debtor of the globe be
for that means perpetuation of an unequal system unlivable for accepted as a unit of international account, store of value and
a large sections of society. medium of exchange? Can we build a lieable, equitable and
Working Towards a Good Society sustainable world on the basis of competition? These and a
Building a better society, a liveable and equitable world is a host of similar questions have to be answered in the struggle to
conscious and continuous endeavour. build a sustainable world. The role of global media in the
public sphere has to be clearly defined.
Global capitalism is not the result of a natural evolution. It has
been shaped by a whole range of power relations economic, No meaningful quest for a sustainable development is possible
political and ideological, besides the active manipulation of the within the framework of most of the international organiza-
mass media. Today the G-7, the Washington Consensus, and tions obtaining today for a variety of reasons. We do not
various international institutions work towards its survival and propose to go into this question except to assert that the World
development. The military powers and TNCs have manipulated Bank, IMF and WTO, objectively speaking, face a legitimacy
science and technology for power and for profit. As Professor crisis. The UN, established during the colonial days. is extremely
Vemon (1977) has noted long back that USA has been trying ‘to undemocratic and lacks a global mandate (based on a global
create an international system in its own image”. constituent assembly). Do these institutions have a people’s
mandate? Issues like, global accumulation without responsibil-
Evils of globalisation can be countered only by building
ity and accountability to the global society (this is what the
counter cultures and values with emphasis on community,
TNCs, FIIs, etc. do) drug trafficking and money laundering,
creative life, as against greed, acquisitiveness and the like.
global arms trade (the most lucrative business of the century),
Strangely enough, economic growth which is an instrumental
rampant sex tourism including child prostitution, global
variable has become the most desirable objective variable. There
gambling and speculation growing inequality in wealth and
is a profound spiritual emptiness in the pursuit of human life.
poverty in the midst of plenty and a host of other relevant
The present system can be effectively countered only with the
issues are evading the global agenda. The colossal expansion-
help of the media. Disciplines like economics that have
and global diffusion of the production and purchase of
provided a lot of theoretical underpinning based on unrealistic
weapons, armaments and sophisticated ‘hearing’, and ‘seeing’
assumptions have to be continuously exposed. The basic
and ‘sensing’ information gathering equipments during the
postulate of economics that wants are unlimited and scarcity of
post-Cold War regime continues with the merciful blessings of
means rationalizes over consumption, exploitation and treats
the United Nations Organization. Military Industrial Complex’
Nature as raw materials and labour as items of cost of produc-
- the intimate fusion of arms companies, military commanders
tion. It is this over consumption ‘model’ that has led the world
and politicians of the USA- still continues strongly (Mandel, E.
to the present day crisis of global warming, green house gas
1975; Oommen, 1993).
pollution and an unsustainable world. A report to the Pugwash
council in which 15 leading scholars participated recommends: It is important to create institutions that serve the global
“In order to arrest irreversible destruction of biodiversity and community rather than service the global market In brief, we
incidentally to slow down global warming and the exhaustion need institutions that stress people and not profit. This can be
of fossil fuel stocks, the total per capita energy consumption achieved only through a solidarity of all those who work for
must finally be reduced to around 1.5 KW (continuous) per peace and justice.
capita-a factor of four below the present level in Europe and a
factor of more than six below the present level in the US and
Note
Canada”. (Smith and Okyoye (1994) cited by Smith B Philip
[Link], 1994).
The overemphasis on growth has nurtured a technological
paradigm that keeps human beings redundant and continuous
polluting the atmosphere in the process of growth. How can
any technology be considered modem and advanced so long as

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DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 22:
GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : The second principle of GATT, called “non-discrimination”,

was intended to protect against the corruption that would come
This lesson will help you understand the conceptr of WTO and its
about if there were a myriad of different tariffs applying to
importance in communication development
commodities that come from different countries. Multi-lateral
International trade organisation, lasting from 1947 to 1994, trade agreements were thus necessary for the exchange of
created to dismantle the protectionism built up by nations in particular commodities. In liberal-speak, “non-discrimination”
the decades between the first two world wars. Replaced in 1994 means that once a member reduced a tariff on some commod-
by the WTO. ity for any country, that reduction applied to all member
countries. Poor nations were again shafted — multi-lateral trade
The foundation of the post-WWII capitalist world was laid in a
concessions made between western nations to lower tariffs on
quite New Hampshire town on July 1944. Gathering under the
automobiles for example, made little impact in most South
auspices of the United Nations Monetary and Financial
American nations. Tariffs in the West remained high for textiles,
Conference, Ministers from the Allied Nations, apart from the
tropical fruit, etc, because it wasn’t advantagous to the West to
Soviet Union, set out to revive and maintain their economic
lower these tariffs. The markets of Western nations are more
system over as much of the world they could. They created
lucrative than those of poor nations; therefore lowering tariffs
three successful institutions to accomplish their aims: the
into western markets is a very big concession, while lowering
International Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Bank for
tariffs into Southern nations is much smaller by comparison.
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), also called the World
Thus “non-discrimination” in practice applied primarily to the
Bank, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
West — they strive to not “discriminate” among one another,
(GATT).
but for the most part the rest of the world is not included.
With the European economy in tatters by the utter destruction
Further still, GATT established a series of exceptions to
caused by the war, the unscathed United States was the only
reciprocity and non-discrimination. Maintaining national
nation able to rescue capitalism once the War was over. Before
security means many things. In Article 1, paragraph 2, it means
the War, almost every country in the world had erected trade
that the U.S., British, and others, re-established their old
barriers to protect their own economies from the devastating
imperial preferences in colonies; while Article 14 explains that
crisis sweeping across the world in the wake of the Wall Street
non-tariff barriers that discriminate between nations can be
Crash. These protectionist measures had contributed to the
erected. Article 19 makes it clear that if the lowering of any tariff
Great Depression, making export of goods to other countries
proved to be too harmful for national businesses, it could be
just as impossible as producing for non-existent domestic
rescinded. Article 21 states that “Nothing in this Agreement
markets. There was no chance of rebuilding the war-shattered
shall be construed ...” to negatively impact what any nation
capitalist economy unless international trade could be re-created.
defines as a risk to it’s own “security”. Further, in Article 24,
GATT was established to break down trade barriers (in the allowances are made specifically against “non-discrimination” —
form of tariffs, quotas, preferential trade agreements between i.e. the establishment of regional trade alliances that exclude
countries, etc) to make the flow of commodities and capital less other member nations (i.e. the European Union, FTAA,
restricted by national government influence. GATT explained ASEAN, etc.). By Article 25, GATT explains that two negotiat-
how the new order would function with three principles for ing nations can use a two-thirds vote between them to “waive
negotiating trade agreements: reciprocity, non-discrimination, an obligation imposed upon a contracting party by this
and national security. Agreement”.
Reciprocity is the principle that nations should offer an equiva- With the legalistic foundations laid for an international trading
lent exchange for the benefits they gain. In practice however, agreement, the next task to be resolved was who would facilitate
reciprocity is meaningless unless the negotiating nations have, in this new trading order? There enters the IMF and World Bank.
fact, equal or near equal economic relationships. For example,
Historical Development: Originally GATT was set up as a
the U.S. exports food to Somalia, but Somalia exports very little
temporary body to facilitate trade negotiations. The Interna-
to the U.S. Thus, Somalia is obliged to lower tariffs on U.S.
tional Trade Organisation (ITO) had instead been created to
food imports, but the U.S. can offer little benefits to Somalia in
break down trade barriers, govern trade during negotiations,
return. The end result is that wealthy, productive nations have a
and resolve trade disputes. The ITO Charter, adopted at the
great deal to gain with foreign markets lowering tariffs, while
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
poor nations have little to gain when the markets of the
(UNCTE) in 1948, included (among other “leftist” principles) a
wealthy are already dominated by local producers, while their
provision that all nations should maintain full employment.
own markets at home are flooded by the wealthy nations. This
This provision outraged the U.S. and U.K.; both calling it
makes it impossible to build up their own industries since they
socialistic and a violation of national sovereignty. In 1950, the
have no opportunity to compete with the imported goods.

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 DEVELOPMENT
U.S. government refused to ratify the agreement, and the ITO
died.
Instead, the U.S. supported GATT in an expanded role. In the
GATT agreement of 1947, 23 nations had signed on; by 1949
10 more nations agreed to comply; all together claiming they
governed four-fifths of global trade.

COMMUNICATION
While GATT members negotiated separately on numerous
occasions, the entire group held eight organized rounds of
trade negotiations. At the first round in Geneva (1947), tariffs
were cut by 20% on around three-fourths of commodity
imports In the four rounds that followed: Annecy (1949),
Torquay (1950-51), Geneva (1955-56) and (1960-61), tariff cuts
never amounted to more than 3%, covering less than a tenth of Critically look at who authored GATT and who became
commodity imports. Those controlling GATT thus resolved a members.
new approach: across the board cuts in tariffs, with exception
The GATT Agreement took the shape of World Trade
negotiations to follow. The last three rounds of GATT, very
Organisation (WTO) from January 1, 1995. The primary
much extended, did exactly this: the “Kennedy Round” (1962-
objective of the GATT/WTO is to liberalise international trade
67), the Tokyo Round (1973-79), and the Uruguay Round
by relaxing the tariff and other restrictions so as to enable free
(1986-94).
flow of goods and associated services across the countries.
The last round of GATT negotiations, the Uruguay Round, Presently, the WTO has 128 members who account for some
marked the end of GATT, and the beginning of a new 90per cent of the World Trade.
corporate era: the WTO. 128 nations were signatories at it’s
In addition to being a forum for trade negotiations, WTO is
creation in 1994.
akin to the International Court which resolves trade disputes
The Genesis of WTO between member countries. The WTO has a status similar to
After the Second World War, the need for linkages in matters of the World Bank and I.M.F.
trade, finance etc., in between different countries was well Since the formation of GATT in 1948, new issues cropped up
realised. The Bretton Woods conference of Nations held in and fresh negotiations have been held from time to time
1944 suggested the establishment of an International Trade resulting in major departures from the earlier agreement.
Organisation (I.T.O.) along with setting up of International
Monetory Fund (IMF) and International Bank for Reconstruc- Major Departures In WTO
tions and Development (IBRD) or World Bank. Although IMF 1. While the earlier GATT provisions confined manly to trade
and World Bank were set up in 1946, the proposal for ITO to in manufactured goods, now trade in agriculture received
facilitate and liberalise International Trade had taken shape as emphasis.
General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT). 2. Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS): The
The GATT was initially signed by 23 countries including India TRIPS covers nine types of intellectual property — copy
and it came into existence in 1948 with its headquarters at right, trade marks, trade secrets, geographical indications,
Geneva, Switzerland. Ever since GATT was set up, eight industrial designs, layout designs (topographic) of integrated
Bounds of Negotiations have been held in trade matters. The circuits, patents, micro-organisms and plant varieties (with
last Round, i.e Eight Round took seven years (1986-93) in suigeneris system, i.e., a system of its own unique). The
Uruguay. As many as 124 member countries, including India, Patent Right has been extended from 7 and 14 years to an
signed the GATT Agreement at Marrakesh on April 15, 1994. uniform period of 20 years for all commodities. Earlier, only
Arthur Dunkel, the then Director-General of the GATT, played process was patented and now product is also patented. The
a crucial role in drafting the Agreement and the GATT Agree- patented product can be exported after the royalties are paid.
ment is widely known as Dunkel proposal. 3. Some services like banking, insurance and
telecommunications are also included.
4. Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMS): It means free
inflow and outflow of capital of Multinational Corporations
(MNCs) without restrictions on local use of material or
exports obligation under the W.T.O.
Opinions are divided on the desirability of different provisions
of GATT/WTO. It is argued that some of the provisions are
matters of great concern about the very sovereignty of the
member countries, particularly a reputed trading country of
long history like India. There are misgivings relating to inclu-
sion, particularly of trade in agriculture, services and Intellectual
property Rights of certain items. The TRIPS Agreement

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 excludes plants and animals from patentability, but requires under the Treaty to reduce any of the subsidies given to their
DEVELOPMENT

patenting of “Micro-organisms” and “Micro-biological farmers.

processes. It is said that the issue of patent is a very tricky one. But there are apprehensions that increasing procurement prices,
Patents are given for “Inventions”, and not for “Discoveries.” subsidization of fertilizer and a canal irrigation may push the
In the field of bio-chemistry, there seems to be very thin line subsidies beyond 10 per cent level within a few years-Further, if
dividing the two. Further, there is no clear definition of developed countries continued subsidy to agricultural inputs,
patentable forms like genetically modified micro-organisms and they would be able to produce at relatively low price and be in a
COMMUNICATION

micro-biological processes. Nor there is a clear-cut definition of position to sell at lower prices and this would be detrimental to
suigeneris system. the marketing of farm products of developing countries like
It is to be noted that in the case of plant varieties, the TRIPS India. If exportable subsidies on agricultural products contin-
agreement does not lay down the scope of the specifications ued in developed countries, India would be at a disadvantage in
and standards for protection. Therefore, the Agreement itself international market.
says that the provisions relating to these will be revised after In recent years, there have been attempts of phasing out of
WTO has completed four years, i.e., after 1999. At this stage, input subsidies in India and such a step will have major
what is essential is that India must be cautious in property implications for the cropping pattern and the crop diversifica-
assessing the impact of WTO Agreement on Indian economy tion process that has been taking place in the country, especially
in general and agriculture and rural development in particular since the eighties. In recent years, there has been a shift in the
and take necessary corrective measures. cropped area from coarse cereals to relatively higher value-crops.
Liberalisation & W.T.O: Implications For The total area under the food grains which was 127.6 million
Agriculture & Rural Development hectares during the triennium ending (TE) 1984-85 declined to
Among others, the important provisions in the final Act of 123.1 million hectares during TE 1994-95. The effort to
GATT which influence the agricultural economy and rural compensate the farmers for the increased input prices by other
development are as follows: methods would help this process, Removing the input
subsidies and adjusting it on final product prices may not be a
1. Reduction in agricultural subsidies,
feasible method to encourage crop diversification or even to
2. Patenting of Seeds, retain the suitable cropping pattern that has already been
3. To import three percent of domestic demand for agricultural achieved in certain regions.
products and
Patenting of Seeds
4. Reduction of Public Distribution System activity, confining The Agreement on patents is in substantial variance from the
subsidized food only to those eligible on well defined criteria Indian Patent Act of 1970 and therefore had given rise to a lot
of nutritional requirements. of controversy in India. As per the Indian Law, agricultural
Subsidy Discipline products, including seeds and plants, animals and all life forms
There is a controversy, centered round the provisions of the including microorganisms and microbiological process are not
GATT relating to the subsidies. The subsidies fall broadly into patentable. There was no suigeneris system as such under the
three categories: Indian Patent Law. As per TRIPS under GATT, agricultural
1. Input Subsidization of Fertilizer, Electricity, Canal Irrigation, products — Microorganisms and Microbiological processes are
and Seeds, patentable. There is a lot of ambiguity associated with the
concepts of Microorganisms, Micro biological processes and sui
2. Export Subsidies, generis system.
3. Subsidy in Government Services and Programmes such as
Research Programmes, Marketing Services and Infrastructure
Farmers’ Suicides, Hunger Deaths and
Services.
Globalisation
According to the Agreement, the basis for calculation of The corporate hijack of our food and agriculture
subsidies is the Aggregate Measurements of Support (AMS). Navdanya - Press Release , 3 January 2003
The AMS has two components, viz., the product-specific Globalisation is killing the people of India. Farmers are being
support and the non-product specific support. The product pushed to suicides with rising debts due to deregulation of
specific support is estimated as the difference between the inputs such as seeds and chemicals and imports by the removal
domestic price of the relevant agricultural product and fixed of quantitative restrictions. The poor are facing starvation.
external reference price multiplied by the quantity of output Reports of hunger deaths have become routine even as 65
eligible to receive the domestic support. The non-product million tonnes of foodgrain are rotting in godowns.
specific support if given in the form of input subsidies for
At a seminar on Food Sovereignty organised by Sustainable
fertilizer, electricity, canal irrigation, seed and credit. In India
Agriculture Movement - Navdanya, as part of the Asian Social
subsidy on all the three items is less than 10 per cent and as per
Forum, farmer leaders and food right activists presented
the provisions of the GATT Agreement, developing countries
analyses and testimonies on why are farmers committing suicide
can subsidise their farmers upto 10 per cent of the total value
and why are the people being starved to death.
of the output. There is, therefore, no obligation for India

172
• Over 8000 children have died of malnutrition in Maharashtra gave reports from different parts of the country on the survival

DEVELOPMENT
since globalisation crisis being faced by farmers as a result of globalisation.
• Nearly 2000 farmers have committed suicide in Rajasthan in WTO was sold to the Indian people as a means of creating a
the last 3 years level playing field and for removing northern subsidies.
• More than 100 farmers from three villages - Rentachintala, Subsidies in the US and Europe have however increased after
Khambhampadu, and Macherla in East Andhra Pradesh the WTO came into force. While the US used the WTO to force
India to remove quantitative restrictions, it has enacted the new

COMMUNICATION
have sold kidneys to avoid starvation.
US Farm Bill which increases subsidies to agriculture by 73.5
• Between 1997 and 2000 in just one district - Anantpur - in
billion dollars to $180 billion over the next 6 years. Most of
Andhra Pradesh, 1826 people, mainly marginal farmers,
these subsides go to agribusiness like Cargill, ADM and
committed suicide.
Conagra for dumping artificially heap agricultural products on
• Wheat is being exported at Rs. 3.96 a kilo even while the BPL our markets. Removal of import regulation in the face of these
price is Rs. 4.20 and the economic cost to FC I is Rs. 8.30 unjust and high subsidies is a death knell to Indian farmers.
• The Supreme Court’s Commissioners on Food found that Cargill has cornered the oilseed trade in the country, and is now
almost 70% of the food offtake by Rajasthan government building a new edible oil refinery in Paradeep. Conagra, which
was for exports. has tied up with ITC’s Agro Tech, and has taken over Rath
Dr. Vandana Shiva, the founder of Navdanya, and a leading vanaspathi, has now also taken a broad-based patent on Indian
figure of the anti-globalisation movement, said these glaring “atta” chakkis to over almost any type of grinding and milling
facts show that under globalisation, the Indian food system is at all levels - from the household and cottage industry to large
being hijacked for super profits of MNCs and is no longer flour mills.
designed to serve either peasants or the poor. She gave an Participants called for an immediate re-introduction of quantita-
overview of the impact of a decade of globalisation on the tive restrictions on imports in agriculture and a ban on patents
food sovereignty of the country and the food entitlement of on indigenous technologies in the food sector. They also called
the people of India. She also laid out the strategies for fighting for fair prices to farmers for their produce based on MSP as a
WTO and agribusiness at the national and international levels, floor price as recommended by the Long term Grain Policy
especially in the context of the upcoming Ministerial eeting of Committee of the government. They declared food as a human
WTO in Cancun and the total collapse of the negotiations on right and food sovereignty as the basis of economic democracy.
agriculture. This requires an expansion of the public distribution system
Arun Bhatia, the Director of the Tribal Research and Training rather than its shrinkage as is being imposed by the World Bank
Institute Pune, who was asked by the central government to and implemented by the government.
study the tribal deaths in Maharashtra, presented his data It also requires that food and agriculture be moved out of the
showing that the percentage of hunger deaths among 0-6 year WTO, and be governed by principles of food sovereignty, not
olds in Nandubar district has gone up from 0% in 1993 to by principles of “free-trade”.
46.20 percent in 2001.
Navdanya, which has been at the cutting edge of research, action
Prafulla Samantra of Orissa who broke the news of the hunger and campaigns on WTO and food issues, also released its two
deaths of Kashipur last year, shared with the participants details new reports related to Globalisation and Food sovereignty -
of the continuing crisis of hunger in the state. Corporate Hijack of Agriculture: How trade liberalisation and
Other eminent food rights activists who spoke about hunger market access rules of WTO are killing farmers and Corporate
deaths at the Seminar included P. Sainath and Colin Gonsalves. Hijack of Food: How World Bank and WTO are pushing the
The food sovereignty of the country and the food system that poor to starvation.
gave food security to the poor has been hijacked by global However, the plant varieties are to be protected through the
corporations using WTO and the World Bank. System of Protecting Breeders Rights (PBR). The PBR System
• Farm prices of agricultural produce are collapsing. Coconut protects the right of plant breeders to exclusively market
prices in 2000 were less than half their price in 1996. In just commercially, the new plant variety, one develops. The basic
two year, between 1998-99 and 2000-2001 Kerala farmers lost objective of PBR system is to encourage plant breeding
a staggering Rs. 17,000 crore. capabilities and to stimulate investment in the field.
• The Conoor tea industry lost Rs. 86 crore in 2002. There is a provision in this regard for farmers’ privilege. The
farmer can use seed of his farm for growing subsequent crops.
• The price of rice has fallen to lows of Rs. 320 in many places;
The PBR system should not impinge on the farmer as long as
wheat prices have fallen by more than a 100 rupees per
he continues to be a grain producer and does not become a
quintal in many mandis of UP and Punjab.
commercial seed seller. A plant breeder and a farmer are said to
• As a result of unfair trade practices legalised by the WTO, the be not adversely affected and one is complement to the success
import figures for India has dramatically increased from Rs. of another.
50,000 million in 1995 to Rs. 200,000 million in 2001.
Further, there is freedom available to a researcher to use one
Farmer leaders Sunilam, Atul Kumar Anjan, Suneet Chopra, protected variety to breed another new variety. India has
G.S. Dittupur, G. Nammalvar, K.R. Chowdry, and Gopal Iyer, abundant plant breeding skills with which seed requirements

173
 can be met on a large scale. The seed produced by Indian the Asian level, the intake of an Indian is only 2204 calories.
DEVELOPMENT

Agriculture Research Association and used by farmer would not The intake of protein by an Indian is much less and its
come under the purview of GATT. In India nearly 80 per cent availability is sharply declining and it is currently put at 36.2 gms
of the production and supply of seed is still controlled by per day, per person against the recommended minimum
farmers, farmer to farmer systems and use of seed from one’s requirement of 80 gms. The per capita level of consumption of
own field being widely prevalent. Such rights should be well food grains has been almost stagnant. The problem in India is
protected and necessary legislation be enacted to ensure such one of poverty and lack of purchasing capacity. Under these
COMMUNICATION

rights to individual farmers, researchers and plant breeders. The circumstances the really poor need to be identified and supply
Indian Patent Law should protect the interests of farmers, of food stuffs at subsidised rates through effective PDS must
researchers and plant breeders, from MNC role in this field. continue.
Imports to the extent of three Per Cent New Economic Policy
of Domestic Demand One has to view the WTO in the background of New Eco-
The obligation to import three per cent of the agricultural nomic Policy (NEP) of liberalisation and globalisation pursued
products required is not applicable to India at present due to since June 1991. The NEP is a complete reversal of policies
deficit position in the balance of payments (BOP). For most of advocated during the days of Independence movement and
the concessions given to developing countries like India, the later in the post-Independent era. During the time of India’s
BOP crisis or deficit in BOP is listed as the main eligibility Independence, leaders exhorted the people to boycott foreign
requirement. Sooner or later India would come out of the BOP goods and buy only Indian goods. After Independence, the
crisis and then lose these concessions. What is important is to policy was to encourage domestic industries and hence the flow
fully exploit the scope for betterment of agriculture and related of foreign capital was discouraged. The imports were restricted
sectors through export promotion under WTO. There is a by raising customs duties. Indigenisation and import substitu-
mandatory minimum access of the domestic markets of the tion were the cherished goals of at least the patriots in the
developed countries to farm produce from outside. As such, country. In the early phase of planned development, emphasis
the European countries, the erstwhile USSR countries, would was on self-reliance and import-substitution. The emphasis
provide opportunity for Indian exports of agricultural prod- now is towards export-led growth.
ucts. In order to tap these markets and their requirements, their The change in economic policies was found necessary. The crisis
expectation of quality must be well assessed and accordingly in the balance of payments, huge external debt, inflation of
plan our agricultural production strategy. Apart from stepping high magnitude by 1991, necessitated the Government of
up of productivity levels of cereals as well as non-cereal crops India, to yield to the advice of the IMF and the World Bank to
leading to substantial marketable surplus, care must be taken adopt a new economic policy of Liberalisation. While the
for cost effective production of high quality, meeting the concepts like Public Sector, Socialistic Pattern of Society,
demand of international market. The Ninth Plan (1997-2002) Controls, Regulation, etc., were very popular till 1991, instead,
keeping in view the changed scenario of liberalisation, now a new set of concepts like Stabilisation, Liberalisation,
emphasises on: (1) the development and promotion of market Privatisation, Disinvestment, Decontrol, Deregulation, etc., are
and products, brand name and dissemination of information gaining currency.
among exporters, (2) improvement in quality and packaging,
The liberal trade under the WTO and New Economic Policy of
keeping in view the health, sanitation and international
Liberalisation and Globalisation are expected to (1) increase
standards, (3) encouragement to export orient units, (4)
competition and give the consumers higher quality goods and
development of cold chain system, (5) creation of infrastruc-
services at lower prices, (2) debureaucratise economic activity and
tures at airport/seaports, (6) Integrated long-term policy to
promote entrepreneurship and individual initiative, (3) increase
improve the production and productivity and increasing use of
productivity, eliminate social waste and create additional wealth
bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides to ensure quality of products
with the utilisation of advances in science and technology and
and (7) encouragement to private sector to invest in infrastruc-
(4) enable utilization of the vast potential of the global market
ture which can promote agro-exports.
in terms of export promotion and development of competi-
Food Subsidy tive spirit of high order.
The issue of food subsidy has also been brought under the From the day India signed the GATT agreement and India had
purview of WTO. In India Public Distribution System (PDS) chosen to have a New Economic Policy of globalisation and
has been in operation since many decades. Its main objective is free market economy, concerns about Indian agrarian prospects
to make available food grains through a network of Fair Price are being expressed. The Farmers’ Forums and intellectuals are
Shops to the vulnerable sections of the society at reasonable divided with varying views on the implications of GATT/
prices. This would also act as an effective instrument of price WTO and New Economic Policy on agriculture and rural
stability in National Economy.6 The PDS is supposed to development. The controversy is mainly centered round the
insulate poor or weaker sections of population against infla- Patents Rights and Intellectual Property Rights relating to seeds,
tion. In India, still some 40 per cent of people are below the withdrawal of subsidy, modification in public distribution
poverty line with the ghost of food scarcity haunting the system, role of Multinationals in India and corporation of
country with persistence of nutritional gap. Against the caloric agriculture. Some argue that liberalised trading system under
intake of 2616 per capita at the global level and 2484 calories at WTO is “silver lining for exports” of Indian Agricultural

174
products, while others opposed, view the whole exercise as an capital invested in rural areas. The rural entrepreneurs have now

DEVELOPMENT
unholy alliance between two unequals and a planned design of better access to World market under WTO and can acquire
subjugation of Indian interest. With advancement in Informa- improved inputs including technology available in other
tion Technology, different nations are brought closer towards countries and apply the same in their own farming and other
“One World.” It is but appropriate that Indian economy is activities.
integrated with the global economy. Dr. Abid Hussain (Hindu,
Indian Scenario
Aug 31, 2000. The other Face of Liberalisation) who has

COMMUNICATION
After decades of planned economic development and a mixed
authored a report on small scale industries policy reforms,
economy, India accelerated her liberalisation programme from
describes “globalisation as a process driven by the forces of
1991. The reforms were started to contain a fiscal and balance of
science and technology and no country can remain isolated from
payments crisis. But the declared objective of these reforms
them.” However, India should make sure that her interests are
wasnot only to correct the errors in the past, but also to carry
not jeopardised in any way as a member of the WTO. India has
outstructural reforms in the long term in order to increase the
certain basic advantages. It has her own well proven native
efficiency of the productive system and to aim to achieve the
technology and plant breeders who have evolved new strains of
rates of growth of countries in East and South East Asia.
high quality. There are innumerable innovative contributions of
Indians in areas of Mathematics, Medicine, Engineering, This opening up to the international economy was obtained by
Agricultural Technology etc. Further, the very geographical size a progressive dismantling of quantitative restrictions and tariff
of India and the size of her population and wide domestic barriers and by opening up sectors of the economy so far
market for different goods and services provide strength to her restricted to the public sector to private and foreign capital. The
trade and bargaining capacity in International markets. opening up of the economy has increased the purchasing power
of a middle class estimated at more than 150 million. This
India had chosen to be a member of WTO and pursue policies
domestic market, coupled with the export potential of the
of liberalisation and globalisation. Now questions to be
country represents an important advantage for attracting foreign
answered are: who are the beneficiaries of the new policy? Will
direct investment, especially in the domains where India
the new measures benefit the assetless poor? Will the new
possesses a very high quality of human resources (electronic,
measures generate employment on a wider scale so as to absorb
software engineering). In addition, India has the political, legal
growing labour force? Will these measures help agriculture and
and financial institutions capable of accompanying these
rural development in India?
reforms; along with a powerful State, there exists a strong
Expectation From WTO/Economic tradition of the market economy as well as a very active
Liberalisation entrepreneurial class in India.
Expectations from globalisation of Indian economy and However, the reform of the public sector has proved to be slow
liberalisation of trade under WTO are many. There are many and difficult. The liberalisation has done very little to improve
opportunities for enhanced exports of horticulture, sericulture, the conditions of one third of the Indian population living
aquaculture and other agricultural products. This might under the poverty line. In spite of a socialist rhetoric, compared
improve the economic conditions of farming community as to a lot of other Asiatic countries, India has invested very little
they would be able to get better prices for their produce in the in social infrastructure (health, education) and in measures
International Markets. Under liberalised trade, the imports of destined to reducing poverty.
certain items such as oil seeds, pulses are being allowed and this
Today, the real challenge for India is to develop a dynamic
would meet the nutritional gaps in the country. Since WTO has
comparative advantage based on its industrial capacities as well
opened up new opportunities for export of agricultural
as its human capital. In this context, the dimension of regional
products, both raw and processed, that would help in value
development becomes very important : the federal political
addition in agriculture and create conducive environment for
structure could probably allow partnerships between entrepre-
investment.
neurs and regional or local governments, notably for foreign
The New Economic Policy of globalisation is expected to investment. Already the signs of an internal regionalisation of
benefit consumers in terms of better quality products of one’s the globalisation process have become visible, which could
choice, and that too at acceptable prices. create regional disequilibrium in the short term, but would have
In recent years, a new breed of entrepreneurial class from the a very positive effect on long term development.
rural sector is emerging and this is attributed to liberalised
Limitations under Liberalization / WTO
economic policies. Of late, there has been a trend towards non-
The expected benefits out of liberalisation/WTO are based on
agricultural occupation within the rural sector. Also, trend
many conditions and assumptions linked with individual
towards dairying, poultry, cultivation of grapes and other
enterprise qualities and policy measures. The shift from
horticulture crops is a clear indication of emergence of entrepre-
subsistence agriculture to commercial farming is possible only if
neurial class in the rural areas. Liberalisation and globalisation
there is adequate investment in agricultural sector, particularly on
policy provide ample opportunities for the growth of entrepre-
infrastructure development at village level. Creation of infra-
neurial class in rural India. Emergence of such promising
structure at village level such as roads and communication,
entrepreneurs would certainly put a halt to the investment flight
irrigation, electricity, godowns, processing centres and marketing
from rural to urban and migration of people from rural to
centres would accentuate the pace of agriculture and rural
urban centres and enhance the rate of returns accruing on the

175
 development. In recent years, there has been gradual decline in Breeders have evolved new strains such as Basmati Rice,
DEVELOPMENT

both public and private investment in agriculture with all its Darjeeling Tea, Neem and Turmeric-based products. It is rightly
adverse effects on capital formation and rural development. As pointed out that Indian products which have acquired a
rightly viewed by G. Parthasarathy (1998), export potential of commercial significance by usages over time as that of Basmati
horticulture crops would be realised only if adequate infrastruc- Rise, etc., may be vulnerable to encroachments by others. As an
ture is built up. Further, a rise in exports of horticulture crops is example, it is stated that recently a company has filed an
not without adverse effects on the poorer people. As a conse- application in Britain for “American Type of Basmati Rice.” It is
COMMUNICATION

quence of shift in area to horticulture crops, there is likely to be necessary that we enact a suitable national legislation for
decline in foodgrains production and increase in further market protecting products with Geographical Indication and Products
dependence. This may result in price rise and erosion of wages having specific characters in order to prevent such encroach-
of the poor. ments in future.
In recent years, there has been change in consumption pattern A decade after the new economic policy in vogue, the goals set
due to improvement in the level of income and increasing remain far from met, and on the other hand, there are indica-
awareness about new quality products. This is bound to tions of unbalanced growth and widening of income
influence domestic demand for new variety of consumer goods, disparities. The conclusions of some studies11 of an autono-
particularly superior food items. In a situation of low average mous organisation on the outcome of the new economic policy
food consumption levels as in India, the increase in export of of liberalisation and globalisation are worth noting- It is
agricultural commodities ignoring local demand of poor people pointed out “Poverty and unemployment situation in the
is highly questionable and not desirable. It is estimated that country has worsened in the Nineties and Income disparities
India has surplus foodgrains stock of about 30 million tonnes have widened than never before.... These Policies lead to greater
at the existing consumption level. With improvement in inequality in the society. In 1999-2000 only 0.05 per cent of the
consumption standards the so called surplus stocks would be population earned in the stock market Rs. 4,00,000 crores, while
much less. At the same time, some 30% per cent of the urban this was the income in the entire agriculture sector, on which 67
population and 40% of the rural population are not able to per cent of the population depends” notes Dr. Arun Kumar. It
meet the basic requirement of food due to lack of purchasing is also pointed out that in the years of Liberalisation, over 63
capacity. Under Liberalisation Policy, there is a tendency to shift per cent of the workforce engaged in farming has to make do
cropped area from food to high value export crops and this is with about 25% of the GDP, while a little over one-fifth of the
bound to create food shortage, unless productivity of food workforce engaged in the services sector obtains a little over half
crops is stepped up significantly. Food security to people is of the GDP. In this context, says Dr. Kabra, “No one Policy
more important and pressing than earning through export of will trigger development; human needs have to be addressed
foodgrains. India has not reached the take-off stage in agricul- directly; a comprehensive approach is needed... sustainable
tural production so as to concentrate on exports leaving behind development should be rooted in processes that are socially
millions who suffer from chronic hunger. Further, inter- inclusive.”
regional transfers of foodgrains under the PDS is not well taken
Need fur Sustainable or Eco-Friendly
care of. Under these circumstances, there is bound to be
Agricultural Development
resistance for transfer of foodgrains to International Markets.
The need of the hour is sustainable or eco-friendly develop-
Withdrawal Of Subsidies And Small ment, particularly sustainable agricultural development in India.
Farmers Over-exploitation of ground water using pressure irrigation
In India nearly 75% of the cultivators are of small and marginal systems, excessive dosage of chemical fertilizer in areas of
holdings category with less than 2 hectares. The benefits of assumed irrigation, prawn farming in the coastal belt, encroach-
globalisation, would only go to small number of fanners of ment of irrigation tanks, large-scale grazing, tree felling,
large size holdings. The farmers of small holdings being hunting, clandestine timber trading and consequent damage to
substance cultivators, have little marketable surplus. Any forest wealth, etc., endanger environment and biodiversity.
attempt of withdrawal of subsidy even partly on fertilizer or There must be check on the investment pattern of the Multina-
electricity would cause great hardship to the small and marginal tionals in India so as to ensure that there is no exploitation of
farmers. It is feared liberalisation of policy benefiting the rich nature and the poor people.
farmers would further accentuate the existing disparity in the
Rural Infrastructure for Rural Industries
income levels between small and large farmers.
The rural infrastructure in terms of energy, rural roads, and
It is to be noted that some of the development countries communication, rural transport, warehousing, irrigation,
continue to provide subsidies to fertilizer and resort to raising marketing etc. remain neglected. If liberalisation policy attracts
high tariff walls to prevent imports from the developing investment in these areas, that would go a long way in the
countries. India must be well guarded against such attempts. development of agriculture and rural areas. Rural infrastructure
The Indian farmers should not be placed at disadvantage in development is bound to pave the way for development of
matter of enjoying subsidy and tariff benefits. rural industries.
Protecting Indian Products R&D Development
Each country has its own Patent Laws including India. India is Strengthening Research and Development (R & D) in private
entitled for TRIPS in certain items. In India, Scientists and Plant sector, with adequate State support is necessary to address,

176
among others, seed multiplication and distribution with a focus of the previous policy and to strengthen the process of

DEVELOPMENT
on dry-farming technology. Appropriate steps need to be taken liberalisation coincides with the Ninth Plan.
to protect the indigenous seed industry against competition With specific reference to agriculture, the objectives of the
from the Multinational Corporations, EXIM policy (1997-2002) are stated as “To enhance the
We cannot expect miracles to happen always through technological strength and efficiency of India agriculture,
privatisation. Due to privatisation of Dairy Sector, for example, industry and services, thereby improving their competitive
the co-operative sector which has sustained the livelihood of strength while generating new employment opportunities and

COMMUNICATION
landless poor and small and marginal cultivators is on the verge encourage the attainment of internationally accepted standards
of collapse in some parts of India. A healthy competition of quality and to provide consumers with good quality
between private, co-operative and public sectors need to be products at reasonable prices.”
encouraged and that would ensure better quality products which Under the EXIM policy, it is said that now there is freedom and
can enjoy International Market. licensing, quantitative restrictions and other regulatory and
Effective Steps to ensure Quality of Farm discretionary controls have been substantially eliminated or
Products relaxed. All goods, except those coming under the negative list,
To meet the requirements of the international markets, the may be freely imported and exported.
farm production needs to be diversified. Fruits, vegetables, The negative list consists of three categories: (1) Prohibited (2)
better quality rice, prawns and other aquacultural products have Restricted by Licensing or otherwise and (3) Canalised. As per
to be produced on a priority basis. The quality of Indian farm the EXIM policy effective from April 1,1997, there are three
produce is under cloud in International Markets. Effective steps prohibited items of import, namely, animal tallow — fat and/
to ensure quality of farm produce are immediately called for to or oils; animal rennet and wild animals including their parts and
enjoy the benefits of export promotion under liberalisation products and ivory. The prohibited items of export cover all
policy. The grade specifications and standards of agricultural forms of wild animals including their parts and products with
products in India should be harmonised with International certain exemptions; exotic birds; animal tallow — fat and/ or
standards and specifications. As Gokhul Patnaik, indicated, the oils excluding fish oil; beef; human skeletons; sandlewood
package of practices recommended for application of chemicals excluding fully finished handicrafts and machine finished
and pesticides in agriculture should be suitably modified to sandlewood products; certain wood and wood products and
ensure the level of chemical residues in agricultural food stuffs certain chemicals.
remained within the tolerable limits prescribed by importing Through licensing the export or import transaction are restricted
countries.12 At the same time, export should be allowed only with certain terms and conditions stipulated by the licensing
after meeting fully the domestic requirements. authority. The terms and conditions of licensing include (1)
Inflow of Multinationals and Impact on quantity description and value of the goods, (2) actual user
Economic and Social Life condition, (3) export objective, if any, (4) value addition to be
It is feared that the inflow of multinationals and foreign capital achieved, (5) minimum export price and, (6) the country of
under globalisation and liberalisation may result in capital origin and destination of the goods.
intensive “mass production” with exploitative element and not The restricted items in the negative list of imports include
labour intensive “Production by Masses” as pleaded by consumers goods, animals, birds, and reptiles; aircraft and
Mahatma Gandhi. Further, there is a fear that free flow-in of relicopters and certain drugs. The restricted items of exports
foreign capital into India, apart from adversely affecting small cover cattle, camel; chemical fertilizer; hides and skins; industrial
producers — both farm and non-farm categories, “may create a leathers and paddy.
class that becomes a part of global consumerist class with all its
The third category comes under canalisation. Canalisation
adverse effects on social life and well cherished moral values of
means that the import or export of the goods concerned may
India.”
be done only through the designated public sector agencies like
Today India, as a member of WTO and with a policy of State Trading Corporation (STC), Minerals and Metals Trading
economic liberalisation, has to face a great technological Corporation of India (MMTC), Indian Oil Corporation (IOC).
challenge. The international competition should be met National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) etc. There are
through technology advancement, emergence of entrepreneur- eight canalised items of imports, namely, petroleum products;
ship in rural sector and quality upgradation of varying product certain vegetable oils like coconut oil, certain seeds like copra and
profile. groundnut, and fertilizers. There are six canalised items of
Export-Import Policy (Exim Policy) and export like petroleum products; certain mineral ores and
Agriculture and Rural Development concentrates; wiger seeds; and onion.
The EXIM policy announced on March, 31,1992 aims to further The new EXIM policy is quite in line with the economic
carry forward the process of liberalisation. The EXIM policy so reforms introduced in India. The expectation is that the
announced for the first time covered a period of five years and it technological strength and efficiency of Indian agriculture along
coincided with the Eighth Plan Period (1992-97). The current with industry and services development would enhance leading
EXIM policy (1997-2002), which seeks to consolidate the gains to employment generation in the rural sector. If once quantita-
tive restrictions on import of agricultural commodities go, after

177
 India’s position in Balance of Payments becomes quite
DEVELOPMENT

comfortable, as part of EXIM policy, the apprehensions of

adverse effects of such policy are genuine. India’s’ strategy in the
ongoing and coming negotiations on the agreement on
agriculture in WTO should be one of protecting agriculture,
rural development and livelihood of rural masses.
COMMUNICATION

Corporatisation of Agriculture
As a part of globalisation and liberalisation, corporatisation of
agriculture is advocated and promoted in certain parts of the
country. The case for such policy is based on (1) economies of
scale in production, storage and marketing, (2) potential for
higher investment in agriculture, drawingthe surpluses from
industry and service sectors, (3) acceleration of agricultural
exports to earn much needed foreign exchange for imports, and
(4) upgradation of farm technology to ensure cost-effectiveness
and competitiveness in international markets.
The critics argue that the strategy is fraught with certain adverse
consequences like , (1) opening up of agriculture to MNCs,
depriving the entrepreneurial opportunities for individual
farmers, (2) accentuation of regional inequalities in the levels of
agricultural development, (3) curtailment of employment
opportunities in the farm front, (4) small and marginal farmers
will be driven to the ranks of agricultural labourers, (5) market
dependence for food articles will increase leading to reduction in
food security, and (6) prospects for reduction in rural poverty
become bleak, rendering the policy of land reforms ineffective.
In short, it is felt that in the corporate arrangement, equity
issues become secondary.
In view of the adverse consequences, hasty pursuit in the matter
is not warranted.

Note

178
 DEVELOPMENT
LESSON 23:
GLOBAL DEBT AND THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNICATION
Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected to What is the “Debt Crisis?”
To be fully accurate, one should refer to the multiple debt crises
To learn how foreign debt affect development
that exist in the world today. For our purposes, however, the
To know the situation of India. “debt crisis” will refer the external debt, both private and public,
Vincent Ferraro and Melissa Rosser, (1994) state that foreign aid of developing countries, which has been growing enormously
and foreign debt has tremendous impact on third world since the early 1970s. Our focus should obscure, however, the
countries’ development. other debt crises that trouble much of the global economy: the
budget deficits of the United States government, its balance
In 1919, writing about a massive debt imposed upon Germany
trade deficits, and the insolvency of many of its savings and
by the Allied Powers as reparations for a catastrophic war, John
loans institutions. These crises are highly interconnected,
Maynard Keynes expressed contempt for the wisdom of the
particularly as they relate the issues of interest rates, export
policy:
values, and confidence in the international banking system. The
The policy of reducing Germany to servitude for a generation, “debt crisis,” then, is a global phenomenon, and an attempt to
of degrading the lives of millions of human beings, and of understand it fully needs a global perspective.
depriving a whole nation of happiness should be abhorrent
However, the greatest suffering thus far in the crisis is found
and detestable - abhorrent and detestable, even if it were
within developing countries, and therein lies the justification for
possible, even if it enriched ourselves, even if it did not sow the
our focus. But even within the developing world, our attention
decay of the whole civilized life of Europe.
can be directed toward a variety of problems depending on how
Some preach it in the name of justice. In the great events of one chooses to think about debt. One can focus on the integrity
man’s history, in the unwinding of the complex fates of of the international financial system, in which case one’s
nations Justice is not so simple. And if it were, nations are not emphasis is on the countries with the largest debts, such as
authorized, by religion or by natural morals, to visit on the Mexico or Brazil. Alternatively, a primary concern can be on the
children of their enemies the misdoings of parents or of rulers. desperate human costs of the debt, which would direct
Twenty years later, the debt, partially responsible for the rise of attention to sub-Saharan Africa, for example. Yet another
the Nazis, had been repudiated and Keynes’s views had been perspective, the strategic dimensions of the problem, would
confirmed. concentrate on debtors such as Turkey or South Korea.
Seventy-four years later, the world confronts another massive We will pay primary attention to what have been termed the
debt, although not one imposed by a treaty of peace. Indeed, most heavily indebted nations within the developing countries.
this debt, totaling $1.362 trillion in 1991, has no identifiable This focus is not neutral, since it generally refers to those
demons: One cannot point to the vindictiveness of a nations with the largest debts a whose threat of default
Clemenceau, or the opportunism of a Lloyd George, or the represents a serious concern to lending agencies.2 The bias of
naive idealism of a Wilson. Nonetheless, this debt has had the the focus, however, should not divert attention from the
effect of plunging millions of people into conditions of smaller countries, particularly those in Africa, whose debts are
economic despair and desperation. Most tragically, this debt will crushingly large to their people, even though the banks and
jeopardize the chances for the happiness of millions of children international lending agencies consider them less important or
who will have committed no crime other than that of being less threatening.
born into a poor society. Ultimately, this debt, like the German Selected Debt Statistics of the Fifteen Most Severely Indebted
debt, will not be repaid in full. Developing Nations
This chapter will examine the causes and consequences of the
global debt crisis. It begins by first defining the crisis and then Total External Total External Debt
Debt Debt Service
develops an explanation for the crisis from two perspectives: (as a %
first, a general explanation based upon the desperate economic Country (Millions Of (as a % of
$US) GNP) of 1990
conditions that characterize developing countries; and second, 1990 1980 Exports)
an explanation of the more specific reasons why poorer 1980
countries expanded their debt burdens so dramatically in the Algeria 26,806 47.1 27.1 59.4
1970s. The chapter then examines the costs of the debt crisis to Argentina 61,144 48.4 37.3 34.1
both developing and developed countries, and pays some close Bolivia 4,276 93.3 35.0 34.1
attention to the possibility of an international banking collapse Brazil 116,173 31.2 63.1 20.8
in the early 1980s. Finally, the chapter reviews some general Bulgaria 10,927 1.1 0.3 56.9
solutions to the debt crisis and offers suggestions for future Congo 5,118 98.0 10.8 20.7
responses. Cote d'Ivoire 17,956 58.8 28.3 38.6

179
 poverty in the world’s poorest nations. In 1987, the average per
DEVELOPMENT

Total External Total External Debt

Debt Debt Service capita income for people living in the poor countries in the
Country (Millions Of (as a % of (as a% South was only 6 percent of the income in the developed
$US) GNP) of 1990 countries of the North. In Africa, one-fifth of the population
1990 1980 Exports)
1980 lives in poverty, with those in sub-Saharan Africa bearing the
heaviest burden.6 A child in the developing world suffers a risk
Ecuador 12,105 53.8 33.9 33.2
of death four to ten times greater than that of a child in
COMMUNICATION

Mexico 96,810 30.5 49.5 27.8

Western Europe or North America. A pregnant woman in the
Morocco 23,524 53.3 32.7 23.4
developing world is 50 to 100 times more likely to die in
Nicaragua 10,497 112.1 22.3 4.1
childbirth than women in the wealthy, developed nations.
Peru 21,105 51.0 46.5 11.0
Despite the overwhelming number of statistics and indicators,
Poland 49,386 16.3 17.9 4.9
global poverty is as hard to measure as it is to conceptualize.
Syria 16,446 27.1 11.4 26.9
Although it is simple to characterize abstractly the living
Venezuela 33,305 42.1 27.2 20.7
conditions of the world’s impoverished population, there is no
Source: World Bank, World Development Report, 1992 (Washing- widely accepted, standard method of identifying the poor, and,
ton, DC: The World Bank, 1992) Tables 21 and 24, pp. 258-259, therefore, of measuring the exact extent of global poverty.
264-265. Economists, social scientists, politicians, and agencies for
The accelerating magnitude of debt for the most heavily international aid each advocate their own particular definition of
indebted nations is staggering. In 1970, the fifteen heavily poverty depending upon the interests, whether noble or self-
indebted nations (using the World Bank classification of 1989 - serving, which they are protecting or pursuing. Nonetheless,
see note 2) had an external public debt of $17.923 billion - whatever the bias of the analyst or the method used to estimate
which amounted to 9.8 percent of their GNP. By 1987, these the number of global poor, the statistics are appallingly high,
same nations owed $402.171 billion, or 47.5 percent of their almost beyond comprehension. Consider, for example, these
GNP. Interest payments owed by these countries went from estimates taken from the September 1990 UN Chronicle (p. 46):
$2.789 billion in 1970 to $36.251 billion in 1987. Debt service, • 1 billion people live in absolute poverty
defined as the sum of actual repayments of principal and actual
• 100 million persons are completely homeless
payments of interest made in foreign currencies, goods, or
services on external public and publicly guaranteed debt, • 800 million persons go hungry every day
accounted for 1.5 percent of their GNP and 12.4 percent of • 1.75 billion people are without access to safe drinking water
their to exports of goods and services in 1970. In 1987, those • 1.5 billion persons are without access to primary health care
figures had risen 4.3 percent and 24.9 percent, respectively. Table
The central debate concerning the definition of poverty centers
gives the statistics using the World Bank’s 1992 classification of
around the two most prominent types of measurements:
heavily indebted countries.
income analysis and basic needs analysis. Income analysis, the
For the developing world as a whole, in 1991, the total external most common measure of poverty, assumes that poverty is a
debt was $1.362 trillion, which was 126.5 percent of its total direct function of income and individual purchasing power
exports of goods and services in that year, and the ratio of debt within nations. It argues that citizens with a higher income
servicing to the gross domestic product of the developing should have greater access to goods and services that will satisfy
world reached 32.4 percent. their basic needs. The countries with a higher GNP and GNP
The Causes of the Debt Crisis: (1) Poverty per capita presumably will have a proportionally higher standard
as a General Motive for Borrowing of living for all their citizens. Consequently, the income analysis
The economic debts of the developing world will not be fully approach uses a cross-national comparison of GNP, GNP per
repaid, quite simply because the people who live in the develop- capita, and GDP (gross domestic product) statistics to define
ing world cannot afford to repay them. The harsh reality of poverty. In 1990, the World Bank’s definition of poverty was all
poverty in poorer countries was an initial stimulus for the loans. of the world’s population living on less than $370 a year; a
As we shall see below, economic conditions suggested that figure derived from the average of the poverty lines of the
borrowing money was a reasonable course of action in the poorest nations in the world. By this criteria, over 20 percent of
1970s, particularly for poor countries, which perceived few, if the world’s population live in poverty.
any, alternative ways to address the economic plight of their The relative ease with which GNP and related economic
citizens. Those who live in the rich countries of the developed indicators can be calculated, and the ability to set an actual
world can readily observe profound poverty: all who live in the “poverty line” based upon these “hard” figures, are attractive
wealthy, industrialized nations do not have equal access to features of the income analysis method. However, the method
education, health care, good nutrition, and housing. The fact has many hidden weaknesses. First, despite the seemingly
that these deprivations exist alongside great wealth is shocking, accurate nature of the income definition of poverty, it is, in fact,
but they pale when compared to the scale of global poverty. The based upon averages. For instance, the GNP per capita indicator
hunger, homelessness, illness, and suffering of the poor in the measures the average income of each person in a nation by
developed countries must be multiplied a thousand times, in dividing the total gross national product by the total popula-
some respects a million times, to begin to reflect the scope of tion. It is a highly inaccurate measurement because it does not

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consider the unequal distribution of wealth within the country. programs that directly target the poor and their suffering by

DEVELOPMENT
Many people in developing nations do not live within the subsidizing and redistributing basic needs and services. Such
organized market economy, and, in many countries, a rigid class programs include vaccination and health outreach services,
and social structure prevents the integration of the poor into nutritional supplements, campaigns against illiteracy, infant and
the economic activity of the country as a whole. Most of the maternal mortality, and the problems of sanitation and clean
very poor meet their needs through subsistence methods, such water resources.
as farming, hunting, and bartering. The national income has no Regardless of the method of calculation, it is clear that many

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direct, or even indirect, effect on their existence, and a money people in the world are suffering needlessly and living lives of
income definition of poverty will not reflect their standard of wretched deprivation. This is especially true for women and
living whatsoever. children in the developing world. Women and children are the
The basic needs approach to the definition of poverty conceptu- most vulnerable members of any society, but they are the
alizes poverty differently. It is not a lack of money that causes principal victims of poverty. Females as a group, in poor
people to live impoverished lives, it is a lack of food, shelter, regions, regardless of age, receive less education, less health care,
education, sanitation, safe drinking water, and health care. Basic and less food than men or male children. The female literacy rate
needs analysis sets a minimum standard for each of these life- in the developing world is three-quarters that of the male
sustaining variables and classifies as poor those who have access literacy rate. Women work, on average, twice as many hours,
to less than a minimum allowance. The picture of the impover- including the unpaid labor of subsistence farming, gathering,
ished, according to the basic needs analysis, is one who is and caring for the young, the old, and the ill. Due to poorer
malnourished, illiterate, short-lived, sickly, and lacking proper nutrition, hard labor, lack of professional health care, and
shelter and sanitation. The poorest nations, as ranked by a basic unsanitary living conditions, women in the developing world
needs index, are those who do not provide for the basic needs account for 99 percent of maternal deaths worldwide. The
of their people. Significantly, they are not always the nations health of children is even more threatened. Every six seconds, a
with the lowest GNP. For example, Sri Lanka is ranked 120th in child dies and another is disabled by a disease for which there is
the world by per capita GNP, but is listed as 75th in the United already an effective immunization. Each year seventeen million
Nation’s 1990 Human Development Report (which ranks children die from the combined effects of poor nutrition,
countries by the HDI or Human Development Index), well diarrhea, malaria, pneumonia, measles, whooping cough, and
above the United Arab Emirates, whose real GDP per capita is tetanus, diseases that are rarely fatal in the developed countries.
six times that of Sri Lanka. One in twenty of these impoverished children dies before
Although the basic needs analysis illustrates the living condi- reaching the age of five.”
tions of the world’s poorest people better than a simple income These are the conditions that cause nations to borrow. There
definition, it, too, has its drawbacks as a method for measuring were, however, specific economic conditions in the 1970s that
the extent of poverty in the world. The data for basic needs led to a massive explosion of the debt burden of developing
analysis is extremely difficult to collect. An accurate study is a countries. The tragedy of the debt crisis is that this borrowing
time-consuming, expensive, and meticulous undertaking. only made the suffering significantly worse.
Consequently, basic needs analysis often relies upon rough
The Causes of the Debt Crisis: (2) The
estimates and averages and even some income-related data. In
Specific Economic Conditions of the
addition, the categories of basic need and their importance
1970s
relative to one another are somewhat subjective.
The conventional explanation is that the debt crisis of the 1980s
Creating a definitive way of calculating global poverty is much was due to a number of highly contingent circumstances that
more than merely a matter of precision or exactitude. The way were essentially unpredictable at the time many of these loans
one defines poverty has a decisive impact on the kinds of were made. For example, William R. Cline of the Institute for
policies that are chosen to combat it. Those who use income International Economics summarized the causes as follows:
analysis regard economic growth as the answer to world poverty.
The external debt crisis that emerged in many developing
This method of analysis depends on the theory of
countries in 1982 can be traced to higher oil prices in 1973-74
“trickledown economics,” that is, any increase in the productiv-
and 1979-80, high interest rates in 1980-82, declining export
ity and relative wealth of a nation will eventually trickle down to
prices and volume associated with global recession in 1981-82,
benefit every sector of a country’s economy and, consequently,
problems of domestic economic management, and an adverse
each family unit and individual. The World Bank, for instance,
psychological shift in the credit markets.
implements economic recovery programs and internal structural
readjustments to help poor nations increase the rate of growth The story actually begins earlier than 1973 because debt has been
in their GNPs, and ostensibly raise the standards of living in solidly entrenched in the finances of developing countries for
their society. Those who favor the basic needs analysis do not many years. The United States was a heavily indebted country in
think that national economic growth is enough to eradicate the nineteenth century, and poorer countries have always needed
world poverty, and, rather, emphasize questions of how that outside infusions of investment capital in order to develop
growth is distributed. They cite evidence that few of the their resources. The logic of indebtedness is commonplace and
benefits of increased productivity ever reach the most disadvan- not especially arcane: one incurs a debt in hopes of making an
taged in low-income countries, and, therefore, advocate investment that will produce enough money both to pay off
the debt and to generate economic growth that is self-sustain-

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 ing. An important characteristic of developing-country debt countries. The IMF had performed this role in the past, but
DEVELOPMENT

prior to 1973 was that it was largely financed through public primarily with regard to its “own” money - that is, money lent
agencies, both bilateral and multilateral. These agencies, such as by the IMF to assist countries in addressing balance of pay-
the World Bank, presumably guided the investments toward ments problems. This new emphasis on creating conditions
projects that held out genuine promise of economic viability primarily to assure payments to private institutions, while in
and success. theory not a new undertaking, was different in character and
After the oil crisis of 1973-74, however, many commercial banks content from what the IMF had done in the past, largely
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found themselves awash with “petrodollars” from some oil- because of the enormous amount of money involved.
producing states, and these private banks were eager to put this Unfortunately, the IMF, in spite of the unprecedented situation,
windfall capital to productive use. The banks assumed that did not perceive that its responsibilities had changed in any
sovereign debt was a good risk since there was a prevalent belief significant way, and gave its seal of approval for additional loans
that countries would not default. Many developing countries, only to those countries that accepted its traditional policies,
reeling from oil price increases, were eager to receive these loans. which are generally referred to as stabilization programs of
These countries assumed that loans were an intelligent way to “structural adjustment.”
ease the trauma of the oil price increases, particularly given the Programs of structural adjustment are designed to address
very high inflation rates at the time. Other developing countries, balance of payments problems that are largely internally
the oil-exporting ones (Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Nigeria, generated by high inflation rates, large budget deficits, or
and Venezuela, for example), saw the loans as a way to capitalize structural impediments to the efficient allocation of resources,
on their much-improved financial status, and they assumed that such as tariffs or subsidies. The IMF structural adjustment
oil prices would remain high in real terms for an extended programs highlight “productive capacity as critical to economic
period of time. performance” and emphasize “measures to raise the economy’s
In retrospect, it is easy to point out that these actions did not output potential and to increase the flexibility of factor and
conform to the typical logic of indebtedness. These loans were goods markets.” A fundamental assumption in a structural
being used to pay for current consumption, not for productive adjustment program is that current consumption must be
investments. The money was not being used to mobilize suppressed so that capital can be diverted into more productive
underutilized resources, but rather to maintain a current, albeit domestic investments. A further assumption of an IMF
desperate, standard of living. Moreover, these loans were being stabilization program is that exposure to international competi-
made in an unstable economic environment: since the unravel- tion in investment and trade can enhance the efficiency of local
ing of the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1971 (precipitated by production. In practice, these programs involve reduced food
the U.S. termination of the gold standard), global economic and transportation subsidies, public sector layoffs, curbs on
relationships had been steadily worsening. The developing government spending, and higher interest and tax rates. These
countries began to experience a long-term, secular decline in actions typically affect the poorer members of society dispropor-
demand for their products as the developed countries tightened tionately hard.
their economic belts in order to pay for oil and as they initiated When one is dealing with a particularly inefficient economic
tariffs and quotas to reduce their balance of payments deficits. system, structural adjustment is perhaps acceptable medicine;
The proof of the wrongheadedness of the lending in the 1970s and there were many examples of gross inefficiency, not to
became dramatically apparent in 1981. Interest rates shot up, mention outright corruption, in many of the countries that
and global demand for exports from developing countries were soliciting IMF assistance. In this respect, the IMF pro-
plummeted. The very deep global recession of 1981-82 made it grams were probably regarded as the correct approach by the
impossible for developing countries to generate sufficient public and private agencies that were being asked to reschedule
income to pay back their loans on schedule. According to the or roll over loans. But the critical difference between the
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development traditional IMF role and its new role as guarantor of creditwor-
(UNCTAD), commodity prices (for essentially foodstuffs, fuels, thiness is that the suppression of demand, previously designed
minerals, and metals) dropped 28 percent in 1981-82, and to free capital for domestic investment, simply freed capital to
between 1980 and 1982 interest payments on loans increased by leave the country.
50 percent in nominal terms and 75 percent in real terms. In Moreover, the approach assumes that it was primarily inefficient
1982, Mexico came to the brink of what everyone had thought economic management in the developing countries that led to
impossible just two years earlier - a default. This critical situation the debt crisis. From this point of view, the developing
marked the beginning of what is conventionally termed “the countries had gorged themselves on easy money in the 1970s,
debt crisis.” Private banks abruptly disengaged from further with the debt crisis being the rough equivalent of a fiscal
lending because the risks were too great. In order to prevent a hangover. Indeed, according to Stephen Haggard, the IMF
panic, which might have had the effect of unraveling the entire believed that a large majority of the failures of adjustment
international financial system, a number of governmental and programs were due to “political constraints” or “weak adminis-
intergovernmental agencies, led by the United States, stepped in trative systems,” as opposed to external constraints that were
to assure the continued repayment of the Mexican loans. largely beyond the control of the developing countries, for
At this same time, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) example, high interest rates.
emerged as the guarantor of the creditworthiness of developing

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It is extraordinarily difficult to determine the validity of this developing countries to changes in the world economy over

DEVELOPMENT
perspective. Clearly, some loans have been used in inappropriate which they have little direct control: their sensitivity to monetary
ways. Nonetheless, developing countries cannot be accused of changes in the advanced industrialized countries, and their
fiscal irresponsibility in such matters as the increase ‘in interest dependence on primary commodities as sources of their export
rates or the global recession in 1981-82. The assessment of earnings. The first consideration is perhaps the more dramatic.
culpability is in some respects crucial and in other respects It is no mere coincidence that the United States experienced its
irrelevant: crucial, because one would like to understand the own very serious debt crisis in the same year that panic arose

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crisis so that a repetition of a similar crisis can be avoided in the over the external debt of developing countries. The massive
future; irrelevant, because the current situation is so desperate government debt of the United States and its related balance of
that solutions must be found no matter where the blame for trade deficit precipitated a deliberate strategy of economic
the crisis actually lies. In the final analysis, blame rests on a contraction that had global effects. Interest rates in the United
system of finance that allowed developing countries and banks States had achieved very high levels in 1979, but the inflation
to engage in transactions reasonable only in the context of rates at the time were also very high. After the deep economic
wildly optimistic scenarios of economic growth. Additionally, recession of 1981-82, the inflation rate declined markedly, but
much blame rests on policies of the United States government the interest rates remained high. Interest rates remained high
that were undertaken with insufficient regard for their interna- because they were necessary to attract foreign investments to
tional financial implications. finance the extraordinary U.S. budget deficits created by the tax
William Cline attempted to distinguish between the internal reductions pushed by the Reagan administration and passed by
and external causes of the debt crisis by looking at figures for the Congress. In turn, the high interest rates inflated the value
the effects of oil price and interest rate increases in order to of the dollar, reducing U.S. demand for developing-country
determine the degree to which each were responsible for the exports and further diminishing the ability of the indebted
crisis. His figures, reproduced in Table 17.2, should be treated as countries to repay their loans.
only suggestive because there is a high degree of “double The United States, however, did not experience a debt “crisis”
counting” (loans were taken out in some cases to cover earlier because it was able to reassure its creditors that its promises to
loans) in many of these figures. Nonetheless, as a rough pay were plausible. But the high real interest rates forced upon
approximation, the data suggest that external factors were the developing countries as their loans were turned over created
significantly more important than the internal causes of a situation where no similar guarantees could be offered. As it
inefficiency and corruption. became obvious that the debtor countries could not meet the
The IMF stabilization programs, with their nearly exclusive increased payments, the private banks tried to pull back,
emphasis on the internal economic policies of heavily indebted bringing about the very crisis they wished to avoid. Only very
countries and relative disregard for the factors that Cline persistent efforts by official governmental agencies managed to
identifies, have failed to encourage the very type of economic stabilize the situation enough to avoid a precipitous default. In
growth that might have helped the developing countries to a very real sense, however, it was the actions of the United
grow out of their indebtedness. In fact, these programs have States that created the immediate crisis, and not some event or
had exactly the opposite effect: they have further impoverished pattern of events in the developing world itself.
many of the heavily indebted countries to a point where their Similarly, this debt crisis aggravated an already bad situation
future economic growth must be seriously doubted. Many with respect to the ability of the developing countries to pay
observers have come to share Jeffrey Sachs’s assessment of back their loans. Many of the developing countries were
structural adjustment programs: “The sobering point is that extremely poor prior to the crisis, which was one reason why
programs of this sort have been adopted repeatedly, and have they took out such massive debts in the first place. There was
failed repeatedly.” no evidence, before 1973, that this condition of relative poverty
This failure of traditional techniques to alleviate the debt was changing in any but a few of the developing countries, such
problem suggests that perhaps the conventional interpretation as the newly industrializing countries of South Korea,
of the debt crisis is incomplete or misleading. Indeed, much Singapore, and Taiwan. In fact, most of the traditional mea-
evidence suggests this inference. Perhaps the most compelling sures of economic development suggest that most developing
evidence is the fact that periodic debt crises seem to be endemic countries were falling farther behind the advanced industrialized
to the modern international system. There have been cycles of countries at an increasingly faster rate.
debt and default in the past, and some of the same debtors The developing countries will always be relatively poorer than
have experienced similar crises in almost regular cycles. Thus, the the advanced industrialized countries as long as they rely heavily
debt crisis of the 1980s cannot be ascribed solely to the on primary commodities, such as copper and rubber, for export
contingent circumstances of oil prices and U.S. monetary and earnings. Trade may be a stimulus to growth, but trade is not
fiscal policy, at least as the conventional perspective portrays an effective way to overcome relative poverty if the values for
these factors. This explanation must be supplemented by primary commodities fail to keep pace with the value of
factors that are more structural and deep-seated. manufactured products. This relationship between the values
There are at least two issues relatively unexplored by the of manufactured exports and the values of primary commodi-
conventional explanation of the debt crisis that deserve greater ties exports (the terms of trade) has been carefully examined by
attention, and they both relate to the vulnerability of the many economists, and some of them, such as Prebisch, have

183
 argued that the international division of labor is systematically Effects of External Debt on Economic Growth and Trade
DEVELOPMENT

biased against the interests of countries that rely heavily on the

export of primary products. This debate, which has been Gross Domestic
extended into what has been termed a theory of dependency, is Product Terms of Trade
a difficult one to resolve with clear empirical evidence. Some (Average Yearly (1987=100)
recent evidence, however, suggests that raw materials producers Growth)
have indeed suffered relative economic losses in the twentieth 1965-80 1980-90 1985 1990
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century. Enzo R. Grilli and Maw Cheng Yang analyzed the

terms of trade between primary commodities and manufac- Algeria ** 3.1 174 99
tured goods since 1900 and found that “the prices of all Argentina 3.4 -0.4 110 112
primary commodities (including fuels) relative to those of
traded manufactures declined by about 36 percent over the Bolivia 4.4 -0.1 167 97
1900-86 period, at an average annual rate of 0.5 percent.” Brazil 9.0 2.7 92 123
Thus, the developing countries are at a structural disadvantage Bulgaria ** 2.6 ** **
compared to the advanced industrialized countries. The newly
industrializing countries of East Asia are the exceptions that Congo 6.2 3.6 145 99
prove this rule. Because they have been able to expand manufac- Cote
6.8 0.5 110 80
tured exports, they have improved their relative economic d'Ivoire
situation tremendously in recent years. Other countries have Ecuador 8.8 2.0 153 109
been less successful, and the recent resurgence of protectionist
measures against manufactured products from the developing Mexico 6.5 1.0 133 110
world will make this type of transition only more difficult. Morocco 5.7 4.0 88 86
Ultimately, the solution to the debt crisis, and the underlying
Nicaragua 2.5 -2.2 111 110
poverty that spawned it, must address this terms of trade issue.
This imperative will be discussed in further detail below. Clearly, Peru 3.9 -0.3 111 78
however, the solutions to the debt crisis will require a perspec-
Poland ** 1.8 94 103
tive that looks at the problem as more than a temporary
aberration precipitated by bad luck and incompetence. Syria 9.1 2.1 125 87
What are the Costs of the Debt Crisis? Venezuela 3.7 1.0 174 164
This explosion of debt has had numerous consequences for the
Averages 6.3 1.7 118 101
developing countries, but this section will focus on only three
consequences: the decline in the quality of life within debtor
countries, the political violence associated with that decline, and
Source: The World Bank, World Development Report, 1992
the effects of the decline on the developed world. The next
(Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1992), Tables 2 and 14, pp.
section of this chapter will explore separately the most publi-
220-221 and 244-245.
cized cost of the debt crisis, the possibility that it might have
instigated a global banking crisis. This capital hemorrhage has severely limited prospects for
economic growth in the developing world and seriously skewed
The first, and most devastating, effect of the debt crisis was,
the patterns of economic development within it. The implica-
and continues to be, the significant outflows of capital to
tions for growth are summarized in the Table.
finance the debt. According to the World Bank: “Before 1982
the highly indebted countries received about 2 percent of GNP The decline in average growth, from 6.3 percent a year to 1.7
a year in resources from abroad; since then they have transferred percent a year, is even worse than it seems. Given the rate of
roughly 3 percent of GNP a year in the opposite direction.” In population increase in these countries, a 1.7 percent increase in
1988, the poorer countries of the world sent about $50 billion GDP translates into a net decline in per capita GDP. In other
to the rich countries, and the cumulative total of these transfers words, the populations of these countries were significantly
since 1984 is nearly $120 billion. The problem became so worse off economically during the period of the debt crisis; and
pervasive that even agencies whose ostensible purposes this decline further jeopardizes opportunities for future
included aiding the indebted countries were draining capital: in economic growth given its implications for domestic demand
1987 “the IMF received about $8.6 billion more in loan and productive investment. The terms of trade statistics, which
repayments and interest charges than it lent out.” The IMF has reflect the relative movement of export prices to import prices,
since reversed the flow of money in a more appropriate are similarly grim: developing countries are getting much less in
direction, aided principally by the global decline in interest rates, return for their exported products when compared to their costs
as well as by some success in renegotiating some of the loan for imported items. In short, these countries must export even
agreements. more of their products in order to maintain current levels of
imports. The total effects for the quality of life in the highly
indebted countries were summarized by the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development:

184
Per capita consumption in the highly-indebted countries in Political violence will only continue in the future, but its

DEVELOPMENT
1987, as measured by national accounts statistics, was no higher implications are hard to predict. Political instability may make it
than in the late 1970s; if terms of trade losses are taken into more difficult for democratic regimes to survive, particularly in
account, there was a decline. Per capita investment has also fallen Latin America, and may lead to the establishment of authoritar-
drastically, by about 40 percent between 1980 and 1987. It ian regimes. Similarly, popular pressures may lead to regimes
declined steeply during 1982-83, but far from recovering radically hostile to market economies, thus setting the stage for
subsequently, it has continued to fall. dramatic confrontations between debtor countries and the

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Jeffrey Sachs portrays the situation in even starker terms: external agencies that set the terms for debt rescheduling or
relief. Finally, political violence can spill over into international
As for the debtor countries, many have fallen into the deepest
security issues. One can only imagine what sustained political
economic crisis in their histories. Between 1981 and 1988 real
conflict in Mexico would do to the already troubling issues of
per capita income declined in absolute terms in almost every
drug smuggling and immigration between Mexico and the
country in South America. Many countries’ living standards
United States. Debt-related issues complicated political relations
have fallen to levels of the 1950s and 1960s. Real wages in
between the United States and the Philippines over the military
Mexico declined by about 50 percent between 1980 and 1988. A
bases, and the extraordinary impoverishment in Peru (a decline
decade of development has been wiped out throughout the
in real GNP of between 15 to 25 percent from September 1988
debtor world.
to September 1989) has certainly led to an 31 increase in the
Sachs is not overstating the case. Before the debt crisis, global drug-related activities of the Shining Path.
poverty had reached staggering proportions, as described above.
Debtor governments will find themselves forced to demand
One can document the extent of poverty in the world by
certain concessions on debt repayment in order to maintain
pointing out statistics on gross national product, per capita
their legitimacy, and these concessions will invariably be cast at
income, or the number of telephones per thousand in a
least in terms of lower and more extended payments, if not
particular country. But these statistics obscure too much in their
reduction or outright debt forgiveness. If the debt crisis is not
sterility. In 1988, one billion people were considered chronically
resolved in terms that address the inevitable political conse-
underfed. Millions of babies die every year from complications
quences of declining living standards, then the prognosis for
from diarrhea, a phenomenon that typically causes mild
recovery is dim, even if debtor governments, banks, and the
discomfort in the advanced industrialized countries. Millions of
international lending agencies agree upon acceptable financial
people have no access to clean water, cannot read or write their
terms. The political dynamics of the debt crisis must be
own names, and have no adequate shelter.
considered an integral part of the solution: to ignore the
And this misery will only continue to spread. The debt crisis has violence and protest as less important than the renegotiated
a self-reinforcing dynamic. Money that could have been used to interest rates will produce agreements that have little hope of
build schools or hospitals in developing countries is now going success.
to the advanced industrialized countries. As a consequence,
A final cost of the debt crisis has been one experienced by the
fewer babies will survive their first year; those that do will have
developed countries themselves, in particular by the United
fewer opportunities to reach their intellectual potential. To raise
States. Increasing poverty in the developing countries leads to a
foreign exchange, developing countries are forced to sell more
reduction of economic growth in the developed countries. The
of their resources at reduced rates, thereby depleting nonrenew-
debtor countries have been forced to undergo a dramatic decline
able resources for use by future generations. Capital that could
in imports in order to increase the foreign exchange earnings
have been used to build factories and provide jobs is now sent
needed to pay back their debts. The decline in the average annual
abroad; as a result, the problems of unemployment and
growth rate for imports of the seventeen most heavily indebted
underemployment will only get worse in poor countries.
countries is dramatic: the average annual growth rate for these
A second effect of the decline in living standards in the heavily countries in 1965-80 was 6.3 percent; in 1980-87, that figure had
indebted countries concerns the increased potential for political fallen to minus 6 percent, for a total shift of minus 12.3
violence. There have been over twenty violent protests in recent percent. One estimate is that the seventeen most heavily
years specifically against the austerity measures imposed by the indebted nations decreased their imports from the developed
IMF, with over 3,000 people killed in those protests.” The most world by $72 billion from 1981 to 1986.
recent outburst occurred in Venezuela, where about 300 people
The United States has been profoundly affected by this decline
were killed. Harold Lever posed the problem well in 1984:
in imports because most of its exports to the developing world
Will it be politically feasible, on a sustained basis, for the have, historically, gone to the Latin American states most
governments of the debtor countries to enforce the measures seriously affected by the debt crisis. The United Nations
that would be required to achieve even the payment of interest? Conference on Trade and Development suggests that this
To say, as some do, that there is no need for the capital to be decline in U.S. exports is a more important explanation for U.S.
repaid is no comfort because that would mean paying interest trade difficulties than for the deficits of other countries:
on the debt for all eternity. Can it be seriously expected that
Because of this import compression by the highly-indebted
hundreds of millions of the world’s poorest populations
developing countries, United States exports to them actually
would be content to toil away in order to transfer resources to
declined by about $10 billion between 1980 and 1986.... As a
their rich rentier creditors?
result, the United States recorded a negative swing in its trade

185
 balance of about $12 billion between 1980 and 1986; the Source: William R. Cline, International Debt: Systemic Risk and
DEVELOPMENT

corresponding negative swings for the other developed market Policy Response (Washington, DC: Institute for International
economy countries were much smaller: about $3 billion for Economics, 1984), p. 24.
Japan, $2.4 billion for the Federal Republic of Germany and The threat of a banking collapse was perhaps overstated at the
$1.6 billion for the other EEC countries. time since these types of measures only imperfectly reflect the
These declines seriously aggravated an already bad trade vulnerability of banks to a profound crisis of confidence.
situation for the United States. The absolute declines were quite Nonetheless, it was clear that some of the most important
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large; and if one extrapolates losses from an expected increase banks in the United States stood to lose a great deal of money
for export growth based on recent history, the declines are quite if one of the major debtor nations defaulted on its loans.
significant. Richard Feinberg translated the export loss to the Under even normal conditions, a banking collapse is always
United States in terms of lost jobs when he testified before the possible since banks rarely have enough capital to cover their
Senate: “. . . roughly 930,000 jobs would have been created if commitments. Indeed, it is generally considered inefficient to
the growth trend [of U.S. exports to the Third World] of the maintain this much available capital. Banks generally have
1970s had continued after 1980. In sum, nearly 1.6 million U.S. nothing to fear from their overcommitment of resources since
jobs have been lost due to recession in the Third World.” it is almost never the case that people wish to question the
This final point deserves more sustained attention than it has financial integrity of banks. In 1982, however, it became clear
yet received: it is also in the interests of the advanced industrial that psychological confidence in the banking system had lost
nations to seek an equitable solution to the debt crisis. No one’s some important underpinnings, and only the rapid interven-
long-term interests are served by the increasing impoverishment tion of governmental institutions averted events that might
of millions of people. The financial health and stability of the have completely undermined public confidence. Since that time,
richer countries depends crucially on debt-resolution terms that most private banks have stopped lending money to developing
allow and foster the economic growth and development of the countries and have increased their reserve holdings to offset any
poorer countries. potential losses from a major loan default. At the end of 1982,
the nine major U.S. banks had lent out over 287 percent of their
How Real was the Threat of an capital to the developing countries; by the end of 1988, that
International Banking Collapse? percentage had dropped to 108 percent.
The global cost most talked about in lending circles was that of
In addition, the major private lenders have increased their
a massive default by the debtor countries, which might have
reserve holdings to cover possible losses on their loan accounts.
had the effect of unraveling the international financial system.
Citicorp first announced that it was enlarging its loss reserve in
The point at which the debt crisis actually made it to the front
1987, and the other major banks quickly followed suit.
pages of newspapers in the advanced industrial countries was in
1982, when it became clear that Mexico was unable to meet its The net effect of these two actions - the sharp reduction in loan
financial commitments. The size of the Mexican debt, coupled exposure and the creation of reserves against potential losses -
with the overexposure (lending in excess of capital assets) of has insulated the major banks from any threat of a banking
the private banks that had provided loans to Mexico, raised the collapse precipitated by a widespread default on loans by
possibility of a widespread banking collapse, reminiscent of the developing countries. Indeed, these actions have been partially
bank failures in the 1930s. Table gives some idea of the extent responsible for the revival of the stock prices of these banks,
of overexposure in 1982. signaling renewed investor confidence in the banks, as well as
supplying new capital to offset the equity losses generated by
Table 17.4 / Exposure as a Percentage of Capital, Major Banks,
the creation of the reserve holdings. The strengthened position
end of 1982
of the major banks led William Seidman, chairman of the
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, to assert in 1989 that
Argentina Brazil Mexico Venezuela Chile Total
the banks would remain solvent even if they were forced to
“write-off 100 percent of their outstanding loans” to the six
Citibank 18.2 73.5 54.6 18.2 10.0 174.5
largest debtor countries. Indeed, talk of the “debt crisis” was
rarely heard in the developed world in the early 1990s, even
Bank of America 10.2 47.9 52.1 41.7 6.3 158.2 though the total amount of debt owed by developing countries
steadily increased.
Chase Manhattan 21.3 56.9 40.0 24.0 11.8 154.0 The newly protected position of the banks alleviates the threat
of a collapse, but leaves the developing countries with fewer
Morgan Guaranty 24.4 54.3 34.8 17.5 9.7 140.7 sources of external assistance. Banks are not apt to enter into
any new or extensive commitments to developing countries
Manufacturers now that they do not necessarily need to protect the loans
47.5 77.7 66.7 42.4 28.4 262.8
Hanover already made. If there were a serious downturn in global
economic activity that would further imperil the ability of the
Chemical 14.9 52.0 60.0 28.0 14.8 169.7 developing countries to raise the money to pay back their debts,
the only alternative for the debtors would be public assistance,
either bilateral or multilateral. In short, while the gains from

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debt repayment will still be private, the costs will be shifted be politically impossible for lenders not to react, and because

DEVELOPMENT
onto the public sector. there would be a conscious effort to warn other potential
This shift now appears to be the strategy of the major banks. defaulters against similar action. The escalation of economic
In response to new proposals for debt reduction, the banks, warfare would have the effect of sharply reducing international
represented by an organization called the Institute for Interna- economic interactions in trade, investment, and exchange. Such
tional Finance, have demanded certain conditions for accepting an outcome is in no one’s interest.
these proposals. In the words of Walter S. Mossberg of The The vast bulk of activity since 1982 has involved adjusting the

COMMUNICATION
Wall Street Journal, “the banks indicated they would be willing to timing and method of repayment. The number of specific
make major debt reductions and new loans only if they receive proposals is bewildering. One can read about debt-equity swaps,
new loan guarantees, tax breaks, and other financial sweeteners in which businesses or properties in the debtor country are
from the U.S., other countries, the World Bank and the purchased at a discount by the banks as partial repayment; debt-
International Monetary Fund.” The institute also asserted that for-debt swaps, where bonds are offered as discounted
“any government effort to force debt forgiveness would be repayments; exit bonds, which are long-term bonds tendered
contested in the courts’ as ‘an unconstitutional taking of essentially as take-it-or-leave-it offers to creditors who have no
property’ unless the government pays the banks compensa- interest in investing any further and wish to cut their losses; or
tion.” The truculent tone of this position confirms that the cash buy-backs, where the debtor country simply buys back its
banks no longer fear an imminent collapse of the international loan at a deep discount. Some of these proposals, notably the
financial system. debt-for-nature swaps, where the debtor country promises to
protect the environment in return for purchases of the debt by
Solutions
outside groups, are creative and could have important effects.
One fact is undeniable: Someone is going to have to pay for
past debts. It could be the people in debtor countries, or the This array of proposals is referred to as a “menu” approach to
banks, or the people in advanced industrial countries. Most debt repayment, and its logic is superficially sound. It was the
likely it will be some combination of these three groups. In the logic of the plan offered by Secretary of the Treasury James
last ten years, there have been a variety of proposals which, Baker in 1985. By providing a number of different options,
unfortunately, usually reflect only the special interests of the repayments can be tailored to the specific circumstances of a
groups proposing them. Generally speaking, these solutions fall country, thereby easing the burden. Critical to the success of the
into three categories: repudiation, minor adjustments in menu approach is the assumption that countries will “grow out
repayments, or reduction. of ” their debt. Yet, the evidence suggests that this assumption
is not entirely sound. This approach further assumes the
Debt repudiation, in the sense of a unilateral cessation of
repayment of debts on terms that are essentially dictated by the
repayment, occurred in a number of countries: Bolivia, Brazil,
creditors. No lender is obligated to accept any one of these
Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Honduras, Nicara-
possibilities. Moreover, the opportunities for swaps and buy
gua, Panama, and Peru.43 With the exception of the Peruvian
backs are limited: there are, after all, a relatively small number of
cessation, however, most of these actions have been taken with
investment opportunities in poorer countries, and the debt
assurances that the stoppages were only temporary. Peru
crisis itself has further limited those possibilities. Finally, some
announced that it was unilaterally limiting its debt repayments
of these swaps can actually increase the drain on the capital of a
to a percentage of its export earnings; and since Peru took this
country, particularly if profit remittances on successful invest-
action, other nations have indicated that they will act similarly.
ments turn out to be very high.
There have been no serious proposals for a widespread and
coordinated repudiation of global debt. The final proposals have to do with debt reduction, and these
only became a real possibility in the spring of 1989 with the
The economist Jeffrey Sachs offers several reasons for this
announcement of a new plan, dubbed the Brady Plan, after U.S.
absence of a general repudiation. First, debt repudiation is a
Secretary of the Treasury Nicholas Brady. The plan originally
dramatic and abrupt act. Most nations would prefer to defer
called for a total reduction of about 20 percent of global debt,
such decisions as long as there are advantages to muddling
with the IMF and the World Bank offering guarantees for the
through, and growth prospects are sufficiently ambiguous to
repayment of the other 80 percent of the debt. Since 1989,
make this muddling a viable course. Second, debtor countries
Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Mexico, Morocco, the Philippines,
fear retaliation from commercial banks. If the banks were to cut
and Venezuela have reached agreements concerning their debts
off nondebt related activities, such as trade credits, the situation
under the auspices of the Brady proposal. This approach
could be made even worse. Third, the debtor countries fear
recognizes that many of the menu approaches were, in fact,
retaliation from creditor governments and multilateral lending
schemes for debt reduction on a case-by-case basis. This formal
agencies. Grants from development banks could be affected,
recognition of the need for systematic debt reduction is a
and trade relations would probably be seriously disrupted.
hopeful sign, but the plan clearly does not go far enough. In
Finally, the leaders of most of the debtor countries have
market terms, developing-country debt is already selling on the
interests in maintaining good relations with the richer countries,
secondary market at about thirty-five cents to the dollar. In
and repudiation would jeopardize these interests.
other words, debt reduction has already occurred in the
Repudiation would also seriously disrupt global economic marketplace, and any plan that incorporates reductions must
relations, probably far beyond the immediate losses of the take this into account.
debts themselves. Retaliations would follow, because it would

187
 There are some serious problems with debt reduction. Debt poor, and ill-serves the long-term interests of rich as well as
DEVELOPMENT

reduction could reduce the incentive for debtor nations to make poor.
economic changes that could lead to greater efficiency. Or, it Finally, there are genuine issues of responsibility that deserve to
could set a precedent that would have the effect of reducing, or be made explicit. The debt “crisis” is only a symptom of an
even eliminating, the possibility for any future bank lending for international economic system that tolerates growing and
economic development projects. Finally, debt reduction could abysmal poverty as a normal condition. This need not, and
have the effect of saddling public lending agencies, like the should not, be the case. The developed countries have a
COMMUNICATION

World Bank, with enormous burdens, thereby vitiating their responsibility to create conditions whereby the poorer countries
future effectiveness. can interact more productively in international economic
These concerns are genuine. Counterposed to these possibili- activities: their single most important contribution to this end
ties, however, is the stark reality of hundreds of millions of might be in the area of reducing trade restrictions on the
people living in desperate conditions with no hope of relief in products of poorer countries. Similarly, the developing
the near- or medium-term future. Any plan for easing the debt countries have a responsibility to see that money is more
burden, therefore, must try to incorporate a number of effectively utilized within their own borders. The obscene
legitimate, but competing, concerns of varying importance. personal profits accumulated by such leaders as Marcos of the
First, the repayment of the debt itself has ceased to be the Philippines and Mobutu of Zaire should not be fostered by the
central concern. Private banks obviously have an interest in the strategic interests of other countries. The banks should also face
repayment of the debt and, to the extent possible, these up to the fact that their single-minded pursuit of profits almost
interests must be accommodated. But the security of the led them to the brink of bankruptcy. The lesson to be learned
international banking system is no longer at risk, and that, as a from this experience is that for economic growth to be sus-
legitimate public concern, can no longer dictate possible tained, close attention must be paid to the mutual interests of
necessary actions. The central concerns now are the reestablish- all parties involved.
ment of economic growth in the heavily indebted countries, the
Impact of Foreign Aid on India’s
effective and meaningful distribution of that growth into all
Economic Development
sectors of their societies, and their reintegration into the
In principle, foreign aid is meant to do three things, viz., (a) to
international economic system. Only after sustained economic
supplement domestic savings, (b) make available additional
growth returns to the heavily indebted countries can the
supplies of foreign exchange, and (c) facilitate transfer of
international community even begin to determine manageable
technology. The extent to which foreign aid can contribute to
rates and methods of debt repayment.
the development of the productive capacity of the country
Second, the International Monetary Fund must fundamentally depends in the last analysis, on the judicious use of foreign aid;
reassess its policies. Programs of structural adjustment may be the effort and the total disposable resources of the recipient
appropriate for the original purpose of the IMF-to assist country. Besides, foreign aid creates growth potential far beyond
nations having temporary difficulties in maintaining currency the point where it is applied. The import of capital goods may
values because of transient balance-of-payments difficulties. But release non-aid resources for increasing the current consumption
these programs are profoundly counterproductive in current while aid in terms of consumer goods may, in effect, help
circumstances and, indeed, are guided by a wildly inappropriate release domestic resources for capital formation. Therefore, it is
perspective. The inflows of capital to the IMF from the heavily difficult to assess the impact of aid precisely. Consequently we
indebted countries were more than a gross embarrassment; they shall discuss the significance of the participation of aid in
were conclusive evidence of the IMF’s misunderstanding of the creating productive capacity.
causes of the debt crisis. The IMF should shift its perspective to
External Debt and Debt Servicing (1980 –2002)
more creative or appropriate ways of stabilizing or depressing
interest rates rather than raising them, or ways to prevent capital
Debt
flight from developing countries, or any number of issues that Servicing as
concern the specific conditions of economic growth. The Rs. US $ Debt GDP
Year % of
mechanical application of a “model” of economic growth is Crores billion Ratio %
Current
wrongheaded.” Receipts
Third, the resolution of the debt crisis depends upon a clear 1980-81 19,470 23.50 13.1 9.3
recognition that much of the debt, as formally constituted, will
not, because it cannot, be repaid. Some countries, such as those 1989-90 1,30,278 75.86 26.7 30.9
in sub-Saharan Africa, ought not to repay their debts. Other
countries, particularly the heavily indebted ones, can pay 1990.91 1,63,001 83.80 28.7 35,3
something on their debts, and perhaps the appropriate
percentage is about half. Viewed in this light, the real question
becomes one of allocating the costs of this nonpayment of 1991-92 2,52.910 85.28 38.7 30.2
debts. The current emphasis of forcing the poor to pay with
broken lives and broken spirits is demeaning to both rich and 1992-93 2,80,746 90.02 37.6 27.5

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 5. Aid used for building up steel industry. Foreign aid has

DEVELOPMENT
1993-94 290,418 92.70 33.8 25.6
played an important role in the creation of capacity in such a
basic line of production as steel in the country. Over eighty
1994-95 3,11,685 99.01 30.9 26.2
per cent of the amount of aid utilized by manufacturing
industry has gone into the expansion and creation of capacity
1995-96 3,20,728 93.73 27.1 24.3 in the steel industry. The necessary aid was received from
West Germany, erstwhile U.S.S.R. and U.K.

COMMUNICATION
1996-97 3.35.827 93.47 24.7 21.2 6 Aidusedtodeveloppetro-chemicalandelectronics industry.
India is making efforts to develop the complex of petro-
1997-98 3,69,684 93.53 24.4 19.0 chemical and electronics industries. The ‘sunrise industries’,
as they are generally referred to, are the harbingers of new
1998-99 411,297 96.88 23.4 17.8 industrial revolution in the world. This cannot be
accomplished without the help of foreign aid and
Government is now making all-out efforts to modernize ^
1999-00 428,555 98.26 21.9 16.2
our industrial structure by entering into foreign
collaborations.
2000-01 471,724 101.13 22.4 16.1
7. Aid used to enlarge technical resources. External assistance
has also helped to enlarge technical resources through: (a) the
2001-02* 480,724 98.49 20.9 15.4 provision of expert services, (b) training of Indian
personnel and (c) helping the establishment of new or the
development of existing educational research and training
Source : Reserve Bank of India, Handbook of Statistics on Indian institutions in the country.
Economy (2001) and Economic Survey (2002-2003), * Revised
Problems of Foreign Aid
1. Foreign aid has helped to raise the level of investment. The Political Pressure: Various difficulties and constraints arise as
rate of investment has substantially increased from the a result of foreign aid. The most serious of these problems is
annual level of over 10 per cent of the national income at the the heavy and continuing dependence of India on other
beginning of the First Plan to nearly 25 per cent of the countries, especially the U.S.A. There have been times when
national income. With this increase in the rate of investment India has not been able to resist the pressure these donor
the foreign exchange outlay had also to be correspondingly countries have been exerting on the economic policies of India,
increased which was beyond the resources of the country. not to speak of her foreign policy. American influence is seen in
Ever since 1972-73, the country has faced serious foreign the shift in emphasis from capital goods to consumer goods
exchange crisis. But for aid. it would have been well nigh industries, much greater reliance on private enterprise for
impossible for the country to tide over this difficulty. industrial expansion, non-availability of foreign aid for public
2. Aid used to stabilize food prices and import raw materials. sector projects in manufacturing industry, greater resort to
Of the total aid utilized, a significant proportion represented foreign private capital as the only means for securing foreign
aid in kind or commodity, the bulk of which has been exchange for the rapid expansion of industries: like the chemical
utilized to import food grains which played a significant role fertilizers to which high priority is attached in India’s develop-
in stabilizing food grain prices. A part of the aid has been ment programme. The U.S. Government/ used stoppage of
used to import raw materials or spare parts in short supply aid as a threat to the Indian Government in the Indo-Pakislan
in the economy and this contributed substantially to increase conflict in December 1971. More recently the U.S. Government
in production in the country. decided in 1978 not to honour its agreement to supply nuclear
3. Aid used for the enlargement of irrigation and power fuel to Tarapur Atomic power plant Forcing India to accepts
potential. External assistance has contributed to the Dunkel proposals is the most recent onslaught of USA on the
productive capacity of agriculture in a big way by enlarging Indian government.
the irrigation potential of the country. In the field of dairy Debt Trap: By deducting debt servicing from gross’ disburse-
and fishery, foreign aid has helped to modernize the ments of external assistance during a certain period, we derive
technique of production. Foreign aid has, in a big way, net inflow of external assistance. If the cumulative effect of
helped enlarge power potential of the country. It has enabled debt servicing increases, a relatively smaller net proportion of
the country to import machinery and equipment, which has gross aid will be available for the benefit of the economy. The
helped to increase the installed capacity in the country from traditional definition of a debt trap underlines the stage in
2.3 million K.W. in l950 to 113million K.W. in 1999-2000. which the country has to seek external assistance to meet debt
4. Aid for improving transport. Transport absorbed large service obligations. India, it appears, has reached that stage.
proportion of total utilized aid, i.e., 14 per cent, out of Uncertainty: Another difficulty is the uncertainty of the
which 12per cent has gone to the railways. It has played an magnitude and character of foreign aid, which is likely to
important role in the renovation and modernization of the become available over a period of time. Such an element of
railway transport and it has helped to increase the rolling uncertainty stands in the way of perspective planning. Thus,
stock and locomotives. advance knowledge of the resources that are likely to become

189
 available through aid becomes important. If the donors could relatively, with its famous formula of E=MC2, helped to bring
DEVELOPMENT

indicate the magnitude and character of aid on the basis of five- about the production of nuclear weapons, was himself a saintly
year periods, the planning programmes could be greatly individual. Indeed, in later life he regretted that his work had
facilitated. been put to such destructive use, and he might not have
Capacity to absorb Foreign Aid: The absorptive capacity of a conducted the research if he had known to what it might lead.
country depends on a number of factors. For the optimum Of course, in course of time someone else would have
utilization of aid, the projects must be efficiently executed. It is produced similar results. Einstein had also written to President
COMMUNICATION

not basically a shortage of capital which retards the rate of Roosevelt, along with some other scientists, to produce the
industrial development in many countries but the shortage of atom bomb, mainly because they were afraid that Nazi Germany
good, well-developed projects is, in many cases, the limiting might develop it and thereby win the Second World War.
factor on economic growth. The most important factor which But even dangerous than the military weapons of mass
limits the absorptive capacity is the country’s capacity to repay in annihilations is the impact of general growth of technology and
future the loans currently contracted. The easy terms of consumerism, which threaten to disrupt the ecological balance
repayment of loans may temporarily widen the limit of our on the one hand and to weaken the soul of man, his or her
absorptive capacity but that is no solution to the problem. Till inner conscious and moral being, on the other hand. These
the country reaches the stage of ‘self-sustaining growth’, its patterns of development are more dangerous because they are
needs for larger volume of imports will ever grow. The spread all over the globe, particularly in the so-called developed
problem becomes more serious in view of the fact that the countries, which the so – called developing nations are trying
country has not built large exportable potential. So the burden desperately to imitate. This conquest of nature, mastery over
of repayment obligations becomes more acute. the forces of nature, was impelled by thoroughly legitimate
Burden of Debt: During the Sixth Plan (1980-81 to 1984-85), motivations. Mankind wanted to ensure its sustenance and
total debt servicing aggregated to Rs. 4,809 crores, out of which survival. Shortage of food and other necessities had to be made
60 percent was towards amortization and 40percent towards good; disease and suffering curtailed. Knowledge of nature has
interest payments. The snowballing effect of contracting more advanced as far as one might carry it. Today we have reached
foreign aid became visible daring the Seventh Plan, (1985-86 to close to the limits of the knowable. Scientists produce life out
1989-90) when debt servicing rose to Rs. 12,652crores. of non – living matter; they clone individuals. Industrial
Butduring Eighth Plan, (1992-93 to 1996-97), debt servicing production rushes far beyond consumption in many countries.
skyrocketed to Rs. 53.536 crores, out of which 57 per cent Where do we go from here? What is the role of the Commu-
represented amortization and 43 per cent interest payments. nity, of Communication, of prophecy?
The situation has worsened during the first four years of the We have to face the reality that the revolutions of science and
Ninth Plan in 1997-98 and 2000-2001. technology have become transformed into counter – revolu-
To reduce the burden of repayment of foreign aid, a two- tions. What man has achieved up to now is beyond his power
pronged drive may have to be made. Firstly, while seeking, to control within the existing framework of values, especially of
assistance, India should make. agreements for external assis- political values, industrial structures, communication processes,
tance with those nations and agencies which charge lower rates and community dynamics. Can man develop the godlike
of interest and are prepared to liberalise their terms of trade so prophetic capabilities to orient the natural forces and human
as to facilitate repayment; and secondly, the quantum of foreign capabilities in a creative and constructive manner? The answer is
assistance should be progressively reduced. by no means certain; hence we meet some persons who say that
humanity should disappear so that nature may survive. Well, in
Communication and Social Revolution any case we should recognize that divine attributes would imply
Humanity stands at the turning point of its long and turbulent humility in man; today we have to face the reality that either
history; indeed, it has now passed the turning point. To begin through a nuclear or biochemical holocaust, or through
with, we have acquired the nuclear, chemical biological and other ecological disruption, humanity may disappear form this earth.
weapons that are capable of making the human race extinct, The issue of the saving of humanity is not merely one of
indeed all of life on this earth. Perhaps even more importantly, physical survival but, much importantly, an ethical or a spiritual
the pollution of the atmosphere caused mainly by industrial one. Indeed, the two have become virtually inseparable, for
manufacturing threatens to disrupt the biosphere, to produce humanity cannot survive physically unless it develops a higher
holes in the ozone layer that protects life on the earth. ethical, indeed a prophetic character. Here one may quote
In other words, knowingly, or unknowingly, humanity has Mahatma Gandhi, who said. “I could not be leading a religious
acquired the devil’s capability of destroying life. Humanity now life unless I identified myself with the whole of mankind.”
needs to develop the god life capability to protect life and Identification with the whole of reality with nature as well as
nature. This may be the reason why we talk about the necessity with living beings is an essential aspect of the prophetic self. In
that we should have the “willingness to take the prophetic role other words, it involved transcendence of the ego and the self,
of challenging systems and powers that threaten to erode…. but also of all other boundaries and sectarian divisions,
community based values…” whether these be caste, religion, political affiliation, etc.
The demonic power annihilation has not developed out of evil The new dimension that has been added to this aspect of the
motivations. Albert Einstein, whose revolutionary theory of prophetic personality is inclusion of nature itself within the

190
purview of the ethical commitment and consciousness. Hence tially one of the effectiveness of communication. Which one

DEVELOPMENT
the key term “Ecology” which is now being used increasingly in conveys its message more effectively, more convincingly, with
the industrial societies and which means the unity of man and the greater transformative power of values of personality and
nature. The term “environment” is being discarded because it social relations?
implies a separation of man and nature, whereas the two are One should add here that the pattern of communication – its
now being treated as inseparable. To enrich nature is part and content as well as the form which is required for the impending,
parcel of man’s ethical responsibility; the destruction of nature indeed the ongoing social revolution, is somewhat different in

COMMUNICATION
may mean the self-dehumanization of man. In other words, a many ways from the type of communication that was necessary
holistic approach is now unavoidable. Everything has to be in the past in similar situations. Some of the aspects of
attended to the whole self, the whole community, the whole of historical transformation are trans-nationalization of communi-
the biosphere. How it is to be done remains to be worked out, cation media, the development of sophisticated technology, and
but the time at our disposal is very limited; it has to be worked the concentration of information power. Let us distinguish
out in very short order. On the one hand, the new world-view here between the means, namely the technology communica-
or philosophy of life and nature has to be disseminated as tion, and the end, which is its content, as well as between the
quickly as possible, for the context must be understood and inputs and the output or impact as well as the consequences of
accepted if the tasks are to be carried out with commitment and communication. Trans-nationalization of communication
in an effective manner. Appropriate values must be inculcated, media is part and parcel of the revolutionary thrust of science
developed, and made functional. At the same time, the and technology, which has emerged as the most potent force
methods and processes have also been developed. It involved operating in the world today. But it also provided the means for
institutional structures, operation procedures, and the necessary evasion through person-to-person linkages as well as evoking a
division of functions, and coordination between them, with certain psychological self-isolation. In other words, too much
the feedback mechanisms worked out and utilized properly. In communications input lowers its values and impact. Small
other words, communication is the key factor in the develop- communes are formed to act as barriers to the flood of
ment of the new global community; it implies social communication as well as excessive consumerism. They are
revaluation of uniquely inclusive nature, both quantitatively and surging towards participatory communication. Networking is
qualitatively. the key method in this process of counteracting transnational
To make this point somewhat clearer, let us return briefly to the mass communication that becomes exploitative and oppressive.
prophetic role and activity. On the one hand, the prophet However, the global unity of humanity is fact of life. Prophetic
comprehends and includes everything. Nothing is foreign to movements and persons have addressed themselves to the
him; no one is a stranger or an alien. Hence all the great whole of humanity, but this has now become a functional
prophets were men of peace, promoting the brotherhood and possibility, indeed a necessity. This, in other words, is the
sisterhood of humanity, asking each one to turn the other cheek positive aspect of the growth and development of
rather than to strike back, promoting peace and kindness, transnational communication. Apparently on the one hand it
forgiveness, generosity, and empathy. On the other hand, the requires the transcendence of geographical, linguistic, historical
prophet operates at a given time and place, operates in a values etc., so that the message is potentially meaningful to all;
particular cultural milieu at a given point in history, and at the same time, however, it must not weaken but promote
inevitably confronts hostility from the established power and and enrich the distinctive identities of individuals, groups and
belief structures. Hence his major task is to communicate the communities. In other words, what it implies is that humanity
universal message of love and brotherhood in idioms and as a whole, and all of the communities, groups and individuals,
through social relations that are liable to be misunderstood and have to undertake the tasks that confront us all.
misinterpreted. Hence virtually the great prophetic individuals
An essential feature of the transformation that has taken place,
had to confront persecution or even crucifixion.
as we have noted, is the transcendence of the dualisms, such as
How may one communicate effectively? Since the message is that of man and environment or nature, and hence the
radically different from the prevailing values and patterns of emergence of ecology. Indeed, the other dualisms that have
social conduct, it is perceived by the established leaders and elites characterized human culture and civilization for the past several
that the prophet wants to create a new community that would millennia are also being transcended. Among these dualisms
replace the existing one, hence to the established loaders, it that have become obsolescent are those between religion and
means that he would destroy, the existing society. It has to be science, between mind and body, emotions and the intellect. It
the community of new faith and beliefs, which have to be should be easier for us in India and Asia to develop and practice
communicated in an effective manner to those who would the new holistic outlook, because it is inherent in our cultural
listen in the face of the attempts of the established power legacy. However, the transcendence of the dualism does not
structures to obstruct, or to distort, this the new message. Since imply any sort of monism, but rather the well-known saying
acceptance of the new message involves risks, indeed a threat to about “unity in diversity” expresses it well.
the life of the listener as well, yet it requires action, including
This theme is important in a discussion on the role of commu-
further transmission of the message, it can be carried out only
nication in social revolution. Communication is of different
with a strong sense of the new community, which, in this case,
types and levels. There is the transmission and reception of
is woven around the new values and insights. The struggle
invisible and inaudible electro-neural waves that bind us
between the new social order and the existing becomes essen-

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 together, giving rise to what is known as “Social protoplasm”. Why the great prophets praised the poor and pitied the rich?
DEVELOPMENT

There is also organic communication, emotional communica- One can be truly human only when she or he is unburdened by
tion and intellectual communication of several grades. When all, material possessions that produce greed, selfishness and whose
or nearly all of these different types and levels of communica- accumulation, protection and increase involve disorientation of
tion take place in a certain rhythmic harmony, we come close to personality. Only someone who is poor in this sense is capable
what may be called “total” or “perfect” communication, which of total communication. To pity the poor, to sympathies with
tends to take place in certain profound crisis situations, and them, to try to carry out programmes for eradication of poverty
COMMUNICATION

whose communicators may be called charismatic” personas, means that we have aligned ourselves with the wrong people,
miracle workers, etc., who may launch the so-called “prophetic” with those whose personalities are distorted and disoriented.
or “millenary” movements. To pity the rich, to sympathies with them, to try to develop and
The total self, the complete personality, is in action or motion; carry out programmes for eradication of wealth, thereby to
its impact, is described in poetic language when it is said that the enable the rich to become truly human, that is the path of the
trees begin to swing, the birds to chirp and be restless, even the revolution for which humanity waits desperately.
air begins to move in waves. It remains to be known whether Not communication for revolution but communication as
the personality that functions in this manner has the capacity revolution. Today we live under the shadow of the quantitative
already inborn in it, or whether and to what extent it is capable explosion of communication media that stretches worldwide
of development through education and training. To what and also touches the far reaches of the universe. The oppressive
extend do crisis situations help in the growth of such charis- and erosive impact of this quantitative growth of communica-
matic communication? Yet it is clear that what we call tion can be transcended only through a qualitative upsurge so as
revolutionary transformation, which implies a radical reach with to make it possible to the whole of humanity, indeed whole of
the preexisting conditions, particularly with the prevailing nature as well; in other words, the rise and growth of the new
beliefs, social values and individual attitudes. A prophet needs human self, with intimate and empathic linkages with all of us,
apostles, who may be said to mediate between total or absolute all of the humanity, and indeed nature as well; for an ecological
communication and that which is of a more restricted and humanness. Such communication, as indicated, will be com-
functional nature. plete from the level of the silent and invisible neuro electronic
The point here is that total communication, as outlined above vibrations, through the organic, emotional up to the intellectual
in passing, is inherently, revolutionary for it overwhelms and levels.
threatens to disrupt the pre-existing patterns that determine the Obviously, these different levels will operate in varied configura-
existing values, beliefs, social and cultural interrelations and tions according to the needs and requirements of the situations
activities. In that sense it plays a negative or destructive role for, as well as the differentiated personalities of the individuals,
as the well-known saying goes, you cannot create something groups and communities. Perhaps the first step is that of
new, radically different, without destroying the old. Assuming openness, for at the present time our upbringing, education,
that the total communication that overwhelms the whole social requirements and values produce the suppression of
personality and society cannot become permanent without certain levels and exaggerated emphasis on other levels of
destroying all specificities or concrete interrelations activities and communication. What is equally disruptive is the delinking of
structures, it therefore follows that the revolutions of total the different levels from one another so that a person is
communications will be followed by the articulation and supposed to react in one way when he is listening to classical
emergence of a specific social and cultural order. By some, it will music, or taking a walk in beautiful natural surroundings,
be seen as a kind of counter – revolution, or the re-emergence sitting or praying in a church or temple of at home or doing
and return of the old order. Depending upon the extent and business, confronting strangers or when trying to solve scientific
nature of the revolution, the old order might even return problems.
stronger and more powerful or it might have become highly No doubt the orientation has to be different in different
reformed or even transformed. situations, but the person is the same, and his integrity, his
To sum up this cursory analysis, we may say that revolution as holistic personality has to remain basically unaltered. More
well as reaction are at the in-core different patterns and levels of specifically, the vast dimensions of the reality with which we
communication. Similarly, an unjust exploitative and oppressive have to deal, the issues of human and ecological survival that
social order emerges and is sustained by distorted communica- we confront, the global society with which we have to interact
tion patterns. One of the problems that besets humanity today and in which we and our children will live all these require a
and prevents the liberation of the oppressed and exploited is a renewed emphasis on the neuro-electronic, organic and
misunderstanding of the message of prophets of humanity. emotional levels of communication.
All of them are united on one point; the poor will enter To develop this integral communication is the task for today’s
heaven; they are God’s children. The rich will not be able to pass and coming days.
the eye of the needle; the food they eat, however delicious, is
soaked in blood. In other words, it is the rich who have to be
saved, who have lot be liberated. The problem of India, the
problem of humanity, is not the poor; it is not poverty, but the
wealthy and their wealth. It is wealth, which has to be removed.

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 UNIT VII
LESSON 24: DEV COM POLICY AND PROJECT
NEED FOR INFORMATION AND MANAGEMENT
COMMUNICATION POLICY

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected and for ensuring that they function efficiently in enhancing

DEVELOPMENT
national development.
To be aware about the need for a communication policy
Efficient, widespread and continuous public communication is
To learn the salient features of a communication policy
an important prerequisite for democratic governance. In the
Government and other institutions create policies to ensure developing or re-emerging democracies of Africa, social
coherence and to avoid contradictions in the actions of various communication provides the cement that binds various
public and private entities. Policy instruments also seek to solve communities and social groups together in their resolve to

COMMUNICATION
social and technical problems and to legitimise the implementa- build new societies. It can create linkages between political,
tion of programs and projects. In some countries these are religious, traditional and community leaders and their followers,
merely cosmetic documents virtually moribund, with no living and can build bridges between rural and urban communities
dynamic reality, and not much possibility of being imple- and across generations.
mented. In other countries these policies provide sectoral It is through communication that government agencies and
orientations that can contribute to the overall goals of national NGOs attempt to provide technical information and social
development. services for improving the quality of life of citizens, and that
A communication policy may be seen as a further contribution civil society seeks to broaden and sustain participation in
to the national development environment through consolidat- governance. New agricultural practices and policies, health
ing actions around issues that cut across several sectors. campaigns, literacy classes, adult political and civic education and
Communication policies can be described as “Sets of principles other development efforts have succeeded largely through
and norms established to guide the behavior of communica- communication support. In the context of current develop-
tion systems. They are shaped over time in the context of ment challenges posed by the rapid spread of HIV/AIDS,
society’s general approach to communication and to the media. communication for social mobilization and social change to
Emanating from political ideologies, the social and economic support preventive behavior and to support the infected and
conditions of the country and the values on which they are affected is a crucial necessity.
based, they strive to relate these to the real needs for and the But communication can also divide people along various socio-
prospective opportunities for communication.” cultural lines, contributing to social cleavage, marginalization
In every society, public and private institutions and individuals and even violence. These seemingly contradictory possibilities
undertake internal and external communication for many pose the challenge of choice, of making deliberate decisions to
reasons. There is often no over-arching idea or vision to help ensure that communication plays a positive role in society. The
coordinate or rationalize these various actions, probably because results of such decisions can be articulated in a policy statement.
policy-makers and planners do not see how they can be related. Within this general framework, strategies can be devised to
A national policy on information and communication for facilitate organized and intensified use of interpersonal, group
development provides a necessary conceptual and institutional and mass media channels of communication that are sensitive
framework for the coordination and integration of technical and to cultural resources and orientation, and that are decentralized
social interventions undertaken by institutions ranging from as necessary, in support of development programs. There is
agricultural extension to education and health ministries, from increased need to encourage local organizations to make use of
NGOs such as women’s resource groups and human rights new communications technologies, such as the Internet, to
activists, to private sector interests such as chambers of promote social linkages and to ensure widespread support for
commerce or banks. The contribution of a national policy is to development efforts; so that in a dynamic and organic sense,
articulate principles, values and norms that are applicable to communication can become an instrument for building
communication at all levels of government, to civil society and solidarity for the common national and community goals of
the private sector, within the context of the development goals good health, economic recovery, poverty eradication, empower-
of the nation. An approach that considers information and ment of women and youth, and good governance. These
communication as a sector for development planning would outcomes can be facilitated through a deliberate communication
also help to rationalize investments as well as provide a basis policy linked to national development policy.
for integrating information and communication interventions Reasons for Communication
within national development strategies. Intervention’s Failure
A communication policy can, therefore, be an instrument for John L Woods states that the basic objective of most develop-
supporting the systematic planning, development and use of ment programmes is to create a bridge between people who
the communication system, and its resources and possibilities, possess knowledge of technology and people who need it.
Leaders in the development field are now realizing that creating

193
 new technology does not automatically mean it will be accepted Most countries now have available the basic communications
DEVELOPMENT

by the intended beneficiaries. The new innovations - high- resources that have the capacity of carrying development
yielding rice varieties, high-protein diets, family-planning messages. Examples of these individual channels of communi-
techniques, classroom-teaching techniques, small-industry cation include mass media (radio, television, newspapers,
practices, community-oriented forestry-must be put into practice cinema); audiovisual/educational technology production
by people before a development programme is successful. This centres; field cadre programmes (agricultural extension, auxiliary
means one component of the development process must focus health workers, small industry training personnel, schoolteach-
COMMUNICATION

on people understanding and participating in the programmes. ers); scientific information clearing-houses; social-survey research
Some times investments in communications have had only organizations; management information systems; and tradi-
limited impact on development programmes. There are two tional/folk media.
basic reasons:- First, development workers have not utilized Development workers do not utilize communications resources
communication resources properly in the planning and properly and communications workers do not understand the
implementation of their development programmes. As a development process. What is needed is to help governments
result, most of the communication efforts in the development link development projects to communications resources.
field tend to focus on public, relations aspects of the
programme rather than being an integral element of the transfer
of technology and educational process. Also, since communica-
tion flow has not been an integral part of development
planning, often there is almost no coordination of the informa-
tion flowing through the various channels of communication.
For example, it is very common to have a farm radio broadcast
giving different recommendations than the agricultural exten-
sion workers in the village. - Second, communications workers
do not understand the development process and, therefore, the
information flowing through the various channels is not In many cases there is still a great need to improve the capabili-
suitable to support development programmes. Handling an ties of these individual channels of communication. However,
educational development message is much different from news, I feel the most urgent need right now is to start getting the
public relations, advertising, and entertainment, in which most proper utilization of these communications resources within
channels of communication specialize. The managers of the the development process. This means encouraging communica-
communications resources must be motivated to support a tions workers to take their country’s development tasks
country’s development process and their staff should be trained seriously. Also, it means assisting development planners and
to handle development messages correctly. implementors to select, programme and coordinate all appro-
The resources and tools of communications have long been priate communication resources to ensure the flow of relevant
successfully used for political and commercial activities. But they development information for development programmes.
have seldom been made an integral part of development; There are three basic problems of communication in a project:
programmes.
Beneficiaries do not Communicate Well to the
A third-generation communication technical assistance is now Planners
needed -one which concentrates on helping governments build Starting at the earliest stages of planning a development
a linkage between development programmes and communica- programme and going throughout the implementation, there is
tions resources. a need for information about the intended beneficiaries.
An important aspect of stimulating the transfer of technology Information on their needs, attitudes, current practices, and
is to ensure the proper flow of relevant information among the many other characteristics should be one of the inputs for
numerous groups of people who are involved. This requires designing relevant development programmes. A continuous
the systematic utilization of all appropriate communications monitoring or “ feedback” of the reaction of the beneficiaries to
methods, starting at the earliest stages of development the programme is also important. Communication methods
planning and continuing through out the programme imple- utilized for this information flow include pre-project social
mentation. While numerous communication resources have survey research, certain types of field reporting and manage-
long been successfully used for political and commercial ment information systems, and some media such as video tape
activities, they have not often been adopted as an integral part and photography to document field conditions.
of development programmes. It was against this background
Planners and Implementers do not Communicate
that in 1972, Mr. Rudolph A. Peterson, then UNDP Adminis-
well among Themselves
trator, said, “ Development must be carried out with people,
Frequently, the successful implementation of a development
not just for them or through them. We must build into an
programme is hampered by a leek of communication and
increasing number of UNDP-assisted projects an imaginatively
coordination between the many agencies that must be involved.
conceived and adequately financed human communication
These include subject-matter researchers, administrative support
component.”
units such as civil service commissions, field-level workers, non-
governmental cooperating agencies, administrators and political

194
leaders, training institutions, e le. There is a constant need for a broader economic reforms — from health, education or rural

DEVELOPMENT
flow of relevant information related to programme policies, development to private sector development, financial reform or
technology and field conditions within the organizational judicial reform — the idea is to build consensus through raising
framework. Communications methods utilized for this public understanding and generating well-informed dialogue
information flow include many administrative communication among stakeholders.
techniques such as reports, newsletters, conferences, manage- Well-conceived, professionally implemented communication
ment information systems, staff development training programs that are tied directly to reform efforts or development

COMMUNICATION
programmes, information clearing-houses. project objectives that bring understanding of local political,
Implementers do not Communicate well to the social and cultural realities to bear in the design of development
Beneficiaries programs can make the difference between a project’s success
A great amount of effort must be focused on ensuring the and failure.
systematic information flow to the intended beneficiaries. This Designing a Communication Policy for
flow involves information that is both motivational and Development
educational. For the programme to be successful the beneficia- Because of the multi-sectoral and comprehensive nature of
ries must understand, accept, and be able to properly use the national development needs and objectives, a national strategy
innovations which are recommended. Among the communica- on information and communication for sustainable develop-
tions methods utilized in this information flow are personal ment must be seen also as a multi-sectoral, multi-dimensional
channels, such as extension field workers, local leaders and issue, around which different development stakeholders can
schoolteachers; traditional or folk media such as village plays, find a rallying point, and to which they can make invaluable
puppet plays, etc.; mass media such as radio, posters, publica- constructive contributions.
tions, mobile units; and all forms of non-formal education.
Previous attempts in some countries to deal with information
One component of the development process should focus on and communication policy issues, because they lacked an over-
people understanding and participating in programmes. arching development-oriented framework and justification, have
It should be pointed out that communication integrated into tended to be ad hoc, and overly politicized. (Ilboudo, Jean-
development planning and programme implementation does Pierre)
not guarantee dramatic successes. It is no panacea. In fact, the As the 1972 UNESCO report states: “A national communica-
use of communication methods to maximize the information tion policy will seek to balance the needs of the day after
flow can cause strong negative reactions in a poorly conceived tomorrow with the realities of today”. In the process of
and run development programme. Examples can be cited of a designing a national policy of communication for development,
programme recommending inappropriate innovations or the the following factors are fundamental” (FAO)
use of materials such as fertilizers that are not available.
• awareness of the interdependence between communication
Judiciously used, and starting at the earliest stages of planning,
and other development sectors and areas;
communication support can be one of those important
ingredients that contribute to the successful implementation of • the creation of a new approach of communication for
development programmes. development which includes the involvement of the entire
population in the country’s affairs;
Strategic communication is a powerful tool that can improve the
chances of success of development projects. It strives for • to envisage an approach that gives communication a human
behavior change not just information dissemination, education, dimension by ensuring that it is not monopolised by the
or awareness raising. While the latter are necessary ingredients of media but that it is carried out by teachers, agricultural
communication, they are not sufficient for getting people to workers, health officers, field veterinarians, community and
change long-established practices or behaviors. religious leaders as well as members of NGOs and farmers’
organizations;
• to understand that the implementation of a communication
for development policy must be placed in an appropriate
juridical and institutional framework;
• to choose a multimedia approach that includes interpersonal
and group communication, traditional means of
communication, the media and new communication
technologies;
• to take into account specific situations as well as the realities
and needs of the countries concerned and in particular of
their own means and their human, material and financial
capacities.
Meaningful communication is about getting information out to
particular audiences, listening to their feedback, and responding
appropriately. Whether discussing a development project or

195
 policy-level organ and a technical secretariat of qualified
DEVELOPMENT
Steps in the Design and Implementation
The following steps seem to be necessary in the process of experts.
designing and implementing a national communication for 3. Identification and allocation of human and financial
development policy. resources for the national coordinating mechanism.
Planning Phase 4. Promotion of the national communication for development
1. Expressed national willingness to design a national policy to obtain support from development partners and
COMMUNICATION

communication policy in support of development national stakeholders, including grassroots communities.

programs. 5. Organisation of donors’ round table and other actions for
2. Establishment of a National Committee to provide strategic resource mobilisation.
guidance to the design effort. 6. Monitoring and evaluation of the national communication
3. Identification and selection of themes and sectors to be for development policy.
involved in the situation analyses and background studies, in These steps while not meant to be followed mechanically
the context of national possibilities. should be thoroughly examined in each national exercise, to
4. Preparation of a summary document outlining the major ensure that the most suitable design and implementation
development thrusts, and the socio-cultural-economic process has been followed, so that the resultant policy and its
challenges and realities of the country. This will serve as a implementation will add value to national development.
reference/guide for national experts preparing sectoral and
other studies.
Note
5. Organisation of a national training and consensus building
workshop for national experts and others involved in the
design process, to facilitate common understandings and set
common values and goals.
6. Undertaking of desk and field research in the identified areas,
using a common methodology and especially participatory
approaches.
7. Organisation of regional/provincial consultations to assess
information and communication needs at these levels, and
to involve the views and ideas of frontline development
workers and grassroots communities in policy the design
process.
8. Preparation of a summary document of the results of field
research and information collected at national and regional
levels, as a background paper and stimulus for national
dialogue.
9. Organisation of a national workshop to design a national
communication for development policy, involving a broad
spectrum of stakeholders from government, civil society,
private sector, NGOs and community based organisations.
Inputs to the workshop include the conclusions and
recommendations of the regional/provincial workshops,
which are then discussed, noted and actioned as necessary.
10. Report back consultations to stakeholders especially at
regional/provincial levels.
11. Design of a national communication for development
program with short, medium and long-term action plans,
sectoral programs and budgets.
Implementation Phase
1. Reaffirmation of the national will to commit to the
implementation of the adopted policy. This should involve
government, civil society and all actors in national
development.
2. Establishment of a credible, independent, flexible
institutional framework for the implementation and
management of the policy. This should include both a

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 DEVELOPMENT
LESSON 25:
DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT COMMUNICATION (DSC)

COMMUNICATION
Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected In short, DSC is a legitimate function of development planning
and implementation. DSC therefore needs to be examined as a
To learn what is development support Communication
valuable ‘technology’ for using the social communication
To differentiate it from development communication process to foster and strengthen sustainable development at
To know the principles of DSC local and national levels. It should be taken more seriously in
programs of social change, and should be reflected explicitly in
Development Support Communication is an Offshoot of development policy and strategy. One way of doing so is
Development communication, which specifically refers to the through the enunciation of a national information and
communication integration in a development project. communication policy, which can be explicitly integrated into
Rogers says, “development communication refers to the uses to national development thinking and practice.
which communication is put in order to further development. Thus, development Support communications is the integration
Such applications are intended to either further development in of strategic communication in development projects.
a general way, such as by increasing level of the mass media
Jayaweera defined DC as communication strategies meant for
exposure among a nation’s citizens, in order to create a favorable
whole society and DSC as the application of development
‘climate’, for development, or to support a specific development
strategies specifically designed for concrete development
programme or project this type of development communica-
programmes.
tion is often termed as development-support communication”.
The practice of DSC is a multi-sectoral process of information Concept & Practice of DSC
sharing about development agendas and planned actions. It People should be informed about what is going on in a project.
links planners, beneficiaries and implementers of development The human communication gap, may cost high. Boyd, Paul D
action, including the donor community. It obligates planners refers to three kinds of communication gap.
and implementers to provide clear, explicit and intelligible data Non-communication: In a new irrigation project, farmers were
and information about their goals and roles in development, not informed that the irrigation water was for them, let alone
and explicitly provides opportunities for beneficiaries to how they should use it. Consequently, the water was left idle at
participate in shaping development outcomes. It ensures that great expense.
the donor community is kept constantly aware of the achieve- Mis-communication: In promoting a new fertilizer, another
ments and constraints of development efforts in the field. project used mass radio broadcasts to farmers who were then
Development Support Communication makes use of all frustrated in their attempts to get more detailed information
available structures and means of information sharing. There- and actual supplies because local agricultural extension workers
fore it is not limited to mass media alone. It also uses both knew nothing about it.
formal group and non-formal channels of communication, Confusing communication: Often, technologies produced in
such as women’s and youth associations, as well as places where the lab environments may prove futile in real farm environ-
people gather.... markets, churches, festivals, and meetings. But ment. Further various and contradicting information will
its contribution is in using these in a systemic, continuous, co- confuse people. Scientists in the lab may assume profit and yield
ordinated and planned manner, to perform linkage and as the first and only the aspiration of the farmer. But for the
enabling functions. It requires analysis of the communication farmer, taste and the thrill of farming may be of vital interest.
environment, of the available and needed communication Further, all the doubts shall be cleared. For example, if the
competencies and resources (hardware, software, financial and government asks the couples to have only two children, farmers
human), and clearly indicates expected results from specific will wonder if there will be enough hands to harvest a greatly
resource inputs, so as to maintain accountability. increased high yield crop.
Comparison Even among the many communicators who care deeply and
Development Communication Development Support Communication work hard to see their skills applied to development, there
Applied to National or Macro entities Applied to micro or local entities appears to be a number of quite different interpretations, in
Non-directed Directed and goal oriented
concept or in practice, as to how to plan and promote develop-
Open ended and persuasive Time bound, good for campaigns
ment through use of communication techniques. For
Limited to tech-based media (Mass media) Inter personal, group and mass media
General Culture Based Local culture based
convenience, we can group these varying approaches under four
Participatory (Low level) Participatory (High level) broad schools of thought as follows:
Policy changes in project slow Policy changes in project fast The media-centered approach: The real motivation and
Research -difficult, more variables Easily researchable, variables can be isolated
professional interest among people in this school is to help
Lost credibility over years Still gains popularity and credibility
strengthen the mass media almost exclusively as an end in itself.

197
 The focus may be television, film, videotape, radio, press, or
DEVELOPMENT
Levels of DSC Planning and Action
combinations of such mass media. The emphasis is on raising
Individual project level
the technical and artistic standards of media people as a
Proper communication analysis begins at the level of real
profession and on expanding media facilities, infrastructure and
development action- the project level. A project consists of a
staff. These efforts may eventually contribute to development
series of planned activities and inputs designed to achieve a set
objectives, if the strengthened media increase the development
of immediate objectives, which will in turn contribute to the
content of their output. But there is frequently little or no
COMMUNICATION

attainment of specified medium or long term objectives. The

built-in planning to make this happen.
project level is where national/ sectoral/ provincial development
The social-process approach: The main interest here is to goals are supposed to be translated into realities. It is the level
explore and promote the role of communication in society, e.g. where participation, involvement and benefit by the people is
in stimulating self-awareness at the community level actually supposed to occur, and where well-informed awareness,
(“conscientisation” a la Paolo Freire), increasing community understanding, acceptance and implementation of change by
access to media, using media to help express community the people are fundamental prerequisite for successful develop-
interests, etc. Film, television, videotape, radio or the press thus ment. It is therefore at the project level where communication
become tools in seeking the objective of community self- support can best be designed and carried out, attuned to the
expression. They can be powerful tools for this purpose. But whole range of human expectations, development potentials,
they will more often lead to ultimate frustration, unless and the social, cultural, and psychological characteristics that are
adequately linked to realistic, achievable, tangible actions and present in the project community.
goals that the community can undertake within its own
A key element at this level is to access what can be called the real
resources, plus such outside resources as are immediately visible
potential of specific groups of people under given circum-
and available.
stances. It is obviously no use merely to exhort people to
The diffusionist/ extensionist approach: Especially prevalent adopt purportedly advantageous new ideas and practices. The
among scientists, technicians and central Government planning people involved must also be able to:
and political authorities, this view is to disseminate information
• weigh the risk and benefits for them;
to potential users of research findings, new technologies,
• foresee a positive net outcome in their own productivity,
improved practices, etc.. Depending on national circumstances,
communication seen in this light can be a kind of conveyor belt income or status;
to help spread development benefits more widely; or a tool for • bear the initial economic, social and psychological costs of
promoting citizen complience with the wishes and policies of such change that falls on them;
the central Government. • have confidence that promised support from outside the
The development support communication approach: This community (e.g. from government) will be timely and
work focuses on development objectives and takes as its twin tangible in accordance with needs as and when the people see
starting points both the “felt needs” at community level them.
(whether village communities, or groups of industrialists) and For project planners, this perspective frequently poses the need
the “action needs” as seen at the planners level (whether multi- for an entirely new type of pre-project research that seriously
sectoral, or sectoral or project planners). transforms into practical data much of the mere talk about
In the development support communication (DSC) analysis, all ‘people as the ends and means of development.’ Research data
three elements described above are taken into account. Planning are required on attitudes and aspirations, existing knowledge
for DSC: and knowledge-gaining methods, individual and social
• begin s with identifying and analyzing the innovations
behavioral patterns, incentives for change, and a host of other
sought by the community and those that development non-physical, non-technical facts, often including detailed study
projects aims to introduce- to whom, when, and with what of language questions, since new ideas are naturally sometimes
materials means; hard to express in existing vocabularies and colloquialisms. It
takes very practical social science knowledge that can tune in to
• then determines how existing social, cultural, psychological
sub-surface currents, and that realistically assesses what likely
and indigenous communication factors, as well as
questions/ resistances/ stresses or what unanticipated creativ-
government organizational factors, would help or hinder
ity/ impetus/ dynamism, may come to light in the community
adoption of the new practices among the groups of people
once a specific type of developmental change actually begins to
concerned;
be carried out.
• next looks at what combinations of communication
This kind of analysis can often lead to fundamental re-thinking
channels exist and can be used;
of the design and phasing of a total project. Thorough
• and finally, after repeating these analyses for geographically or examination of human communicating factors is bound to
sectorally related projects, locally tailored communication reveal obstacles that are hidden from the eyes of pure econo-
programs are drawn up and implemented in phase with the mists and technicians, and to influence assumptions about the
real action potential in the communities (taking into account pace and style of project implementation.
available supplementary inputs from outside the
For communication specialists, project-level planning and action
community).
calls for a wide-angle view of communication processes that

198
takes into account all actual and prospective communication Wherever ideas for projects may originate within a developing

DEVELOPMENT
paths within and into the project community (and not just the country, it is an inescapable fact that government has the
mass media). It means asking such questions as how, in a primary responsibility for deciding on the directions that
health campaign, doctors and nurses will really perform as development should take. Government, has the principle
information conveyors, as compared to midwives and herbal- vehicle for identifying and responding to people’s needs, is not
ists, and what specially tailored orientation programs are needed only logically in charge of the process of overall development
for these categories of change agents, with what communication planning and administration (under whatever pattern of State,

COMMUNICATION
aids for their communication roles in the community if they are private or mixed participation may prevail); it must also take the
to be credible and effective? It means asking, in an agricultural initiative at least in the planning, if not also in some or most of
scheme, how rural radio programs can be dove-tailed with the action, to ensure that development benefits are realized as
ground-level advice from extension workers, so that the use of widely and quickly as possible and that adequate development
radio to promote awareness about, say, new fertilizers is backed support communication is undertaken.
on time by realistic recommendations from field agents on Given that communication support needs advance planning
fertilizer application under local conditions, and by adequate and sustained attention, it follows that communication analysis
supplies of the right fertilizer at an economic price. and action must be integrated with development planning and
Communication support has to be governed by the phasing administration. To treat communication as a separate sector by
and timetable, as well as the technical content, laid down in the itself would be to ignore the sources and nature of its content,
detailed program of the individual development project being its supporting rather tan independent role, and its main
supported. Communication support, by definition therefore, justification as the conveyor of the motivation and knowledge
has to be: for best use of the physical and technical resources employed in
• a systematic project input and activity, throughout the development.
project’s life (and sometimes before and after the project as Development support communication is a complex and long-
well); term endeavor that calls for the combined insights and
• synchronized with the project’s work plan and schedule of experience of social and behavioral science, information and
other related inputs; education disciplines, and development administration. As
such, it is a specialized support function requiring specialized
• built into the project budget and plan of expenditure;
people; it cannot be left to the occasional attention of politi-
• adjusted as necessary when the project is revised or changes cians, bureaucrats and technicians alone
direction;
In deciding how to organize the DSC system within govern-
• evaluated as part of total project evaluation in terms of the ment, a first step is to survey and assess the various resources
efficiency and ultimate impact of the project. of all types available for DSC planning and action. Five main
Multi-Project Level types of resources should be examined:
Individual projects are the primary objective and framework for 1. Behavioral data and research facilities
communication appraisal and planning, essentially because 2. Community groups that exist on a fairly widespread and
projects have to operate among or closest to the people. organized basis (co-operatives, trade unions, farmers clubs,
However, it is characteristics of most development planning religious groups, professional associations, credit unions,
that clusters of projects are formulated for simultaneous or etc.) and their leadership at all levels
sequential implementation in pursuit of objectives which are or
3. Extension systems of all types, agricultural, health,
should be linked.
education, etc. within the government structures
At the multi-project level, prior analysis of the ability to
4. Traditional media and their role in relaying new ideas (folk
communicate and the ability of the people to absorb the
theatre, music, village fairs and markets, etc.)
recommended innovations within a project can also lead to
revised notions about which projects, in what order of logic 5. Modern media and the design/ production/ distribution
and need as from the standpoint of the community should be resources for them- publications, flipcharts, flannel-graphs,
launched with what precise physical inputs (and obviously, with slide/ filmstirp, exhibits, 16mm film, radio, television, etc.
what sets of communication messages through what channels The key question regarding location of the DSC planning
within the audiences involved). function within Government is: “Where is the most efficient
Another advantage of assessing the aggregate communication point at which project proposals, wherever originated, can be
needs of related projects is the opportunity it presents to share stopped long enough to being asking communication ques-
communication resources of all kinds, and the second basis it tions about them? ‘ In most countries, the answer to this
provides for planning to strengthen communication resources question involves study of the development planning process,
in the light of the real development support task to be its nature and participants. Most important, it requires posing a
achieved. Instead of allocating and committing such resources challenge to traditional thinking (or non-thinking) about
in ad hoc and probably competitive fashion it becomes possible peoples roles in their own development and about the role of
either to curtail/ rephase/ revise planned communication communication in human development.
activities (and in turn re-shape other project inputs)

199
 the information, but are afraid to communicate it to the
DEVELOPMENT
Ensuring Effective Communication flow
in DSC administrators who desperately need it. A major overhaul in
There are three basic communication flows within a develop- current administrative practices will be required before the
ment programme: downward, upward and horizontally upward communication flow can become a valid element in
through the system. Many administrators limit their communi- development programme implementation.
cating to the downward flow, which is probably the least
Horizontal
important in the planning and implementation of a develop-
COMMUNICATION

At the operational level of implementing a development

ment programme.
programme, horizontal communication becomes extremely
Katz and Kahn (1966) describe downward communication as important, but faces many barriers because of the bureaucratic
going along the authority pattern of hierarchical positions; structure and rules and regulations in most government
horizontal communications as being among peers at the same organizations. It is difficult to establish effective communica-
organizational level; and upward communication ascending the tion linkages between departments and even more so between
hierarchical ladder. ministries; between government departments and the private
Berelson and Steiner (1964), stated that communication down sector or non-governmental organizations it can become almost
the organizational hierarchy is likely to be critical and to consist impossible.
of authoritarian instructions; communication up the organiza- The “gate-keeper” effect of the organizational structure causes
tional hierarchy is often inaccurate; horizontal communication massive problems for most administrators who are implement-
tends to be the most accurate, but is often restricted by the ing development programmes. It results in delays of recruiting
organizational structure. personnel, of budget approvals, of information on new
Downward technology from researchers. In a study of the organizations
Most organizational researchers have found that downward involved in helping rubber small-holders in south Thailand,
communication flows are more frequent than upward flows. James French (1977) commented that administrative obstacles
Administrators originate a considerable amount of communi- frequently prevented coordination and cooperation between
cation that they assume will “ trickle down “ through the planners and field personnel, even though the need for a single
system and eventually cause the intended beneficiaries of the administrative body which would examine and be responsible
development programme to change their current practices. But for all aspects of rubber development had repeatedly been
too often, certain basic questions are ignored: (a) is the message pointed out.
that is being communicated relevant; (b) is it being understood Much of the horizontal communication that does go on at the
and acted upon by subordinates within the system; and (c), operational level is informal in nature and bypasses the formal
does it reach the intended beneficiaries? organizational system. But in using informal channels there are
Peter Drucker (1966) suggests that the biggest problem for definite restrictions on achieving official action. Much more
administrators in making effective decisions is that they too thought is required for facilitating “ official” horizontal
often are talking when they should be listening-one of the communication at all levels of the hierarchy in order to improve
major reasons why many development programmes fail. the implementation of development programmes.
While the identification of these three types of communication
Upward
flows appears to be fairly elementary, not enough thought is
During the planning of a development programme and the
given to properly using them by most administrators of
later monitoring of its progress the upward communication
development programmes.
flow is vital. However, as Sagasti (1975) points out: “The single
greatest problem in rural development has been the lack of More attention must be focused on improving the upward and
active participation of the local people. In communications horizontal communication flows. The use of the downward
terms this means an overemphasis on transmission of communication flow should be evaluated and where possible
information by project managers and staff to the rural people, reduced. The downward communication flow should be closely
rather than transmission of information from the rural people linked and coordinated with the upward and horizontal
to each other and to project staff and development decision- communication flows.
makers.” A Case Study on Policy
Most researchers agree that the upward flow of communication The Role of Communication And The Media For National
in an organization is usually distorted. The nature of the Development In The Caribbean Area: The Formation And
hierarchical structure and. the related reward, system discourages Implementation Of National Communication Policies
subordinates from passing bad news to their bosses (Wilensky, Definitions
1967). A superior receives reports that tell him primarily what To put the topic in perspective, the Committee established
his subordinates want him to hear (Downs, 1967) and almost working definitions of “communication” and “development.”
always contain positive information. Most management
We concluded that the definition of communication as
information systems are designed to control subordinates
developed at the Ibadan meeting could be applicable here but
rather than to encourage relevant upward communication. What
with a rider clause:
an administrator needs most is the accurate description of
problems in programme implementation. Field workers have

200
“Communication” in this context may be taken to mean all

DEVELOPMENT
Implementation
forms of information transfer from interpersonal contacts to The implementation of DSC within a program requires, in the
satellite broadcasting. However, we consider that there should committee’s view, that attention be given to a number of
be an “inbuilt feedback network” in any information transfer. points:
Under this definition of communication, both traditional
a. there is need to carry out a survey which may be designed to
(verbal and non-verbal) and modern media have a role to play.
reveal a number of things; for example,
“Development” is here taken to mean the process by which the

COMMUNICATION
• whether there exists any study or data by social or behavioral
people achieve an improvement in the quality of life as it relates
scientists; and with the help of such study to identify the
to their cultural, social, economic and political growth.
characteristics of the community to be served;
The Concept of Development Support • what factors influence attitudes to development messages;
Communication (DSC)
• what kinds of extension systems, community group or
Definition
community leaders exist that should be involved in DSC;
Under this concept, communication is seen as part of the whole
• media availability-media credibility;
process of development, starting with development planning.
The planning of development support communication • feedback capabilities for analyzing existing programs;
includes mechanisms for the synthesis of ideas about develop- • Follow-up evaluation –to ascertain to what extent specific
ment priorities and emphasis held by planners and the development information has reached specific audiences and
communities, to be involved in development processes, so that to what degree it has changed their opinions, attitudes and
the innovations to be introduced are both “communicable” and behavior in keeping with the objectives of the development
“absorbable”. The Committee agreed to following definition program.
and application: b. There should be decentralization use of the mass media and
“Communication in the context of the seminar was taken to other communications channels, according to the
mean all forms of information transfer, from interpersonal requirements of the project; for example, its sociological and
contacts to satellite broadcasting”. (Page 4, Seminar on environmental patterns; opportunities to involve local
Motivation, Information and Communication for Develop- participation by and through local voluntary news
ment in African and Asian Countries, available from the IBI) correspondents; promoting cheap print duplicating
The systematic use of communication techniques for the methods, regional and local broadcasts, etc.
planning, decision-making and execution process of develop- c. Technical alternatives should be carefully considered so as to
ment programs, in order to ensure, at all stages, participation by make possible the choice of the most appropriate
all relevant groups of people and the success of the develop- communication technology. Special care should be taken to
ment objectives. try to foresee all the implications of introducing “high”
Methods technology and to make fullest possible use of
“intermediate” technology;
The methods would be to use all available channels of commu-
nication (as already defined) including educational systems, d. The Committee emphasized that the software content of
extension workers and other change agent systems. development support communication cannot be imported
since it must be produced according to the adopted
Furthermore, DSC must be based on the understanding of
development objectives and projects and must be geared to
social, cultural, motivational and communications factors within
the specific communities and audiences concerned;
the particular community. Analysis to this effect should be
undertaken from the earliest possible stage. e. It was also agreed that development support communication
must be co-ordinated with the educational systems,
Premises
particularly at the policy level, so as to avoid contradictory
(a) The responsibility for development support communication messages being transmitted by the two systems;
rests with the government, assisted by other relevant groups in
f. No matter how elaborate a system of plans is laid, no matter
society.
how integrated, the committee took the view as stated by
(b) It must be integrated in development planning and project Clarence Ellis…”the most effective means of
execution; communication in planning and plan implementation is the
(c) It is a specialized function which ideally should be given its media of committed officials.” However, they need special
own institutionalized support. Since this might not be support and training to equip them for their communication
possible at this time in all Caribbean countries because of a function.
shortage of human and financial resources, development
Communications Policy
planners should be alerted that special attention should be paid
The Committee was convinced that the whole communication
to development support communication, even if resources are
network had an important role to play in support of develop-
scarce.
ment and it was the responsibility of government to ensure
there was integration of the mass media and other communica-
tions channels in the total development effort.

201
 Bearing in mind the present relative underdevelopment of the 3. Issues to Examined
DEVELOPMENT

media and the region, the committee felt it was opportune and a. Staff Recruitment and Training
still possible to devise a comprehensive and forward looking
Staff recruitment and training plans should be formulated as
development communication policy.
part of the total communication plan. In particular, three
The Need elements for the communication plan have new and major
Basic to the concept of an organized society is the need to co- implications regarding the types of training required:
COMMUNICATION

ordinate the activity of its several communities. The lynch pin • for the development support communication, there is a need
to this process is communication. A communication policy to create virtually a new breed of communicator who has
should aim at: knowledge of multiple media, is sensitive to the
• preventing contradictory messages by integrated planning; characteristics and needs of differing audiences, and can relate
• establishing an investigatory system, e.g. through DSC, to both of these to development activities needing
ensure that technological hardware will meet a county’s communication support;
developmental needs; • communication specialists should be helped to understand
• Providing a framework for a rational allocation of resources both the process of development planning and
for development of the mass media infrastructure and the implementation, and the interaction among traditional,
conduct of development support communication program. extension-type and modern media systems. Extension
workers or other change agents should be specially trained
Organization and Structure
for their functions as group and inter-personal
In order to achieve the required co-ordinated national commu-
communicators in project implementation and in relation to
nication policy, there is a need to provide for an institutionalized
mass media. For their part, development planners need
framework and support in the form of a national body (e.g. a
orientation regarding the role and priority of communication
National Communication Council).
in planning and project formulation;
a. Function
• decisions on staff technical training should be linked with
This national body should be entrusted with three main advance-planned improvements in the working environment
functions: policy and planning; regulation; evaluation. (e.g. operating equipment, software budgets, individual
It should be charged with examining such issues as are functional roles, etc.) that trainees will face on return to the
identified above for the development of mass job.
communication infrastructure and the conduct of b. Media Financing
development support communication.
In order to free the mass media from dependence on
In formulating communication policy, this body should advertising, the committee recognizes the vital importance of
work closely with the development planners and ensure that direct or indirect financial support from the government. If
the nation’s information policy is consciously designed to they expect the media to perform the task assigned to them,
support its development strategy. It should also ensure the a possible method of financing might be making support to
required co-ordination with regard to international the media conditional on whether they were fulfilling their
communication questions. development role. In addition, with the proper planning
It will be the task of this body to ensure that the adopted and budgeting of communication support for development
communication policies and plans are co-ordinated and projects, costs of producing media materials and programs
implemented at all levels. could be built into the budget of project communication
The national communication body should also support a components.
research unit to assist in the evaluation of DSC program and c. Media Ownership and Regulation
policy. • the media should be owned nationally, that is to say, foreign
b. Composition ownership is unacceptable. How national ownership may be
In order to achieve the integrated approach needed, the body achieved is a matter for each individual government to decide
should comprise: in keeping with their philosophy and the resources available.
In addition, the owners should not be motivated solely by
• representatives of the concerned government ministries
the profit incentive, but should have a commitment to the
(information, planning, communication, education,
role of the media in development support;
agriculture, etc.)
• it may be possible to extend the present operating licensing
• Representatives of a DSC unit
system used in broadcasting to print media. This
• Representatives from a central communication research unit arrangement would be regarded as contractual, with rights
• Management of the print and electronic media and duties on both sides;
• Representatives of citizens or community groups. • both methods should be supervised by the National
The body should be chaired by a designated minister who will Communication Council.
report to Cabinet. d. Co-ordination with Cultural and Educational Policies

202
 Cultural and educational policies, like communications policy Tobago in the south. The system is intended to provide the

DEVELOPMENT
must form part of overall development strategy. As there is island with a telecommunication system of sufficient quality
a great degree of interaction between these three particular and capacity to contain demand well into the 1980s.
components, they should be formulated together in The first section of the wideband microwave backbone chain
harmonious and mutually supporting fashion. for Tortola to Antigua with a microwave relay on the Dutch
Recommendations island of Saba has been completed and is in service. A micro-
wave link from Saba to St. Marten has also been completed and

COMMUNICATION
1. This Committee recommends that governments’ attention
gives the population of St. Maarten direct access to the Cable &
be drawn to the concept of development support
Wireless Caribbean system.
communication and the need for an overall communication
policy. Section two of the project will link Antigua- Guadeloupe- Marie
Galante- Dominica- Martinique- St. Lucia. The work on this
2. To the extent that governments of the region decide
section will be completed by early 1976. Section three will
individually or jointly that they need external assistance in
continue from St. Lucia to St. Vincent- Carriacou- Grenada-
designing or implementing DSC programs and
Trinidad and Tobago, and will be completed by late 1976.
communication policies, they may seek assistance from the
UNDP or other international bodies through the designated [Link]
channels. For example, the committee felt that such [Link]
assistance might be needed in:
• A survey inventory and assessment of the available Note
resources of all types needed for DSC.
• The establishment of policies, systems and specialized
staff for the planning of DSC.
• The design and execution of research activities needed for
the planning, implementation and evaluation of (DSC)
work; one possibility could be to propose UNDP
regional funding for the provision of a DSC team in the
Caribbean. Such a team would provide advisory and
operational assistance to individual countries wishing to
study or create national DSC system and / or to design
and implement communication components in
development projects.
3. Priority should be given to convincing senior government
officers and ministers of the value of development support
communication.
4. There should be decentralized use of the mass media and
other communications channels, according to the
requirements of the development program.
5. That training should assist in the creation of a new breed of
communicator and such training should be directed at not
only the members of the media, but also other change
agents within the society.
6. There should be set up a small working party drawn from
IBI, FNS and participants of the Ibadan and Georgetown
seminars to advance the implementation of the
recommendations coming out of these seminars.
Annex
An Overall View Of Communication Systems In The
Caribbean
Regional Facilities
Important steps are being taken to provide greater access to and
from the Caribbean Area in the telecommunications field.
An 800 mile long microwave system is presently under con-
struction in the Eastern Caribbean. On completion it will link
the chain of Commonwealth, French and Dutch islands from
Tortola (British Virgin Islands) in the north to Trinidad and

203
DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 26:
PARTICIPATORY PROJECT MANAGEMENT
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected Despite the accumulating forces for greater participation, large
numbers of people continue to be excluded from the benefits
To learn the principles of PPM
of development: the poorest segments of society, people in
To manage a DEVCOM people participatory project rural areas, many religious and ethnic minorities -and, in almost
every country, women. Also excluded are those millions,
Participation of People in Development particularly children, whose preventable and premature deaths
Intervention cut short their lives.
Participation means that people are closely involved in the
economic, social, cultural and political processes that affect their Many of these groups necessarily overlap but it is useful to
lives. People may, in some cases, have complete control may be identify some of them individually.
partial or indirect. The important thing is that people have The poorest people - find that their very poverty is a formidable
constant access to decision-making and power. barrier to entering many aspects of social, economic and political
Participation, certainly not a new term, has been a part of the life.
development vocabulary since the 1960s, or even before. But it Poverty has its greatest impact on children and is a denial to
has generally referred only to people’s involvement in particular future generations. Infant mortality rates in the least developed
projects or programmes. countries are still 114 per 1,000 live births, and nearly 13 million
People can participate as individuals or as groups. As individu- children die each year before their fifth birthday.
als in a democracy, they may participate as voters or political Poverty can also be harsh for the elderly. In the formerly socialist
activists — or in the market as entrepreneurs or workers. Often, countries, the pensioners are among those who suffer most
however, the participate more effectively through group action - from the current reforms process.
as members of community organization perhaps, or a trade For millions of people all over the world, the daily struggle for
union or a political party. survival so much of their time and energy that. even if they live
People, everywhere are certainly demanding much greater access in democratic countries, genuine political participation is, for all
to political, economic and social opportunities. They might not practical purposes, a luxury.
expect ‘’full participation” - but they do want a steady advance Women - are the world’s largest excluded group. Even though
towards it. Participation is, after all, a process not an event. they make up half the adult population, and often contribute
Since participation required increased influence and control, it much more than their share to society, inside and outside the
also demands increased empowerment in economic, social and home, they are frequently excluded from positions of power.
political terms, in economic terms, this means being able to They make up just over 10% of the world’s parliamentary
engage freely in any economic activity. In social terms, it means representatives, and consistently less than 4% of cabinet
being able to join fully in all forms of community life, without minister or other positions of executive authority.
regard to religion, colour, sex or race. And in political terms, it Minorities and indigenous peoples - often find it difficult to
means the freedom to choose and change governance at every participate fully in societies that consistently operate in favour of
level from the presidential palace to the village council. the dominant groups. Sometimes this discrimination is
Participation, from the human development perspective, is embedded in legal frame work denying minority groups equal
both a means and an end. Human development stresses the access to education, to employment opportunities or to political
need to invest in human capabilities and then ensure that those representation. But exclusion is generally less a matter of official
capabilities are used for the benefit of all. Greater participation policy than everyday practice.
has an important part to play here: it helps increasing levels of People in rural areas - have very restricted participation in
social and economic development. But human development is economic and social life in the developing world. The rural per
also concerned with personal fulfillment. So, active participa- capita income in many countries is around half that in towns
tion, which allows people to realize their full potential and make and cities. And rural people have much less access to govern-
their best contribution to society, is also an end in itself. ment services. Despite making up around two-thirds of the
Democracy cannot be achieved overnight. Just as economic population, they receive on average less than a quarter of the
growth means little unless it is translated into improvements in education, health, water and sanitation services.
human lives, so democracy can be merely an empty ritual of The disabled - make up at least 10% of the world’s population.
periodic elections unless people participate, aware and empow- They include all those who have experience injury, trauma or
ered, in all the institutions of civil society. Elections are a disease that results in long-term physical or mental changes.
necessary, but certainly not a sufficient, conditions for democ-
Disability is common to both industrial and developing
racy. Political participation is not just a casting of votes. It is way
countries, but the sources tend to be different in the industrial
of life.

204
countries, the principal causes are degenerative diseases associ- Food & Agricultural Organization (FAO) began to focus on

DEVELOPMENT
ated with ageing, while in the developing world the causes are participatory approaches to development dates back to the early
more likely to be disease, malnutrition and war. 1970s, through the Freedom from Hunger/Action for Devel-
opment (FFHC/AD) campaign, the Small Farmers
Obstacles to Participation
Development Programme (SFDP) in Asia and numerous other
Participation is a plant that does not grow easily in the human
field projects aimed at generating informed and conscious
environment, Powerful vested interests, driven by personal
participation of local people at all stages of the development

COMMUNICATION
greed, erect numerous obstacles to block off the routes to
process. By 1975, FFHC/AD’s objective was identified as “to
people’s political and economic power. These obstacles include:
encourage people’s participation in their own development,
Legal systems - Laws are often arbitrary and capricious and stimulating at the same time a critical awareness of what this
favour those with political influence or economic clout. In too participation means”. The SFDP arose from studies that
many countries, legislation fails to measure up to ideals of showed that large, more formal organizations (often govern-
transparency, accountability, fairness - and equality before the mental) were not effective in delivering services to small farmers,
law. Some countries’ law exclude the participation of women, particularly the poorest farmers. It organized thousands of
for example, or of religious or ethnic minorities, or deny certain small (8-15 persons) participatory groups to engage in joint
rights to workers. economic activities, in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Nepal,
Bureaucratic constraints - Many developing countries have the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
shackled their people with innumerable regulations and A major boost to the principle of people’s direct involvement
controls, demanding all sorts of permits and permissions for in the development process came at the 1979 World Conference
even the most modest business initiative. Fortunately, many on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (WCARRD).
governments have started to dismantle the most stifling of WCARRD affirmed that “participation by the people in the
these controls and are opening new avenues for entrepreneurial institutions and systems which govern their lives is a basic
activity. human right and also essential for realignment of political
Social norms - Even when laws change, many old values and power in favour of disadvantaged groups and for social and
prejudices persist, whether against women or different tribes, economic development”. One of the major points emphasized
castes or religious groups - and are often deeply embedded in at WCARRD, which influenced many of the action programmes
everyday language and behaviours. Laws may promote equality, that followed, was the importance of strengthening the
but it is usually left to the discriminated group to struggle institutional and organizational capacities of disadvantaged
against prejudice. Thus, working women for example, even people to collectively participate in rural development.
when they prove themselves better, are not given equal treat- Subsequent to WCARRD, people’s participation gained
ment. considerable momentum in donor agencies and international
Maldistribution of assets - In developing countries, one of the organizations, including FAO. Around this time, a number of
most significant assets is land. A high proportion of the people donor-funded participatory programmes were begun, including
struggle to make a living in agriculture, but their efforts are People’s Participation in Agricultural and Rural Development
often thwarted by the dominance of feudal elites who exert on through the Promotion of Self-help Organizations (PPP),
overwhelming control over land. Community Action for Disadvantaged Rural Women
Participatory Approaches to (CADRW), Forestry for Local Community Development
Development (FLCD), Development Support Communication programmes
The term “people’s participation” entered development (DSC), Forests, Trees and People Programme (FTPP) and the
literature in the 1970s, in response to the failure of many Programme for Small-scale and Artisanal Fisheries. All these
externally-designed assistance efforts to achieve desired develop- programmes involved local people through community-based
mental goals, with particular reference to disadvantaged organizations in the design and implementation of develop-
beneficiary groups. Until that time, conventional project strategy ment activities and made conscious efforts to embrace the
had tended to view development in terms of technology poorest of the poor as a principal target beneficiary group.
transfer aimed at increasing production and assumed that Similarly, the FFHC/AD programme placed increasing focus on
benefits would accrue to all levels of society. Evidence, however, ensuring local ownership of projects and to non-project forms
indicated that benefits of technology transfer, when they of support like training in participatory development for field
occurred, were mostly realized by large or medium-scale workers.
producers, often accompanied by even greater marginalization The Governing Bodies retained a strong interest in participation
of the rural poor. and in 1989, the FAO Council recommended that participatory
At the same time, it was recognized that people in rural development should be integrated into all development policies
communities were rarely consulted about the aims of projects and programmes of FAO and that FAO develop a Plan of
and were not involved in their implementation. Target benefi- Action for People’s Participation.
ciaries were assumed to share the same perceptions and goals of The FAO Conference adopted a Seven-point Plan of Action in
(usually external) project designers, which was not often the 1991. The Plan contained proposals for action for both FAO
case. Results of projects based upon this assumption were and governments and was aimed at:
often disappointing.

205
 • promoting greater public awareness of the role of people’s At the same time, it has proved very difficult to practise
DEVELOPMENT

participation and people’s organizations in agriculture and participatory management because:

rural development; • participatory management usually results in more conflict;
• creating favourable legal and policy conditions for people’s • participatory management requires more openness about
participation; how decisions are made;
• strengthening internal capacities of the rural people’s • managers must find a balance between being decisive and
COMMUNICATION

organizations at local and national levels; participatory;

• decentralizing government decision-making; • participation must be managed strategically in order to be
• promoting increased dialogue and collaboration between effective;
governments, development agencies and people’s • participation is perceived as leading to a loss of control; and
organizations;
• participation is perceived as being more important in itself
• introducing appropriate operational procedures and than the quality of the decision and the results.
methods; and
In order for participatory projects to be successful and sustain-
• monitoring and evaluating people’s participation. able, the following conditions are necessary:
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in and trend • the policy framework and institutions must be open to
towards participatory approaches to development, brought decentralized decision-making;
about by several factors. Government downsizing and decen-
• beneficiaries must be able to see a continuing economic and
tralization have redefined the responsibilities of the state and
or social benefit from their participation;
private sector, thus creating institutional and service gaps at
various levels and increasing the potential role of communities • training and other institution capacity-building support,
in decision-making. A broader and more assertive range of civil often in various areas, is a major input;
society actors is present. NGOs, often important users of • capacity building of participatory institutions/organizations
participatory approaches, are becoming more active in filling the must be addressed; and
gaps as government retreats as the major actor in front line • donors and governments must provide additional time and
service delivery. New information technologies potentially shift money to cover the initial and recurrent costs associated with
information much faster and networking possibilities are participatory projects.
increasing demands for participation, particularly through e-mail
and the Internet, and these are expected to increase rapidly in the The Importance of Planning, Monitoring and
coming years. In these conditions, it is generally felt that neither Evaluation
donor nor government may act unilaterally to plan, coordinate, Participatory planning is an important part of participatory
or direct development activity. Wider consultation and involve- development approaches. Participatory planning, at its best,
ment is not merely desirable on normative grounds but includes a strategic approach to decide who should be involved
operationally essential. at each different stage of the project, why it is important that
they be involved and how they should participate. It should
Participatory approaches are thought to be more effective in also include an analysis of the needs, desires and constraints of
ensuring sustainability even though they may cost more in the the community, and also of the partner institutions involved.
short term because change is embraced more quickly and fully by From this information, communities, project staff and
engaged participants and the costs of achieving change may government agencies can jointly develop a strategy that they are
actually be less in the long term. Specific impacts of participation collectively committed to and capable of carrying out.
have not been clearly indicated in these projects, but these may
be extrapolated as: Poor planning of participatory projects has led to overly
complex project design, poor project implementation, and lack
• better decisions made because a variety of knowledge is
of understanding within the community, partner institutions
applied to the complex problems at hand, including the local and even the project staff of what the project aims to accom-
knowledge held by community members as well as the plish. This is especially true in cases where a project attempts to
“professional” knowledge of the institutions and project meet multiple objectives within a variety of technical areas. More
experts involved; narrowly focused projects tended to be better understood and
• leadership built within different sectors of an organization more likely to achieve their objectives.
or society which will help solve both present and future
The project design phase is critically important to establishing
challenges;
the foundation for a successful participatory project. There is
• initiative and motivation generated by shared responsibility little systematic information about the impact of participation
and authority; in improving project performance, reducing costs involved and
• different sub-groups given the opportunity to advance their ensuring the long-term sustainability of effects. Monitoring and
particular interests in development; and evaluation, therefore, need to be given more attention as
• stakeholder ownership built in the outcomes, so that change essential tools for improving systematic learning.
is facilitated.

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 implemented to solve real problems. A community will be wise

DEVELOPMENT
Conclusion
Collaborative management is a philosophy that incorporates all to think about how to spend limited money allocated for village
the participants in the whole process, from the very conception development so that it makes a difference to their lives.
of the project to its operation and decommissioning. As this Why is this important? Community development in times of
collaboration encompasses both ends and means, it allows for political instability aims at confidence building for investment
the generation of flexible and feasible alternatives. and development. It supports the involvement of people to
The need to incorporate issues such as community participa- stabilise their livelihood strategies and to promote their self-

COMMUNICATION
tion, interaction between institutions and organisations was help capacities, as individuals and as a community.
also discussed. Customers or consumers are no longer passive Projects are means of community development and not the
recipients, the more they become involved in the process, the goals. The key of development is that local partners take over
better results. responsibility for village development in a process of strength-
A Case Study ening their functional capacities.
Integrated Food Security Programme (IFSP), Trincomalee, Sri This includes day-to-day support in project management,
Lanka. October 2003. training and advice. The strategy of community development is
Introduction thus two-pronged:
Participatory project management promotes capacities of village • Support needy people fulfill their needs, and
communities and community based organizations (CBO) in • Strengthen local organizations and their capacities through
particular. They are supported through an organized process of these projects, with the final aim to reduce the service’s gap.
addressing needs and demands, potential and resources for
When planning and managing community-based projects, it is
planning, implementation and management of projects.
essential to involve all stakeholders. Stakeholders are all those
Dialogue in the form of open communication, participation at
who contribute to or benefit from a project. Participatory project
all levels of the project cycle, transparency and accountability of
management means that all stakeholders are involved in a
the flow of funds and finally, efficient management and
dialogue and jointly develop the way forward during all stages
operation by the local communities themselves are key prin-
that a project goes through and subsequently, ensure
ciples for ownership. Ownership expresses responsibility for the
sustainability.
good use of the assets created with the support of IFSP.
Ownership of community assets also aims at the higher
Traditional Approach Participatory Approach
objective of generating additional benefits. top-down responsibility dialogue - shared responsibilities
The project shows how village communities can be actively supply driven by instructions demand driven (expressed needs for
formal procedures mobilization of potential)
involved in project planning and management. The experience clientele based criteria based
and know-how in supporting local development through Hidden and closed transparent
contracting local contribution
efficient project planning, implementation and management is spending the budget sensible to budget
laid down in a large number of formatted, procedures, which work in compartmental manner dialogue for integration and cooperation
are annexed to this manual. They include methods and forms
for data collection and analysis, formatted project planning, Principles
criteria for decision making, project management, administra- Participatory project management aims at promoting local
tion and programming. All forms have been applied in the development. Projects address real needs with the support of
day-today work of IFSP. They follow to a certain extent wed local partners. This is reflected in four basic principles:
established government procedures. All forms are ready for use.
• Needs oriented: Projects reflect felt needs and expressed
These forms could be easily adapted to the specific requirements
demands from communities.
of government institutions, nongovernment organisations,
• Local contribution: Local implementing partners contribute
agencies and development projects.
actively in time, labour and funds to the project.
IFSP Trincomalee encourages development agencies, govern-
• Balanced output and process: Projects support people fulfill
ment institutions, non-government organizations and
development projects to follow a transparent and participatory their needs (output) and strengthen their self-help-capacities
approach in their work. The manual aims at contributing to the (process),
application of simple but effective systems for planning at • Networking: Projects encourage the establishment of links
village, divisional and district level. to other projects and institutions.
Project Management Means Dialogue Participatory project management ascribes roles and responsi-
Since its inception in August 1998, the Integrated Food Security bilities to all who are involved: Local implementing partners
Programme Trincomalee (IFSP) has encouraged and promoted (CBOs, action groups), service providers (NGOs, departments)
community development that involves people in decisions and and the IFSP as facilitator.
actions taken at village level: Passive recipients become active Participatory project management demands following positive
partners in development. attitudes. Everyone in his or her role and responsibility in
A new atmosphere is implanted in the community: Projects project management should commit him or herself to four
respond to needs that are real, felt and expressed. Projects are essential attitudes:

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 • Shared responsibility: I am willing to hand over
DEVELOPMENT
Relevance criteria for selection of projects - targeting:
responsibilities to others, also those who are lower in rank or
• Food insecurity: Does the project request address issues of food and
hierarchy.
nutrition insecurity?
• Accountability: I am responsible for what 1 am doing.
• Village vulnerability (village data sheet); What is the degree of conflict
• Transparency: I am transparent to others in what I am doing. affectedness, social deprivation, and food deficit?
• Integration: I am willing to work with other organizations. • Does the project fall within the geographical working area: (i) PNA
COMMUNICATION

These principles apply to the relationship between villagers and villages, (ii) ‘Crucial and / or complementary projects’ elsewhere (cluster
engineers and community mobilizers of IFSP as much as villages), subject to approval by project management? Necessity for support?
within the hierarchy of an institution itself. Sharing responsibil- • Responsibility assured: Do local partners and communities contribute?
ity can take place between officers and representatives of village
communities, and at different levels of the hierarchy in an Screening
organization. All project proposals are submitted to the Technical Project
Committee (TPC) of IFSP. The TPC consists of the programme
managers (one technical, one social), one representative of the
Next Step ?
District Planning Secretariat (DPS), one programme officer
(community mobiliser) and one civil engineer. If necessary, the
TPC consults the officers working in the specific area (engineer,
Re-assessment
Pre-visit programme officer).
The TPC screens the project requests according to relevance criteria.
These criteria indicate whether or not a project fits into the
Self-evaluation Project Needs Assessment objectives of IFSP.
For promising project requests, the TPC can ask programme
officers, partner institutions and the requesting organisation to
Screening
Implementation collect and provide more information about the feasibility and
technical viability of a proposed project.
Planning With this information at hand, the TPC then asks IFSP field staff
to finalize the proposal in closest cooperation with partner staff
and the village community. The final proposal is forwarded to
Participatory Planning, Implementation and IFSP management for approval.
Management
The IFSP management team takes the principal decision of
Each project goes through a cycle of steps
approval or disapproval. If necessary, the management team can
• Assessment of needs - potential, identification of project ask the TPC to provide more information and to resubmit a
priorities and proposals, proposal. Decisions are recorded in minutes.
• Screening of project proposals according to technical and
Planning
socio-economic criteria - feasibility, The planning stage begins with the approval of a project by the
• Planning the social, economic and technical details of the management team. Participatory planning serves two purposes:
project, assessing the sustainability, First, it provides a sound basis for the technical implementation
• Implementation, including monitoring, of the project. Second, it starts a process of local capacity building,
• Evaluation of project achievements and impacts.
thereby involving all stakeholders.

• These are described briefly below:

In the planning stage, the community mobilisers and engineers of
IFSP conduct a feasibility assessment, check technical criteria and
Identification: Assessing Needs and potentials negotiate the terms of implementation. They clarify roles and
The request for a project can arise in three different manners: responsibilities with all stakeholders: Local implementing
1. Participatory needs assessment (PNA) is the standard partners, service providers and IFSP.
approach in villages where the IFSP wants to establish a Feasibility assessment
broader cooperation and commitment over a longer period
The feasibility assessment is the next step after the project
of time.
proposal. It specifies all social and technical aspects of project
2. Project requests can come from local and institutional implementation:
partners of IFSP (CBOs, NGOs, government departments,
• Target group (who will benefit from the project),
divisional secretariat).
• Food and nutrition security (availability, access, utilisation),
3. Rapid appraisals (substituting PNA) could be suitable for
focused projects where needs are quite apparent, local • Selection criteria for beneficiaries
organizations are weak or not yet fully established. • Technical viability

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• Livelihood aspects (social and economic benefits,

DEVELOPMENT
Project Agreement
sustainability), The project agreement is the written contract between the local
• Cost efficiency (how can costs be minimized). implementing partner, the IFSP and the service provider. It
contains all-important technical and organizational, details of
Local Contribution the project and provides a legal background for the responsibili-
The active contribution of local implementing partners is ties of all partners. This written contract documents the
essential. The contribution depends upon the poverty - responsibilities and commitments of each of the stakeholders

COMMUNICATION
vulnerability level of the respective village. Comparatively and makes these transparent. The project agreement is kept at
better-off villages are expected to contribute more. In a second village level. It is accessible by the public.
round of projects. IFSP expects local partners to provide a
higher contribution than in the first projects. Programme Local Commitment
officers have to negotiate the terms of the local contribution Before IFSP or service providers start delivering their services or
with the local partners. works, the local partner and beneficiaries commence their work
first, e.g. digging pits for toilet, excavation works for founda-
Local Pricing tions of culverts or clearing the jungle for road construction.
The IFSP engineers prepare financial and technical estimates Local commitment often needs constant feedback and encour-
with the local partners (mostly CBOs), Estimates are based-on agement. One should, on the other hand, avoid a
real prices, not assumed prices. The engineers discuss with ‘spoon-feeding’ approach: Programme officers encourage,
villagers where material is available and what the local prices are. advise local partners, but do not instruct them around or do
Quotations are called for, preferably from local contractors or everything for them.
traders for material and services. It is the process that matters:
Village communities and local partners gain an awareness and Continuous Dialogue
sensitivity for the value of money and the budget available for Depending on local capacities, the programme officers and staff
development. from service providers call for regular community meetings and
discuss matters regarding all ongoing projects in a village.
Service Providers’ Involvement Urgent matters are taken up directly with contact persons of the
Service providers take over responsibilities in providing services. local partners. Community leaders and villages gradually
In the planning stage, IFSP programme officers and local develop their skills to resolve internal conflict and continue
implementing partners consult service providers and discuss working together.
about the services required. A critical question is: Will service
providers assure the delivery of services beyond the project Accountability and Transparency
duration? Accountability
Implementation The handling of funds is crucial for participatory project
Facilitating the implementation of a village project does not planning. The traditional way of local ‘contracting’ encourages
follow a simple procedure, but is a constant process of dialogue malpractice: Only few people are involved and may only look at
and community mobilisation. Important modules in this their personal benefits, since the procedures are often not
process are: transparent and clear to local people. Estimates are not openly
accessible. Technical layout is not understandable to local people.
Awareness and Consensus Building
Planning is carried out without the local communities. This
A common meeting involving the community actively is
opens space for mishandling of funds. Often, completed
essential at the beginning of implementation; Information
projects are of low quality or even remain uncompleted, because
exchange, negotiation of roles and responsibilities, gaining the
fund allocations are wasted or mishandled.
formal commitment from local implementing partner and
service providers, Selecting Proposals
How long this process takes depends on the capacities of local Consider you have ten proposals for village development, but you can only
implementing partners. Sometimes, one common meeting is implement five. How are you selecting?
enough, sometimes one will need several ones to gain the You have to select participants for specific projects that shall benefit the
commitment of local partners and beneficiaries. poorest families in a community, say 30 out of 100. For this decision to
Learning by Doing be accountable and fair. you need clear, transparent criteria and an open
Leaders of CBOs and action groups gradually acquire knowl- decision making process.
edge and skills on organising the community. They Since funds are limited, it is essential to carefully allocate
communicate with villages and service providers. They practice resources in order to achieve results that significantly improve
the setting of priorities for projects based on technical and the life of people.
economic criteria (which confronts individual interests) and they
The joint team of community mobilisers and engineers does
team to manage the implementation and the operation of
monthly progress review. The progress of all community
projects.
projects and poverty projects is presented, success and short-
comings are discussed and solutions are identified. The IFSP
field staff conveys possible solutions to the implementing
partners for consent and implementation.

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 Accountability and transparency must be practiced in the day-to- menting partners. The cash flow is transparent to all, the budget
DEVELOPMENT

day work. This concerns the work within IFSP (and should estimate for the project is known to the whole community.
apply to any development organisation), between IFSP and its Local partners are encouraged to entrust specific tasks to small
local implementing partners (CBOs) and between IFSP and its groups and committees to spread responsibility amongst
institutional partners (service providers). It is also essential in community members. This aims at removing some of the
the work of the local implementing partners and amongst burden of responsibility of the office bearers and allows others
communities themselves. to build management capacities as well.
COMMUNICATION

Good practices in project management reduce mistrust and

Management of Cash Flow
suspicion and allow that all stakeholders understand decision-
Forms help to control the flow of cash and material. This
making and cash flow. Three fundamental mechanisms support
makes the handling of money transparent. Local implementing
good practices:
partners, service providers and IFSP staff who handle funds can
• Agreement and consensus: Open discussions of approaches, be hold accountable and responsible.
priorities, selection of beneficiaries and budgets ensure that
Payments by cheque and in exceptional cases also by cash are
people are informed and involved.
done in stages, depending on the project progress and the
• Written documents (Forms): Every decision, technical and former expenditure pattern of local implementing partners.
financial detail must be accessible to the focal beneficiaries This ensures a continuous control of cash flows.
and to partner organisations. This is why IFSP has
After the first advance is paid to the local partner, subsequent
introduced the Project Book.
payments are only released after local partners submit a payment
• Shared responsibility: Financial handling should not be request through IFSP staff that is witnessed by local office
ascribed to one individual, but to a group of people that can bearers, government officers.
control each other.
All original vouchers have to be submitted. Local partners also
Fund management have to forward requests and receipts for material.
Community Selection Prior to each fund release, the IFSP community mobiliser or
Selection of beneficiaries for individual projects, such as toilet civil engineer has to submit a written request to the IFSP
construction, income-generating activities, always takes place in management. The purpose of the release of funds or material,
groups. This procedure is transparent and follows clear criteria. the estimated amount of services, material, food baskets and
The village selection committee together as well as the whole labour as well as the progress have to be stated. This procedure
village are accountable for decision-making. ensures efficient fund management within IFSP.
Local fund Management Project Book
Local implementing partners need to J learn about the new The project book contains:
responsibility attributed to them. How practically they have to • The project agreement between IFSP, the local implementing
handle funds in an accountable manner, dealing with bank partner and service provider in Tamil or Sinhala, including a
officers, handing in cheques, keeping records, using formats, summary of the budget estimate,
collecting documents (vouchers, bills, expenditure reports) and • The design plan and the fulf budget estimate in English,
writing reports. According to the available capacities of the local Tamil or Sinhala and the contribution from IFSP, CBO or
partners, this requires care, support and training. action group and other partners,
Beneficiary selection for toilets • A socio-economic summary sheet from the village data sheet
In a common meeting, the IFSP programme officer explains the general or the PNA summary report,
procedures of beneficiaries’ selection to all villagers. • White pages for any notes from IFSP staff and officers from
A team, consisting of the Public Health Inspector (PHI), two representa- partner institutions that visit the project.
tives from the implementing partner of the local community, the Grama The project book documents all important features of a project
Sevaka (G.S.), Samurdhi Development Officer and the IFSP community and allows any visitor and aft villagers to know the technical and
mobiliser carry out a pre-selection according to predefined criteria. financial details. This is essential for transparency and account-
This pre-selection is counter-checked through house-by-house visits. The ability. The local implementing partners maintain the project
list of selected beneficiaries is then discussed in a common meeting and book.
crosschecked. The community can decide to add or remove beneficiaries
Integration
from the list. The final list is to be approved by the community meeting.
Link to the Service System
Traditionally, funds allocated to CBOs were often managed as a Beyond the projects and services that 1FSP and its service
one-man show, which resulted in misallocation and mishan- partners can offer to local CBOs, the 1FSP community
dling of funds. The IFSP demands a system where the cash mobilisers and engineers also seek to facilitate cooperation with
flow has to be witnessed by several persons of a CBO. IFSP other institutions, e.g. government agencies, nongovernmental
engineers and community mobilisers, in closest cooperation organisations and private companies that offer services. Local
with officers from departments and Divisional Secretariats, partners are thereby encouraged to establish links and commu-
crosscheck expenditure reports and accounts of local imple- nication with several service providers, aiming at reducing the

210
dependence on 1FSP support and learning to demand services • Accounting,

DEVELOPMENT
that are needed for community development and get ready to • Sharing responsibilities within projects, •
pay for such services.
• Sharing good practices and problems (learning from each
Complementary Programmes other),
These are programmes that complement the community and • Develop shared rules for good management
poverty group projects of 1FSP, for example, the programmes
• Encouraging inter-communal cooperation, and

COMMUNICATION
in the field of health and awareness (mid-day meal for school
children, awareness campaigns on personal and public hygiene, • Addressing economic interests of the local communities as
de-worming, drawing competition on health, drama perfor- the common denominator for peace and stability.
mance on health and hygiene). Complementary programmes These topics can be discussed in a plenary and in small working
address the whole village community and are be carried out by groups. Small groups are good for effective learning. In one
service partners in collaboration with the local implementing workshop, for example, the RDO explained how to establish an
partners. account for rural development funds. The CBO leaders then
Opportunities for Cooperation practiced this in-group work and presented their results in the
1FSP addresses cross cutting subjects such as environment, plenary. Such exercises train their knowledge and capacities, while
gender, good governance, reconciliation and peace building. This they exchange ideas with colleagues from other locations.
brings different stakeholders together: Government institu- Divisional Planning Workshop
tions, non-government organisations, agencies are encouraged Project identification and screening should involve service
to share common subjects (1FSP health team with EHED and providers and the Divisional Secretary as coordinator of
PHIs and mid wives from DOHS; DOA and DOE). This is development activities. From 2000 to 2003, IFSP facilitated joint
quite a rare practice since most institutions work within their planning workshops, where project proposals from various
self-defined boundaries. In many cases, ‘hedging* against other organisations were presented and discussed:
institutions, projects or agencies is observed. • CBOs, NGOs and departments submitted project
Capacity Building proposals.
Village Development Fund • Basic information about each project was documented on
Local partners for the village development fund (VDF) are charts,
selected from those CBOs that have successfully cooperated • Local leaders participated in the meeting to explain their
with IFSP before, A village development fund provides concerns, needs and the background of the requested
financial resources to local partners that they can make use of for support.
community development. These meetings were also essential to keep the Divisional
Local partner organisations develop self-defined rules, organise Secretary aware of the development activities in his area that
and conduct meetings on their own, are fully in Charge of were facilitated by IFSP. The dialogue process also made clear
problem solving, criteria forming and other aspects of participa- what IFSP could facilitate and what it cannot. All participants
tory project management. Programme officers of IFSP have a could contribute to a revision and improvement of project
final say in releasing the funds through their signatures, but plans at later stages.
should not interfere in the internal management of the local Initially, project requests need to follow the screening process
partner. The signature is only the last control step to ensure the within IFSP. In the long run, this screening process should be
proper use of funds. done on divisional level and should involve all organisations
Accountability is the key amongst the selection criteria for local that support development activities in the area. The Divisional
partners: Development Committee would be the appropriate forum to
• Accountability and responsibility of office bearers, discuss priority setting and framework planning.
• Account maintenance, Team Management
• Timely management,
Participatory project management addresses all management
levels.
• Unity within CBO; They manage internal conflicts
themselves. Sharing responsibilities is essential within IFSP as much as it is
on the village level. The IFSP management is delegating
CBO Leader Workshop decision-making power and management steps to field staff
Local office bearers from different villages can learn from each and CBOs;
other. IFSP therefore facilitates meetings and workshops for
• Programme officers on the spot can take routine decisions.
exchange of ideas and experiences. One such forum is the CBO
leader’s workshop at the level of the DS Division. Staff from • Technical preparation for decisions is delegated to IFSP
service providers are also invited, e.g. the Rural Development committees without involvement of the IFSP management.
Officer (RDO), Samurdhi Manager and departmental officers. • IFSP management is only consulted for key decisions:
Such workshops can focus on any issue that comes up. Com- Approval of project proposals, signing of project agreement,
mon topics include; decisions over village development funds.

211
 • Responsibilities are shared in groups of officers to make post, and new committee members are elected, there is often
DEVELOPMENT

management and decision making transparent: The Technical no transfer of knowledge from the old to the new
Project Committee (TPC) screens project proposals. committee members.
Quotations for services and works are only opened and • Often, very poor and remote villages that would need
discussed by sub-teams. support most urgently are also those where the involvement
• Programme officers and programme managers (senior IFSP of local implementing partners is difficult and tiresome,
engineer and community mobiliser) take responsibilities in since the capacities of CBOs are meagre. On the other hand,
COMMUNICATION

preparing and moderating internal and external meetings, in more developed villages often have better functioning CBOs.
making presentations at partner institutions and advising the There is an inherent danger that projects with a focus on
IFSP management. vulnerability and poverty, such as IFSP, continue working
All these steps are part of a strategy to encourage capacity with the success cases more than would be justified according
development of IFSP staff and partner staff. Capacity is built to poverty criteria.
through training and practice, combined with regular coaching It is predominantly here that responsibilities can be handed
by outside consultants. overfull heartedly and the success stories take place in the
capacity building of local partners.
Final Handing Over
Once a project is successfully implemented, the local implement-
ing partner or the competent local authority takes over the Note
responsibility for operation and maintenance. The handing
over-taking over is officially documented. IFSP and local
partners develop an operation and maintenance plan beyond
the project duration.
Successful handing over of responsibilities depends on the
success of capacity building: Local partners take over long-term
responsibility of community assets and service providers show
firm commitment and ownership in particular beyond the
point of project completion. In reality, the commitment often
vanishes steadily with project completion, since capacities are
limited.
There are no simple recipes. Successful handing over of
responsibilities remains a prime challenge in participatory project
management.
PPM: The Perspective Change
Practicing genuine participatory project management poses a lot
of challenges. Some of the anecdotal evidence of IFSP staff is
compiled here:
• When villagers see vehicles with big flags or ‘white people’,
they think that these people will give everything free. This can
reduce the willingness to contribute.
• Many local partners still have a ‘contract mentality’.
Sometimes, they feel that IFSP staff would fool them when
they demand local contributions and that the balance from
the allocated funds would be appropriated in the pockets of
IFSP staff. It takes a lot of explanation and transparency in
estimates, procedures to convince villagers that the ‘gap’ is
real and that it is their contribution that has to fill this.
• Selection of beneficiaries is always a troublesome procedure,
regardless of how transparent and ‘fair’ . the process is.
Some villagers think: “If I do not get any benefit, I will
trouble those that receive this benefit”. This mentality can
make selection processes very difficult and demands a lot of
negotiation abilities from programme officers.
• The functioning of a CBO or local group often depends a
lot on one or two key persons- If these persons slow down
their commitment or leave the area, the workability of the
CBO is often affected. Or, if a key person resigns from its

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 UNIT VIII
LESSON 27: SOCIAL MARKETING AS A DEV COM
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL MARKETING STRATEGY

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected policy makers and influential interest groups. Social marketers

DEVELOPMENT
might target the media, organisations and policy and law
To learn the basics of social marketing
makers.
The health communications field has been rapidly changing Social marketing, like generic marketing, is not a theory in itself.
over the past two decades. It has evolved from a one-dimen- Rather, it is a framework or structure that draws from many
sional reliance on public service announcements to a more other bodies of knowledge such as psychology, sociology,
sophisticated approach which draws from successful techniques anthropology and communications theory to understand how

COMMUNICATION
used by commercial marketers, termed “social marketing.” to influence people’s behaviour (Kotler and Zaltman, 1971).
Rather than dictating the way that information is to be conveyed Like generic marketing, social marketing offers a logical planning
from the top-down, public health professionals are learning to process involving consumer oriented research, marketing
listen to the needs and desires of the target audience them- analysis, market segmentation, objective setting and the
selves, and building the program from there. This focus on the identification of strategies and tactics. It is based on the
“consumer” involves in-depth research and constant re- voluntary exchange of costs and benefits between two or more
evaluation of every aspect of the program. In fact, research and parties (Kotler and Zaltman, 1971). However, social marketing
evaluation together form the very cornerstone of the social is more difficult than generic marketing. It involves changing
marketing process. intractable behaviours, in complex economic, social and political
climates with often very limited resources (Lefebvre and Flora,
Social marketing was “born” as a discipline in the 1970s, when
1988). Furthermore, while, for generic marketing the ultimate
Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaltman realized that the same
goal is to meet shareholder objectives, for the social marketer
marketing principles that were being used to sell products to
the bottom line is to meet society’s desire to improve its
consumers could be used to “sell” ideas, attitudes and behav-
citizens’ quality of life. This is a much more ambitious - and
iors. Kotler and Andreasen define social marketing as “differing
more blurred - bottom line.
from other areas of marketing only with respect to the objec-
tives of the marketer and his or her organization. Social The Development of Social Marketing
marketing seeks to influence social behaviors not to benefit the Social marketing evolved in parallel with commercial marketing.
marketer, but to benefit the target audience and the general During the late 1950s and early 1960s, marketing academics
society.” This technique has been used extensively in interna- considered the potential and limitations of applying marketing
tional health programs. to new arenas such as the political or social. For example, in
Social marketing is the planning and implementation of 1951, Wiebe asked the question, “Can brotherhood be sold like
programs designed to bring about social change using concepts soap?”, and suggested that the more a social change campaign
from commercial marketing. mimicked that of a commercial marketing campaign, the greater
the likelihood of its success.
Many social and health problems have behavioural causes: the
spread of AIDS, traffic accidents and unwanted pregnancies are To many, however, the idea of expanding the application of
all the result of everyday, voluntary human activity. The most marketing to social causes was abhorrent. Luck (1974) objected
dramatic example of this is tobacco use, which kills one in two on the grounds that replacing a tangible product with an idea or
smokers (Peto 1994) - an estimated 6 million people in the UK bundle of values threatened the economic exchange concept.
alone since the health consequences were first established in the Others feared the power of the marketing, misconceiving its
early 1950’s. Social marketing provides a mechanism for tackling potential for social control and propaganda (Laczniack et al
such problems by encouraging people to adopt healthier 1979). Despite these concerns, the marketing concept was
lifestyles. redefined to include the marketing of ideas and the consider-
ation of its ethical implications.
However, health problems have a social, as well as an individual,
dimension. This phenomenon is most clearly demonstrated by The expansion of the marketing concept combined with a shift
the epidemiological data which shows that poverty is one of the in public health policy towards disease prevention began to pave
most consistent and basic predictors of ill-health in the UK the way for the development of social marketing. During the
(Smith 1997, Jarvis 1994, Marsh & MacKay, 1994), Europe 1960s, commercial marketing technologies began to be applied
(Whitehead & Diderichsen 1997), the USA (McCord & Freeman to health education campaigns in developing countries (Ling et
1990, Pappas et al 1993) and the southern hemisphere (WHO al 1992, Manoff 1985). In 1971, Kotler and Zaltman published
1995). The lack of opportunity, choice and empowerment it their seminal article in the Journal of Marketing ‘Social market-
generates prevents people from adopting healthy lifestyles. ing: an approach to planned social change’. This was the first time the
Social marketing also has a great deal to offer here by influencing term “social marketing” had been used and is often heralded as
the behaviour, not just of the individual citizen, but also of its birth. They defined social marketing as “the design, implementa-

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 tion and control of programs calculated to influence the acceptability of Programs to influence action will be more effective if they are
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social ideas and involving considerations of product planning, pricing, based on an understanding of the target audience’s own
communication, distribution and marketing research.” (p5). perceptions of the proposed exchange;
In practice, social marketing was being explored by a number of Target audiences are seldom uniform in their perceptions and/
people at the same time, including Paul Bloom, Karen Fox, or likely responses to marketing efforts and so should be
Dick Manoff, and Bill Novelli. Early examples of social partitioned into segments;
marketing emerged during the 1960s as part of international
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Marketing efforts must incorporate all of the “4 Ps,” i.e.:

development efforts in third world and developing countries
• Create an enticing “Product” (i.e., the package of benefits
(Manoff 1985, Walsh et al 1993). For example, family planning
associated with the desired action);
programs in Sri Lanka moved away from clinical approaches and
examined the distribution of contraceptives through pharma- • Minimize the “Price” the target audience believes it must pay
cists and small shops (Population Services International 1977). in the exchange;
They began to experiment with marketing techniques such as • Make the exchange and its opportunities available in “Places”
audience segmentation and mass communication. Similarly, oral that reach the audience and fit its lifestyles;
rehydration projects in Africa began to take a more consumer • Promote the exchange opportunity with creativity and
oriented approach to programme development. Important through channels and tactics that maximize desired
initiatives in the developed world included the Stanford Heart responses;
Disease Prevention Program, the National High Blood Pressure
Recommended behaviors always have competition which must
Prevention Program, and the Pawtucket Heart Health Program
be understood and addressed;
(Farquar et al 1985, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute
1973, Lefebvre 1987). While many of these early programs were The marketplace is constantly changing and so program effects
primarily exercises in social communications, they were impor- must be regularly monitored and management must be
tant for the inception of social marketing. prepared to rapidly alter strategies and tactics.
By the 1980s, academics were no longer asking if marketing Scope of Social Marketing
should be applied to social issues, but rather how should this be Social marketing has been one of the approaches that has carried
done? During this period, practitioners shared their experiences forward the premises of diffusion of innovation and behavior
and made suggestions for the development of social marketing change models. Since the 1970s, social marketing has been one
theory and practice (Ling et al 1992). Fox and Kotler (1980) of the most influential strategies in the field of development
described the evolution of social advertising into social communication.
communications. Bloom (1980) explored the evaluation of The origins of social marketing hark back to the intention of
social marketing projects and found that many studies were marketing to expand its disciplinary boundaries. It was clearly a
poorly designed and conducted. In 1981, Bloom and Novelli product of specific political and academic developments in the
reviewed the first ten years of social marketing and advocated United States that were later incorporated into development
more research to dispel criticism that social marketing lacked projects. Among various reasons, the emergence of social
rigour or theory. They identified a need for research to examine marketing responded to two main developments: the political
audience segmentation, choosing media channels and designing climate in the late 1960s that put pressure on various disciplines
appeals, implementing long term positioning strategies, and to attend to social issues, and the emergence of nonprofit
organisational and management issues (Bloom and Novelli, organizations that found marketing to be a useful tool (Elliott
1981). 1991). Social marketing was marketing’s response to the need to
Lefebvre and Flora (1988) and Hastings and Haywood (1991, be “socially relevant” and “socially responsible.” It was a
1994) then gave social marketing widespread exposure in the reaction of marketing as both discipline and industry to be
public health field, generating lively debates about its applicabil- sensitive to social issues and to strive towards the social good.
ity and contribution. While social marketing was being practised But it was also a way for marketing to provide intervention
in many countries by this time, the publication of these papers tools to organizations whose business was the promotion of
was followed by a widespread growth in its popularity social change.
(Lefebvre, 1996). Centres of expertise began to emerge, most Social marketing consisted of putting into practice standard
notably at the College of Public Health at the University of techniques in commercial marketing to promote pro-social
South Florida, the Centre for Social Marketing at Strathclyde behavior. From marketing and advertising, it imported theories
University in Scotland, and at Carleton University in Ottawa, of consumer behavior into the development communication.
Canada. The analysis of consumer behavior required to understand the
Key concepts of Social Marketing complexities, conflicts and influences that create consumer needs
The ultimate objective of marketing is to influence behavioral and how needs can be met (Novelli 1990). Influences include
change. environmental, individual, information processing, and
decision-making. At the core of social marketing theory is the
Action is undertaken whenever target audiences believe that the
exchange model according to which individuals, groups and
benefits they receive will be greater than the costs they incur;
organizations exchange resources for perceived benefits of

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purchasing products. The aim of interventions is to create One of the standard definitions of social marketing states that

DEVELOPMENT
voluntary exchanges. “it is the design, implementation, and control of programs
In terms of its place on the “family tree” of development calculated to influence the acceptability of social ideas and
communication, social marketing did not come out of either involving consideration of product planning, pricing, commu-
diffusion or participatory theories, the traditions that domi- nication, distribution, and marketing research” (Kotler and
nated the field in the early 1970s. Social marketing was imported Zaltman 1971, 5). More recently, Andreasen (1994, 110) has
from a discipline that until then had little to do with modern- defined it as “the adaptation of commercial marketing tech-

COMMUNICATION
ization or dependency theories, the then dominant approaches nologies to programs designed to influence the voluntary
in development communication. Social marketing grew out of behavior of target audiences to improve their personal welfare
the disciplines of advertising and marketing in the United and that of the society of which they are a part.” Others have
States. The central premise of these disciplines underlies social defined it as the application of management and marketing
marketing strategies: the goal of an advertising/marketing technologies to pro-social and nonprofit programs (Meyer &
campaign is to make the public aware about the existence, the Dearing 1996).
price, and the benefits of specific products. Social marketing suggested that the emphasis should be put
Social marketing’s focus on behavior change, understanding of not so much on getting ideas out or transforming attitudes but
communication as persuasion (“transmission of informa- influencing behavior. For some of its best-known proponents,
tion”), and top-down approach to instrument change behavior change is social marketing’s bottom line, the goal that
suggested an affinity with modernization and diffusion of sets it apart from education or propaganda. Unlike commercial
innovation theories. Similar to diffusion theory, it conceptually marketing, which is not concerned with the social consequences
subscribed to a sequential model of behavior change in which of its actions, the social marketing model centers on communi-
individuals cognitively move from acquisition of knowledge to cation campaigns designed to promote socially beneficial
adjustment of attitudes toward behavior change. However, it practices or products in a target group.
was not a natural extension of studies in development Social marketing’s goal is to position a product such as
communication. condoms by giving information that could help fulfill, rather
What social marketing brought was a focus on using marketing than create, uncovered demand. It intends to “reduce the
techniques such as market segmentation and formative research psychological, social, economic and practical distance between
to maximize the effectiveness of interventions. The use of the consumer and the behavior” (Wallack et al, 1993, 21). The
techniques from commercial advertising and marketing to goal would be to make condom-use affordable, available and
promote social/political goals in international issues was not attractive (Steson & David 1999). If couples of reproductive age
new in the 1970s. Leading advertising agencies and public do not want more children but do not use any contraceptive,
relations firms had already participated in support of U.S. the task of social marketing is to find out why and what
international policies, most notably during the two wars in information needs to be provided so they can make informed
drumming up domestic approval and mobilization for war choices. This requires sorting out cultural beliefs that account for
efforts. Such techniques, however, had not been used before to such behavior or for why people are unwilling to engage in
“sell” social programs and goals worldwide. certain health practices even when they are informed about their
positive results. This knowledge is the baseline that allows a
successful positioning of a product. A product needs to be
positioned in the context of community beliefs.
In the United States, social marketing has been extensively
applied in public information campaigns that targeted a
diversity of problems such as smoking, alcoholism, seat-belt
use, drug abuse, eating habits, venereal diseases, littering and
protection of forests. The Stanford Three-Community Study
of Heart Disease is frequently mentioned as one of the most
fully documented applications of the use of marketing
strategies. Designed and implemented as a strictly controlled
experiment, it offered evidence that it is possible to change
behavior through the use of marketing methodologies. The
campaign included television spots, television programming,
radio spots, newspaper advertisements and stories, billboard
messages and direct mail. In one town the media campaign was
supplemented by interpersonal communication with a random
group of individuals at risk of acquiring heart disease. Compar-
ing results among control and experimental communities, the
research concluded that media could be a powerful inducer of
change, especially when aligned with the interpersonal activities
of community groups (Flora, Maccoby, and Farquhar 1989).

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 Social marketing has been used in developing countries in many Social marketing needs to be consumer oriented, and knowl-
DEVELOPMENT

interventions such as condom use, breast-feeding, and immu- edgeable of the belief systems and the communication channels
nization programs. According to Chapman Walsh and used in a community (Maibach 1993). Products need to be
associates (1993, 107-108), “early health applications of social marketed according to the preferences and habits of customers.
marketing emerged as part of the international development Market research is necessary because it provides development
efforts and were implemented in the third world during the specialists with tools to know consumers better and, therefore,
1960s and 1970s. Programs promoting immunization, family to prevent potential problems and pitfalls in behavior change.
COMMUNICATION

planning, various agricultural reforms, and nutrition were This is precisely marketing’s main contribution: systematic,
conducted in numerous countries in Africa, Asia and South research-based information about consumers that is indispens-
America during the 1970s…The first nationwide contraceptive able for the success of interventions. Marketing research
program social marketing program, the Nirodh condom project techniques are valuable for finding out thoughts and attitudes
in India, began in 1967 with funding from the Ford Founda- about a given issue that help prevent possible failures and
tion.” The substantial increase in condom sales was attributed position a product.
to the distribution and promotion of condoms at a subsidized For its advocates, one of the main strengths of social marketing
price. The success of the Indian experience informed subse- is that it allows to position products and concepts in traditional
quent social marketing interventions such as the distribution of belief systems. The inclination of many programs to forgo in-
infant-weaning formula in public health clinics. depth research of targeted populations for funding or time
According to Fox (N.D.), “problems arose with the social considerations, social marketers suggest, reflects the lack of
marketing approach, however, over the motives of their understanding about the need to have basic research to plan,
sponsors, the effectiveness of their applications, and, ultimately, execute and evaluate interventions. They argue that social
the validity of their results. The social marketing of powdered marketing cannot manipulate populations by positioning a
milk products, replacing or supplementing breastfeeding in the product with false appeals to local beliefs and practices. If the
third world, provides an example of these problems. In the desired behavior is not present in the local population, social
1960’s multinational firms selling infant formulas moved into marketing cannot deceive by wrapping the product with existing
the virgin markets of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Booklets, beliefs. When a product is intended to have effects that are not
mass media, loudspeaker vans, and distribution through the present in the target population, social marketers cannot
medical profession were used in successful promotion cam- provide false information that may resonate with local belief
paigns to switch traditional breastfeeding to artificial products. systems but, instead, need to provide truthful information
Poor people, however, could not afford such products, and about its consequences. For example, if “dehydration” does not
many mothers diluted the formula to make it last longer or exist as a health concept in the community, it would be ethically
were unable to properly sterilize the water or bottle. The wrong for social marketing to position a dehydration product
promotion of breast milk substitutes often resulted in an by falsely appealing to existing health beliefs in order to sell it.
erosion of breastfeeding and led to increases in diarrheal That would be deceptive and manipulative and is sure to
diseases and malnutrition, contributing to the high levels of backfire. The goal should be long-term health benefits rather
infant mortality in the third world.” than the short-term goals of a given campaign (Kotler and
Critics have lambasted social marketing for manipulating Roberto 1989).
populations and being solely concerned with goals without Theorists and practitioners identified with participatory
regard for means. For much of its concerns about ethics, critics communication have been strong critics of social marketing. For
argue, social marketing subscribes to a utilitarian ethical model them, social marketing is a non-participatory strategy because it
that prioritizes ends over means. In the name of achieving treats most people as consumers rather than protagonists.
certain goals, social marketing justifies any methods. Like Because it borrows techniques from Western advertising, it
marketing, social marketing deceives and manipulates people shares it premises, namely, a concern with selling products rather
into certain behaviors (Buchanan, Reddy & Hossain 1994). than participation. To critics, social marketing is concerned with
Social marketers have responded by arguing that campaigns individuals, not with groups or organizations. They also view
inform publics and that they use methods that are not intrinsi- social marketing as an approach that intends to persuade people
cally good or bad. Judgments should be contingent on what to engage in certain behaviors that have already decided by
goals they are meant to serve, they argue. Moreover, the widely agencies and planners. It does not involve communities in
held belief that marketing has the ability to trick and make deciding problems and courses of action. The goal should be,
people do what otherwise they would not is misinformed and instead, to assist populations in changing their actions based on
incorrect. The reluctance of people to tailor behavior to the critical analysis of social reality (Beltrán 1976, Diaz-Bordenave
recommendations of social marketing campaigns, and the fact 1976). According to participatory approaches, change does not
that campaigns need to be adjusted to socio-cultural contexts happen when communities are not actively engaged in develop-
and morals are evidence that social marketing lacks the much- ment projects and lack a sense of ownership.
attributed power of manipulating audiences. If a product goes
against traditional beliefs and behavior, campaigns are likely to Social marketers have brushed aside these criticisms, emphasiz-
fail. ing that social marketing is a two-way process and that it is
genuinely concerned about community participation. As Novelli
(1990, 349) puts it, “the marketing process is circular.” This is

216
why input from targeted communities, gathered through such as child survival and other programs that aimed to remedy

DEVELOPMENT
qualitative methods such as focus groups and in-depth health problems in the Third World.
interviews, is fundamental to design campaign activities and As it crystallized in the Lalonde report in Canada in 1974 and
content. Social marketing is premised on the idea of mutual the U.S. Surgeon General’s 1979 Healthy People report, health
exchange between agencies and communities. Marketing takes a promotion was dominated by the view that individual behavior
consumer orientation by assuming that the success of any was largely responsible for health problems and, consequently,
intervention results from an accurate evaluation of perceptions, interventions should focus on changing behavior. It ap-

COMMUNICATION
needs, and wants of target markets that inform the design, proached health in terms of disease problems (rather than
communication, pricing, and delivery of appropriate offerings. health generally), namely, the existence of lifestyle behaviors
The process is consumer-driven, not expert-driven. (smoking, heavy drinking, poor diet) that had damaging
Also, social marketing allows communities to participate by consequences for individual, and by extension, social health
acting upon health, environmental and other problems. (Terris 1992).
Without information, there is no participation and this is what The prevalent view was that changes in personal behaviors were
social marketing offers. Such participation is voluntary: Indi- needed to have a healthier population. Although the idea that
viduals, groups, and organizations are not forced to participate institutional changes were also necessary to achieve that goal
but are offered the opportunity to gain certain benefits. Such made strides, health promotion remained focused on personal
explanation is not satisfactory to participatory communication change at the expense of community actions and responsibility.
advocates who respond that social marketing does not truly A substantial number of studies were offered as conclusive
involve participation. More than a narrow conception of evidence that personal choices determined changes in health
participation, they argue, social marketing offers the appearance behavior, and were positively related with new developments
of it to improve interventions that are centralized. Social that indicated the decrease of unhealthy practices.
marketing’s conception of participation basically conceives
This highly individualistic perspective was initially criticized in
campaigns’ targets are “passive receivers,” subjects from whom
the context of developed countries for “blaming the victim”
information is obtained to change products and concepts.
and ignoring social conditions that facilitated and encouraged
After three decades of research and interventions, the lessons unhealthy behaviors. It gave a free ride to larger social and
of social marketing can be summarized as follows (Chapman political processes that were responsible for disease and
Walsh et al 1993): essentially depoliticized the question of health behavior. To its
• Persistence and a long-term perspective are essential. Only critics, individual-centered health promotion ignores the
programs with sustainable support and commitment have surrounding social context (poverty, racism) in which individual
proven to have impact on diffusion of new ideas and health behaviors take place as well as the fact that certain
practices, particularly in cases of complex behavior patterns. unhealthy behaviors are more likely to be found among certain
• Segmentation of the audience is central. Some researchers groups (Minkler 1999, Wallack and Montgomery 1992). They
have identified different lifestyle clusters that allow a better pointed out that the overall context needed to be considered
identification of different market niches. both as responsible and as the possible target of change.
• Mapping target groups is necessary. Designers of Recent understandings of health promotion such as the one
interventions need to know where potential consumers live, promoted by the World Health Organization have moved away
their routines, and relations vis-à-vis multiple messages. from individualistic views by stressing the idea that individual
and social actions need to be integrated. The goal of health
• Incentives foster motivation among all participants in
promotion is to provide and maintain conditions that make it
interventions.
possible for people to make healthy choices.
• The teaching of skills is crucial to support behavior change.
Health education is an important component of health
• Leadership support is essential for program success. promotion. It refers to learning experiences to facilitate indi-
• Community participation builds local awareness and vidual adoption of healthy behaviors (Glanz, Lewis & Rimer
ownership. Integrating support from different stakeholders 1990). The evolution of health education somewhat mirrored
sets apart social marketing from commercial advertising as it the evolution of the field of development communication.
aims to be integrated with community initiatives. Health education was initially dominated by conventional
• Feedback makes it possible to improve and refine programs. educational approaches that, like modernization/diffusion
Health promotion and health education models, were influenced by individual behaviorist models that
emphasized knowledge transmission and acquisition as well as
The trajectory of health promotion in development communi-
changes in knowledge, attitudes and beliefs. Later, theories and
cation resembles the move of social marketing and diffusion of
strategies that stressed the importance of social and environ-
innovation, from originally gaining influence in the United
mental changes gained relevance. This meant that both health
States to being introduced in interventions in developing
education and health promotion became more broadly
countries. The same approaches that were used to battle chronic
understood. Health education includes different kinds of
diseases, high-fat diets, and smoking in the United States in the
interventions such as conventional education, social marketing,
1970s and 1980s, were adopted in development interventions
health communication, and empowerment actions (Steston &
Davis 1999). Consequently, a vast range of activities such as peer

217
 education, training of health workers, community mobiliza- Exchange is defined as an exchange of resources or values
DEVELOPMENT

tion, and social marketing are considered examples of health between two or more parties with the expectation of some
education interventions. benefits. The motivation to become involved in an exchange is
Health promotion became no longer understood as limited to to satisfy needs (Houston and Gassenheimer, 1987). Exchange
educational efforts and individual changes. It also includes the is easily understood as the exchange of goods for money, but
promotion of public policies that are responsible for shaping a can also be conceived in a variety of other ways: further educa-
healthy environment. The goal of health promotion is to tion in return for fees; a vote in return for lower taxes; or
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facilitate the environmental conditions to support healthy immunisation in return for the peace of mind that one’s child is
behaviors. Individual knowledge, as conceived in traditional protected from rubella.
approaches, is insufficient if groups lack basic systems that Exchange in social marketing puts a key emphasis on voluntary
facilitate the adoption of healthy practices. The mobilization of behaviour. To facilitate voluntary exchanges social marketers
a diversity of social forces including families and communities is have to offer people something that they really want. For
necessary to shape a healthy environment (Bracht 1990, Rutten example, suppose that during the development of a
1995). programme to reduce teenage prevalence of sexually transmitted
The emphasis on social mobilization to improve general diseases (STDs) by encouraging condom use, research with the
conditions does not mean that behavior change models are target finds that they are more concerned with pregnancy than
absent in health promotion but, rather, that they need to be STDs. The social marketer should consider highlighting the
integrated among other strategies. Still, the behavior change contraceptive benefits of condoms, rather than, or at least as
model has incorporated the idea that interventions need to be well as, the disease prevention ones. In this way consumer
sensitive to the education and the choices of receivers (Valente, research can identify the benefits which are associated with a
Paredes & Poppe 1998), understanding the interests at stake, particular behaviour change, thereby facilitating the voluntary
using social marketing technique to know individuals better, exchange process.
and the role of the community in interventions. Long-term Planning Approach
Defining Social Marketing Like generic marketing, social marketing should have a long
A social marketing campaign or programme contains the term outlook based on continuing programmes rather than
following elements: a consumer orientation (Lefebvre and Flora one-off campaigns. It should be strategic rather than tactical.
1988, Lefebvre 1992b, Andreasen 1995), an exchange (Lefebvre This is why the marketing planning function has been a
and Flora 1988, Lefebvre 1996, Leathar and Hastings 1987, consistent theme in social marketing definitions, from Kotler in
Smith 1997) and a long-term planning outlook (Andreasen 1971 to Andreasen in 1996.
1995). The social marketing planning process is the same as in generic
marketing. It starts and finishes with research, and research is
A Consumer Orientation
conducted throughout to inform the development of the
Consumer orientation is probably the key element of all forms
strategy. A situational analysis of the internal and external
of marketing, distinguishing it from selling - and product - and
environment and of the consumer is conducted first. This
expert-driven approaches (Kotler et al 1996). In social market-
assists in the segmentation of the market and the targeting
ing, the consumer is assumed to be an active participant in the
strategy. Further research is needed to define the problem, to set
change process. The social marketer seeks to build a relationship
objectives for the programme and to inform the formulation
with target consumers over time and their input is sought at all
of the marketing strategy. The elements of the social marketing
stages in the development of a programme through formative,
mix are then developed and pre-tested, before being imple-
process and evaluative research.
mented. Finally , the relative success of the plan is monitored
In short, the consumer centred approach of social marketing and the outcome evaluated.
asks not “what is wrong with these people, why won’t they understand?”,
but, “what is wrong with us? What don’t we understand about our Moving Beyond the Individual Consumer
target audience?” Social marketing seeks to influence the behaviour not only of
individuals but also of groups, organisations and societies (eg.
An Exchange Hastings et al 1994c, Lawther & Lowry 1995, Lawther et al 1997,
Social marketing not only shares generic marketing’s underlying Murray & Douglas 1988). Levy and Zaltman (1975) suggest a
philosophy of consumer orientation, but it also its key sixfold classification of the types of change sought in social
mechanism, exchange (Kotler and Zaltman 1971). While marketing, incorporating two dimensions of time (short term
marketing principles can be applied to a new and diverse range and long term) and three dimensions of level in society (micro,
of issues - services, education, high technology, political parties, group, macro). In this way social marketing can influence not
social change - each with their own definitions and theories, the just individual consumers, but also the environment in which
basic principle of exchange is at the core of each (Bagozzi 1975). they operate
Kotler and Zaltman (1971) argue that: “marketing does not
occur unless there are two or more parties, each with something
to exchange, and both able to carry out communications and
distribution” (p4).

218
Types of social change, by time and level of society marketing, the product is extended even further from the

DEVELOPMENT
tangible to encompass ideas, and behaviour change. Figure
illustrates the different types of social marketing product.
Micro level Group level Macro The Social Marketing Product
(individual (group or level
consumer) organization) (society)

COMMUNICATION
Short term
Behaviour Change in Policy
change change norms change
Attendance Administrative
EXAMPLE: at stop- change Banning of
smoking Removal of all forms
clinic tobacco of tobacco
advertising marketing
from outside a
school

Long term Lifestyle Organisational ‘Socio-

change change change cultural
EXAMPLE: Smoking Deter retailers evolution’
cessation from selling Eradication
cigarettes to of all This complexity makes social marketing products difficult to
minors tobacco-
conceptualise. As a consequence, social marketers have a bigger
related
disease task in defining exactly what their product is and the benefits
associated with its use.
Varied Demand
(Adapted from: Levy & Zaltman 1975) Marketing cannot create needs but commercial marketers do
manage to harness needs previously unknown for new product
Group and macro level change are important because they also
categories such as CDs, catalytic converters and “new” washing
impact on health and lifestyle decisions. For example, people’s
powders. Social marketers must not only uncover new demand,
choices about taking up exercise may be limited by their income,
but in addition must frequently deal with negative demand when
local service provision or social mores. Macro-level factors can
the target group is apathetic about or strongly resistant to a
also have a more direct impact on health: for example, the
proposed behaviour change. Young recreational drug users, for
presence of fluoride in the water (whether natural or artificial)
instance, may see no problems with their current behaviour
can improve dental health, especially among children. This
(Andreasen 1997). In these situations, social marketers must
example demonstrates that there are many measures that can be
challenge entrenched attitudes and beliefs. Demarketing
taken to improve people’s health without the individual citizen
approaches may help here (Lawther et al 1997, Hastings et al
having to do anything at all. Better roads, reduced industrial
1998).
pollution and improved safety standards on cars are similar
examples. Rangun et al (1996) suggest a typology of the benefits associ-
ated with a behaviour change. The benefits may be: tangible,
Departures from Commercial Marketing intangible, relevant to the individual or relevant to society.
There are some important differences between social and Demand is easier to generate where the benefits are both
commercial marketing. Specifically, in social marketing: tangible and personally relevant. In those situations where the
• the products tend to be more complex. product benefits are intangible and relevant to society rather
• demand is more varied. than the individual (as with CFCs in aerosols), social marketers
• target groups are more challenging to reach.
must work much harder to generate a need for the product.
This, they argue, is the hardest type of behaviour change, as the
• consumer involvement is more intense.
benefits are difficult to personalise and quantify.
• the competition is more subtle and varied.
Challenging Target Groups
The Products are More Complex Social marketers must often target groups who commercial
The marketing product has traditionally been conceived of as marketers tend to ignore: the least accessible, hardest to reach
something tangible - a physical good which can be exchanged and least likely to change their behaviour. For example, health
with the target market for a price and which can be manipulated agencies charged with improving population health status
in terms of characteristics such as packaging, name, physical must, if they are to avoid widening health inequalities further in
attributes, positioning and so on. As marketing has extended the general population (Whitehead 1992, Smith 1997), target
its scope beyond physical goods, marketers have had to grapple their efforts at those groups with the poorest health and the
with formulating product strategy for less tangible entities such most needs (Hastings et al 1998b). Far from being the most
as services (see Chapter 29 in this volume for a discussion of profitable market segments, these groups often constitute the
the characteristics of services; Woodruffe 1995). In social least attractive ones: hardest to reach, most resistant to changing

219
 health behaviour, most lacking in the psychological, social and trying to persuade them to buy what we happen to be produc-
DEVELOPMENT

practical resources necessary to make the change, most unre- ing. Marketing talks to the consumer, not about the product.
sponsive to interventions to influence their behaviour and so The planning process takes this consumer focus into account by
on. This poses considerable challenges for segmentation and addressing the elements of the “marketing mix.” This refers to
targeting. decisions about 1) the conception of a Product, 2) Price, 3)
distribution (Place), and 4) Promotion. These are often called
Greater Consumer Involvement
the “Four Ps” of marketing. Social marketing also adds a few
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Marketing traditionally divides products into high and low

more “P’s.” At the end is an example of the marketing mix.
involvement categories, with the former comprising purchases
for items such as cars or mortgages which are “expensive, Product
bought infrequently, risky and highly self-expressive” (Kotler The social marketing “product” is not necessarily a physical
1994) and the latter comprising items such as confectionery or offering. A continuum of products exists, ranging from
cigarettes which are much more habitual. High involvement tangible, physical products (e.g., condoms), to services (e.g.,
products typically command careful consideration by the medical exams), practices (e.g., breastfeeding, ORT or eating a
consumer (‘central processing’) and demand detailed factual heart-healthy diet) and finally, more intangible ideas (e.g.,
information from the marketer. Low involvement products are environmental protection). In order to have a viable product,
consumed much more passively, with very limited (or no) people must first perceive that they have a genuine problem,
search and evaluation (‘peripheral processing’), and simple and that the product offering is a good solution for that
advertising emphasising “visual symbols and imagery” (ibid) is problem. The role of research here is to discover the consumers’
called for. perceptions of the problem and the product, and to determine
Both the categorisation scheme - high and low - and its how important they feel it is to take action against the problem.
marketing implications need to be extended in social marketing. Price
Social marketing frequently deals with products with which the “Price” refers to what the consumer must do in order to obtain
consumer is very highly involved (complex lifestyle changes such the social marketing product. This cost may be monetary, or it
as changing one’s diet fall into this category). While high may instead require the consumer to give up intangibles, such as
involvement can result in a motivated and attentive consumer, time or effort, or to risk embarrassment and disapproval. If the
higher involvement may be associated with feelings of anxiety, costs outweigh the benefits for an individual, the perceived
guilt and denial which inhibit attempts to change. At the other value of the offering will be low and it will be unlikely to be
extreme, social marketers might seek to stimulate change where adopted. However, if the benefits are perceived as greater than
there is very low or no involvement - for example, persuading their costs, chances of trial and adoption of the product is
Scots to save water. much greater.
More Varied Competition In setting the price, particularly for a physical product, such as
Social marketers, like their commercial counterparts, must be contraceptives, there are many issues to consider. If the product
aware of their competition (Andreasen 1995). The most is priced too low, or provided free of charge, the consumer may
obvious source of competition in social marketing is the perceive it as being low in quality. On the other hand, if the
consumer’s tendency to continue in his or her current price is too high, some will not be able to afford it. Social
behavioural patterns, especially when addiction is involved. marketers must balance these considerations, and often end up
Inertia is a very powerful competitor. charging at least a nominal fee to increase perceptions of quality
Other sources of competition involve alternative behaviours. and to confer a sense of “dignity” to the transaction. These
For example, time spent donating blood is time which the perceptions of costs and benefits can be determined through
consumer could spend doing other more enjoyable, more research, and used in positioning the product.
convenient and more personally beneficial activities. Place
Competitive organisations include other health promoters, “Place” describes the way that the product reaches the consumer.
educators or government organisations trying to use similar For a tangible product, this refers to the distribution system—
methods to reach their target audiences. For example, the typical including the warehouse, trucks, sales force, retail outlets where
doctor’s surgery in the UK displays such a plethora of leaflets it is sold, or places where it is given out for free. For an
and posters that any one message or idea stands little chance of intangible product, place is less clear-cut, but refers to decisions
being noticed. Social marketers must then be innovative and about the channels through which consumers are reached with
careful not to overwhelm their target audience. information or training. This may include doctors’ offices,
Finally, one of the most serious forms of competition comes shopping malls, mass media vehicles or in-home demonstra-
from commercial marketing itself where this markets unhealth- tions. Another element of place is deciding how to ensure
ful or unsocial behaviours. The most obvious examples are the accessibility of the offering and quality of the service delivery. By
tobacco and alcohol industries. determining the activities and habits of the target audience, as
well as their experience and satisfaction with the existing delivery
Social Marketing and Commercial system, researchers can pinpoint the most ideal means of
Marketing distribution for the offering.
Like commercial marketing, the primary focus is on the
consumer—on learning what people want and need rather than

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 The “publics” you might need to address include your target

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Promotion
Finally, the last “P” is promotion. Because of its visibility, this audience (let’s say low-income women age 40 to 65), the people
element is often mistakenly thought of as comprising the who influence their decisions like their husbands or physicians,
whole of social marketing. However, as can be seen by the policymakers, public service directors at local radio stations, as
previous discussion, it is only one piece. Promotion consists of well as your board of directors and office staff.
the integrated use of advertising, public relations, promotions, Partnerships could be cultivated with local or national women’s
media advocacy, personal selling and entertainment vehicles. The groups, corporate sponsors, medical organizations, service clubs

COMMUNICATION
focus is on creating and sustaining demand for the product. or media outlets.
Public service announcements or paid ads are one way, but there
The policy aspects of the campaign might focus on increasing
are other methods such as coupons, media events, editorials,
access to mammograms through lower costs, requiring
“Tupperware”-style parties or in-store displays. Research is
insurance and Medicaid coverage of mammograms or increasing
crucial to determine the most effective and efficient vehicles to
federal funding for breast cancer research.
reach the target audience and increase demand. The primary
research findings themselves can also be used to gain publicity The purse strings, or where the funding will come from, may be
for the program at media events and in news stories. governmental grants, such as from the National Cancer
Institute or the local health department, foundation grants or
Additional Social Marketing “P’s” an organization like the American Cancer Society.
Publics—Social marketers often have many different audiences
Each element of the marketing mix should be taken into
that their program has to address in order to be successful.
consideration as the program is developed, for they are the core
“Publics” refers to both the external and internal groups
of the marketing effort. Research is used to elucidate and shape
involved in the program. External publics include the target
the final product, price, place, promotion and related decisions.
audience, secondary audiences, policymakers, and gatekeepers,
while the internal publics are those who are involved in some
way with either approval or implementation of the program. Note
Partnership—Social and health issues are often so complex
that one agency can’t make a dent by itself. You need to team up
with other organizations in the community to really be effective.
You need to figure out which organizations have similar goals
to yours—not necessarily the same goals—and identify ways
you can work together.
Policy—Social marketing programs can do well in motivating
individual behavior change, but that is difficult to sustain unless
the environment they’re in supports that change for the long
run. Often, policy change is needed, and media advocacy
programs can be an effective complement to a social marketing
program.
Purse Strings—Most organizations that develop social
marketing programs operate through funds provided by
sources such as foundations, governmental grants or dona-
tions. This adds another dimension to the strategy
development-namely, where will you get the money to create
your program?
Example of a Marketing Mix Strategy
As an example, the marketing mix strategy for a breast cancer
screening campaign for older women might include the
following elements: The product could be any of these three
behaviors: getting an annual mammogram, seeing a physician
each year for a breast exam and performing monthly breast self-
exams. The price of engaging in these behaviors includes the
monetary costs of the mammogram and exam, potential
discomfort and/or embarrassment, time and even the possibil-
ity of actually finding a lump. The place that these medical and
educational services are offered might be a mobile van, local
hospitals, clinics and worksites, depending upon the needs of
the target audience. Promotion could be done through public
service announcements, billboards, mass mailings, media
events and community outreach.

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DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 28:
THE SEVEN STEP SOCIAL MARKETING MODEL
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected When it comes to behaviour change, there is a distinctly
managerial hubris to all this. WE are the managers. We have the
To learn the seven step model in social marketing
TRUE KNOWLEDGE and CORRECT BEHAVIOUR.
‘Education’, like grief counselling, has become the universal THEY do not. If we can INJECT our knowledge into the
panacea of public policy. If there is a problem of domestic (passive) audience, then they will realise the error of their ways
violence, we will solve it with an education campaign. The same and start behaving correctly.
applies to drink driving, lack of civic participation, gun owner- I call this the ‘engineered awareness’ approach. It’s widespread,
ship, brain injuries, and so on. especially amongst, well, engineers and managers. It is based on
But what is this thing called education? You can’t buy it off a the assumption that AWARENESS BUILDING is the key to
shelf. There’s no recipe book. You can’t do a course in it. behaviour change.
We are not even sure that it works...a few years ago Social The ‘engineered awareness’ approach, before and after -
Change Media carried out a consultancy for the Roads and
Traffic Authority. We were asked to evaluate 20-odd evaluations
of road safety campaigns. Every one of these campaigns had
been evaluated to be a success. But, funnily enough, the proof
of ‘success’ was whatever attitudinal change the campaign
happened to achieve, even if it was marginal.
Whatever ‘education’ is, it’s not going to be easy. After all,
‘education’ is really a misnomer - our aim is not to get people to
KNOW MORE THINGS. We are trying to get people to
CHANGE WHAT THEY DO. Changing people’s behaviour
has always been the most problematic enterprise in human
affairs.
It’s worth noting that many of the techniques and tools of
‘education’ have been developed in the advertising and public
relations industries. But these fields have quite different goals to
‘education’. Advertising, for instance, is mostly NOT about Even Making Health Communication Programs Work suffers from
changing behaviour. It’s about changing brands. We still drink this. It is, after all, not a manual for behaviour change...only on
beer...We still buy the car...We just buy a different brand of beer how to do the communication bit.
or car. There are, in fact, no lack of models and approaches that guide
Public Relations, on the other hand, has nothing to do with us in designing awareness campaigns. But I want to propose
behaviour at all, it’s is about manipulating the media to project that lack of awareness may not always be the problem and
your interests into the public realm. because of that we may need a much wider definition of what
Social change marketing, however, looks beyond advertising and we mean by ‘education’.
PR techniques. It extends to things like community develop- Is Ignorance Really the Problem?
ment, recruitment, training, infrastructure planning and more. Back when I was a cartoonist on Streetwize comics we inter-
So...as a panacea ‘education’ is not only elusive, it’s always going viewed some young people in a refuge. As usual, they discussed
to be a demanding and tough discipline. with great affection and enthusiasm their recent drug experi-
ences - and, in this case, I am talking seriously irresponsible
Health communication programs cannot compensate for a lack
drug taking! When I asked the most irresponsible and drug
of health care services or produce behaviour change without
damaged individual there what message he would like to pass
supportive program components or be equally effective in
on to other young people he became suddenly serious and said
addressing all issues or relaying all messages.
‘Don’t take drugs’. And he meant it.
A lot of people who are not educators, especially (and I hope
Now here is an example of the failure of awareness. It was
I’m not insulting too many potential clients here) engineers and
quite clear that no amount of awareness-building would change
professional managers, imagine that behaviour change is like
these kids’ behaviour - they already knew what they were doing
any other constructed thing.
was dangerous and stupid.
You decide what behaviour change you want to make. You
draw a plan, assemble the tools and resources and manufacture
the thing.

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 Notice how ‘education strategy’ is now about clearing away

DEVELOPMENT
Maybe our addictions to environmentally-damaging behaviours
are similar. After all, we know exactly what’s right - but there are obstacles rather than awareness building.
still a lot of situations when we do wrong to the environment. Notice also that the educator or social marketer has the humble
In fact there is no shortage of social research that shows that the role of a door opener, rather than a font of ultimate truth.
general population have levels of environmental concern and Elements of the Model
knowledge that are way above that of regulators and politicians. This model allows us to identify which elements are already

COMMUNICATION
I’ve heard managers and others tell me that the public just being fulfilled, and so concentrate resources on the gaps.
don’t understand environmental issues. And in a way it’s true - The seven elements are -
there is a poor understanding of the purely technical facts of, for
• knowledge
instance, the landfill crisis.
• desire
But, while people may not understand the technical issues - they
are not stupid. People are very smart when it comes to making • skills
judgements about their own lives. And, when you think about • optimism
it...whether landfills are full is not nearly such a MOBILISING • facilitation
idea wether OUR ENVIRONMENT is under threat. If people
• stimulation
understood that landfills were in trouble BUT didn’t connect
this to a larger problem of the HUMAN ENVIRONMENT, • reinforcement
we’d be in trouble! Knowledge/awareness
So perhaps there is already plenty of ‘awareness’ - and of the An obvious first step is that people must -
right kind. But if that is the case why is there so little personal • know there is a problem;
change? • know there is a practical, viable solution or alternative. This is
What if the REAL obstacles to behavioural change are things important. People are practical - they will always demand
other than ignorance? clear, simple, feasible road maps before they start a journey to
What if, people already KNOW plenty about the problem AND a strange place.
have a pretty good idea what they should do and WANT to do • identify the personal costs of inaction and the benefits of
it, but something else is stopping them? action in concrete terms people can relate to (ie. they ‘own’
The Seven Steps to Social Change the problem).
This worried me and so I spent a few months considering what An awareness campaign aims to harness people’s judgement.
it would take to change my own behaviour. I came up with Desire - Imagining yourself in a different Future
these 7 pre-conditions which can be expressed as affirmations... Change involves imagination. People need to be able to visualise
a different, desirable, future for themselves.
This is different to being able to recognise rational benefits.
Desire is an emotion, not a kind of knowledge. Advertising
agencies understand this well - they stimulate raw emotions like
lust, fear, envy and greed in order to create desire. However,
desire can also be created by evoking a future life which is more
satisfying, healthy, attractive and safe.
Example of a marketing campaign based on desire:
IMAGE: Sexy image of desirable partner rolling around in the
compost heap
Each one of these conditions is actually an obstacle, so you can COPY: Get in touch with the good earth
think of this model as a set of 7 doors... - Call 1300 for your Good Earth home composting package.
To design a campaign that harnesses your audience’s imagina-
tions, you’ll have to start by liberating your own (I’m the first
to admit that in an era where everything has a strategic plan, this
can be difficult!)
Skills - Knowing what to do
Being able to easily visualise the steps required to reach the goal.
This is not about emotion - it is purely rational (it is what we
have rationality for).
People learn skills best by seeing someone else do them. The
best way to do this is to break the actions down into simple
steps and use illustrations to make visualisation easy. It’s

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 amazing how many social marketing campaigns forget this ment of messages - with regular communications which report
DEVELOPMENT

element. back to people on the success of their efforts and the next steps
Example: which are expected of them.
Home composting is easy! Many NGOs (CAA, Amnesty, Greenpeace etc) have learnt this
lesson and devote considerable resources to continuously
[Illustrate step1, step 2, Step 3]
feeding success stories and updates to their contributors, as well
Call 1300 for your free 3-step Easy-compost booklet. as new calls for support and action. We need to learn the same
COMMUNICATION

Optimism (or confidence) lesson and devote resources to celebrating people’s successes (a
The belief that success is probable or inevitable. Strong political Waste-Not Week might be a useful focus).
or community leadership is probably an important ingredient The Importance of Empowerment
of optimism. Empowerment is the feeling of confidence that you can be a
I can’t over-emphasise optimism. EPA research showed about cause of genuine change. In practice, it’s an elusive mixture of
14% of the population are disabled from environmental action many ingredients - like skills, optimism, leadership, belief and
by their sense of isolation and powerlessness. If government experience. Empowerment can be built in a social marketing
and business are not leading by example, who can blame people project by close association with your audience, even to the
for sensing their individual efforts may be futile? point of taking directions from them.
Facilitation - Having Outside Support However empowerment is surprisingly fragile. It can easily be
People are busy with limited resources and few choices. They destroyed by dishonesty or mixed motives. But it can also be
may need accessible services, infrastructure and support destroyed by a well-meaning social marketing project. Here is a
networks that overcome practical obstacles to carrying out the cautionary tale -
action. In the 1970s, the $180m ‘Mr Fit’ health research program in the
If personal behaviour change is blocked by real-world obstacles United States set out to determine how effectively professional
(and it usually is) then all the communications on earth will be intervention could reduce the risk of heart attacks. 12,000 men
ineffective. The role of an ‘education’ strategy might therefore in the high-risk group for heart attacks were selected. Half were
need to be expanded to involve the establishment of new told that they had a high-risk of heart attack, but would be the
services and infrastructure. This is why recycling has been used as the control group. The others were provided with
successful - we now have simple, quick, low-cost collection intensive medical intervention - they were booked into cooking
services which make recycling easy. classes, fitness classes, family counselling sessions and so on.
Example: The result, after several years, took the researchers by surprise.
The control group improved their prognosis, while the
Home composting is easy!
intensively assisted group did less well. The explanation is that
Sign up for a free home compost bin delivery service. the assisted group were disempowered by the intensive
Stimulation - Having a Kick-start intervention - they did not need to really take responsibility for
We are creatures of routine. Even with all the knowledge, desire, their lives, because a health professional was doing it for them!
good will and services in the world, there is still the inertia of A 7-step Research Methodology
habit to overcome. Consciousness is the tool human beings use To be useful, a 7 step approach needs to feed into a research
to overcome habit, but we are unconscious most of the time. methodology. We need to figure out where the obstacles are (ie.
How can social marketers create moments which reach into our which gates are closed) with a given audience. Here is an
lives and compel us into wakefulness? example of the kind of research questions you could ask,
When I think of the moments which have compelled me to act, assuming that home composting was the goal of the proposed
they are of two kinds - either threatening (direct and personal, campaign.
like an airport being proposed in the next suburb; or a threat to
Knowledge
my world-view like a terrible famine in Sudan); or inspirational.
The inspirational has always happened in a collective context - a STATEMENT: The best way to have great garden is to
kind of inspirational mass conversion which is based on our compost kitchen scraps and lawn clippings.
human social instincts (like the mass meeting where we make a Strongly agree/Agree/Neither/Disagree/Strongly disagree
personal commitment or give an extra large donation).
Skills
So the stimulation could be an imminent threat (like a cost
STATEMENT: I know how to make a clean, odour-free home
increase), a special offer or competition (based on self-interest),
compost.
or, better still, some communally shared event which galvanises
action (e.g. a telethon, a public meeting, a festival). Strongly agree/Agree/Neither/Disagree/Strongly disagree

Feedback and Reinforcement Desire

A host of voices, situations and institutions daily compel us to STATEMENT: A home compost is part of a healthy, natural
act in undesirable, unhealthy and anti-social ways. These forces lifestyle.
don’t disappear just because we’ve run a campaign. Effective Strongly agree/Agree/Neither/Disagree/Strongly disagree
social marketing is about continuous recruitment and reinforce-

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 broader childcare during diarrhea product. In Latin America

DEVELOPMENT
Services
STATEMENT: I know where to find compost bins and advice infant mortality due to diarrheal dehydration dropped from
on how to use them. 47.5% to 25% in the first year. Both programs became models
for a decade of child survival programs that successfully attacked
Strongly agree/Agree/Neither/Disagree/Strongly disagree
infant mortality in a dozen countries around the world.
Optimism
Infant Mortality
STATEMENT: I don’t bother to compost because it won’t

COMMUNICATION
In 1978, the World Health Organization, UNICEF, and the US
make any difference. Agency for International Development (USAID) embarked on a
Strongly agree/Agree/Neither/Disagree/Strongly disagree crusade to combat infant mortality in the developing world,
which during this time averaged more than 200 per 1000 live
Stimulation
births. Children in developing countries were dying in large
STATEMENT: I don’t compost because I’m too busy OR just numbers from such preventable diseases and illnesses as
not interested. diarrheal dehydration, measles, and respiratory infections, all of
Strongly agree/Agree/Neither/Disagree/Strongly disagree which had long been under control in the rest of the industrial-
[There’s no need to test for Reinforcement - it’s a given!] ized world. Inadequate medical resources and facilities and the
lack of effective immunization programs in developing
Not many social marketers suffer from hubris because they
countries allowed diseases such as these to persist, and kept
know their task is tough and there are few unequivocal success
infant mortality inordinately high.
stories out there. That’s because real social change is not made
by marketers. It’s made by history. As part of this movement to significantly reduce infant
mortality in developing countries, USAID contracted a number
Social marketing in general, and the above 7 points in particular,
of non-profit development organizations to take the lead in
represent a rather pallid kind of mediated social change.
developing and implementing consumer-oriented social
Sustained social change is made by our natural responses to marketing programs. One such program was the Mass Media
inspiring people and great historical events and circumstances. and Health Practices Program initiated by the Academy for
It’s impossible to fabricate the inspirational factor of a Dalai Educational Development to address the growing epidemic of
Lama, a Cathy Freeman, or an Ian Kiernan. Or the enormous acute diarrheal dehydration in infants in Honduras.
national response to the government’s failure to apologise to
the stolen generations. Or the decisive national assault on Evaluation
firearm ownership in the wake of the Port Arthur massacre. A year after AED’s Mass Media program’s implementation, an
evaluation conducted by Stanford University to chart the
Social marketers have always know that they must be alert to,
project’s impact. Consisting of a data sample collected from 750
and go with the social flow. Engineers and managers, however,
randomly selected families from more than 20 communities,
often don’t appreciate this. They expect that they can engineer
the study showed that the diarrheal dehydration project in
change - but the truth is they can only influence changes which
Honduras had achieved significant results in both disseminat-
are already occurring.
ing important health information and in fostering specific
Educators therefore need to be alert, flexible and opportunistic changes in behavior related to treating infant diarrhea.
for ways to connect their campaign to social shifts and move-
Decreased mortality: Between 1981 and 1982 mortality rates for
ments as they occur.
children under five years of age had decreased from 47.5 percent
Social marketing and Health Practices to 25 percent.
Case study 1: Honduras and Health Practices Significant campaign awareness: After little more than a year of
The Mass Media and Health Practices project was the first major the project’s start, 93 percent of the mothers sampled from
test of social marketing applied to reduction in infant mortality rural Honduras knew that the program’s radio campaign was
in developing countries. The project soon outgrew its name and promoting Litrosol, the brand name of the locally packaged oral
became a full-fledged social marketing program as data poured rehydration salts (ORS) used to treat diarrhea; and 71 percent
in from grassroots consumer research pointing out the needs could recite the radio jingle used to promote the administration
for new products, lower complexity costs and massive teaching of liquids during diarrhea affliction.
of new skills. Increased health knowledge and changed behavior: Of the
Mothers were being asked to adopt a new product - an oral mothers sampled in the study, 42 percent had knowledge that
rehydration solution - that required they learn when it was the use of Litrosol prevented dehydration; and 49 percent had
needed, how to find and prepare it, and then how to administer actually used the ORS Litrosol. Of those that had used Litrosol,
it safely to their child. The product was differentiated in the two 94 percent were accurate in describing the correct mixing volume
test sites, home-mix sugar, salt and water in Africa and pre- and 96 percent knew that the entire package of ORS was to be
package salts in Latin America. used in treatment. Sixteen months after the program’s start, 39
In Africa a mass mobilization strategy was taken, driven by the percent of all of the cases of diarrhea within the prior two
use of a radio course that involved thousands of women weeks among the sampled families had been treated using
learning and then practicing to mix the home-mix safely. In Litrosol.
Latin America the program evolved from a package salts to a

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 during infant diarrhea periods, and encouraged mothers to seek
DEVELOPMENT
The Diarrheal Dehydration Problem in Honduras
Before the start of the USAID funded program, diarrheal medical assistance if a child’s condition deteriorates. Posters and
dehydration accounted for 24 percent of all infant deaths in flipcharts were also created to illustrate ORT and to deliver
Honduras and represented the single leading cause of infant supporting messages. The radio advertisements were placed in
mortality. In 1977, the year preceding the program’s commence- 30-60 spot announcements and often included some form of
ment, diarrheal dehydration caused the deaths of 1,030 infants. jingle, slogan, or song. Many of the ads included a familiar
Treatment during this time was expensive and limited both in announcer, Dr. Salustiano, the program’s spokesman for
COMMUNICATION

scope and availability. The only treatment available to Hondu- technical information, who subsequently became a nationally
rans for diarrheal dehydration was intravenous (IV) therapy, known figure.
which requires trained medical personnel and a sterile environ- The tone of the campaign was serious, straightforward and
ment, and was offered exclusively in fixed health facilities caring. It successfully promoted a mother-craft concept, where a
serving only a small percentage of the country’s rural popula- mother’s current actions and beliefs are supported and the
tion. program’s health techniques become an added complement to
Initiating the Program her care-giving regimen. ORT training was presented as a new
To address the limited availability of medical treatment for this development in modern medicine: the latest remedy for lost
illness, the Honduran Ministry of Health collaborated with the appetite and a recovery aid. With a high rate of literacy (87
Academy for Educational Development (AED) to develop a percent of each household with at least one literate member),
comprehensive public education campaign. The project was and 71 percent of all households owning a functional radio, the
designed to deliver information for the home treatment of media campaign became an effective communication and
infant diarrhea, and to demonstrate the proper preparation and education tool.
administration techniques of oral rehydration therapy (ORT), Case Study II: Social Marketing against
the primary home diarrheal treatment. Smoking:
In January of 1980, after considerable investigation of the
Florida “truth” Campaign
medical and social issues being addressed and preparation of
The Florida TRUTH anti-smoking campaign built a new product
the instructional and training tools, AED’s Mass Media and
and branded it. The product/action was being cool by attacking
Health Practices Program was launched; its primary objectives
adults who want to manipulate teens to smoke. The campaign
included: 1) substantially reducing the number of deaths from
reduced the price of the behavior (attacking adults) by selecting
diarrheal dehydration among children under the age of five; 2)
adults everyone agreed had been manipulating them. They
extending rehydration therapy to isolated rural areas of
created places where kids were found by means of a statewide
Honduras; 3) Reducing the per-patient cost of rehydration
train caravan and the founding of local “Truth chapters.” And,
therapy; and 4) Introducing a significant portion of Honduras’
of course, they used promotion - but promotion that went
isolated rural populace to diarrhea-related prevention behaviors.
beyond the traditional media ads to having kids directly
Training confront the tobacco industry and publicize this teen “terror-
The program operated in a carefully chosen site that included a ism” in the popular media. The Campaign routinely carried out
representative population of 400,000 individuals. The campaign surveys of its target audience that allowed the campaign to
began by providing 900 health care workers with four to eight discover important micro-market segments (south Florida
hours of ORT training. The training program concentrated on Hispanics) where impacts were lagging. The Truth campaign has
teaching the proper mixing and administration of ORT salts been a dramatic success; it is now the model for the Legacy
and instructing other village assistants, who would ultimately Foundation’s national anti-smoking campaign. In just two
have to conduct the same exercises directly with rural families. years, from 1998 to 2000, the percent of Florida middle
Using props and training dummies, the program trainees schoolers who smoked cigarettes in the past 30 days fell from
repeatedly practiced each step of the mixing and administration 18.5 to 8.6 percent while the percentage for high schoolers went
processes. The health workers and village trainees then began from 27.4 to 20.9. These market share gains would be the envy
instructing mothers and grandmothers in ORT and other of ANY private sector marketer.
health behaviors such as breastfeeding, infant food preparation The “truth” campaign incorporates research and evaluation
and person hygiene. When rural families completed their ORT throughout its marketing plan to ensure that program goals are
training, a flag was posted at their house to let other mothers in meeting their objectives and to systematically improve market-
the area know where they could obtain health advice and ing efforts. During the course of the campaign’s first year several
instruction. independent surveys were administered to collect baseline data
Marketing and Media and make incremental program evaluations. Program monitor-
As the training program was being carried out, a media ing was also used to measure the effectiveness of the Florida
campaign was implemented to reinforce the health care instruc- Tobacco Pilot Program’s (FTPP) contracted marketing agencies,
tion effort. The campaign developed print materials and radio whose financial incentives were directly linked to the achieve-
advertisements to issue basic messages related to the diarrhea ment of certain performance benchmarks. These campaign
rehydration therapy and the AED training program. The evaluations indicated the following results.
messages emphasized the correct administration of oral
rehydration salts “Litrosol,” the continuation of breastfeeding

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Increased brand awareness: In September of 1998 the Florida Anti- ing teens from starting to smoke cigarettes. Follow-up surveys

DEVELOPMENT
Tobacco Media Evaluation (FAME) was conducted through a show that non-smoking teens that refrained from smoking
comprehensive telephone survey testing the confirmed through the duration of the campaign were 2.3 times more
awareness of the campaign and its paid media advertisements likely to say they had been influenced by the campaign’s message
among Florida teens ages 12-17. The initial goal for the that tobacco companies were trying to manipulate them. In
program was to achieve a confirmed level of awareness of 85 addition, the campaign was successful in attracting more than
percent by the time the test was conducted. Results of the 10,000 middle and high school teens to join and participate in

COMMUNICATION
survey showed that the “truth” program, only five months into the pilot program’s youth advocacy organization SWAT.
its marketing campaign, had surpassed its goal and achieved a
brand awareness of 92 percent. The FAME survey also tested
changes in attitude among the campaign’s target audience and
found that the percentage of teens agreeing with certain negative
statements about smoking had risen by fifteen percent since
baseline data was gathered the previous April. Successive FAME
surveys have shown that campaign awareness and evidence of
changing attitude among Florida youth are following an
increasing trend.

Country/State: State of Florida, USA

Target Audience: Florida teens (ages 12-17)

Objectives: The “truth” campaign was initiated to: Decrease in teen smokers: According to the second Florida Youth
1. Reduce youth tobacco use by changing the attitude Tobacco Survey (FYTS) conducted in February 1999, over the
of Florida teens about tobacco and the tobacco
industry.
course of one calendar year between 1998 and 1999, the number
2. Reduce the availability of and youth access to of middle and high school teens defined as “current smokers”
tobacco products. declined by 19.4 percent and 8.0 percent respectively. Twenty-
3. Reduce youth exposure to second-hand smoke.
4. Increase youth empowerment through community
nine thousand Florida teens made the decision to not smoke
involvement. during that time period, ten thousand of whom would likely
have continued smoking and died early as a result. The Centers
Media/Marketing: Television and print ads, billboards, posters, the for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated that this
Internet, program sponsorship, merchandise (i.e. t-
shirts, baseball caps, lanyards), youth advocacy groups decrease represented “the largest annual reported decline
observed in this nation since 1980.”
Donors/Sponsors: State of Florida’s Office of Tobacco Control (formed
in February 1998 following the State’s settlement with The “truth” Campaign
the tobacco industry). On August 25, 1997, the State of Florida won a landmark
victory against the Tobacco Industry worth $11.3 billion over
Duration: 1998 - Present
twenty-five years (increased to $13 billion a year later). In
addition to a number of other concessions, the settlement
included a clause providing an earmarked budget of $200
million for a state-run pilot program to fight youth tobacco use.
Evaluation
Operating out of the State’s Office of Tobacco Control, the
newly formed Florida Tobacco Pilot Program (FTPP), known
better by its marketing component “truth,” achieved significant
results in its first year and continues to serve as the state’s
primary prevention program, and as a model to other social
marketing campaigns.
As the FTPP was beginning to take shape in the fall of 1997,
tobacco use among high school students had reached more
than 36 percent nationwide, an increase of one-third since 1991.
Research findings that same year showed that 70.2 percent of
high school teens had tried smoking and that 35.8 percent of
that group would continue smoking on a daily basis. Surveys
also indicated that 86 percent of teen smokers routinely
purchased one of the three most advertised tobacco brands.
Increased behavior and attitude change: More recent FAME results A comprehensive review of previous anti-tobacco campaigns by
indicate that the “truth” campaign was instrumental in prevent- the FTPP confirmed the presumption that past prevention

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 strategies were ineffective and outdated. Teens were already well- commercials, seven billboards, eight print ads and four posters.
DEVELOPMENT

acquainted with the negative effects of tobacco use and didn’t Taking the same approach as commercial marketers do to
consider smoking a significant issue in the context of their lives. engage teens, the “truth” campaign incorporated a variety of in-
Furthermore, research showed that despite their knowledge and your-face styles into its ads using everything from edgy-humor
awareness, teens still saw smoking as rebellious and self- to high technology. The ads also depicted real teenagers taking
identifying. on the tobacco industry at the Teen Tobacco Summit and
The FTPP approached the anti-tobacco campaign with the statewide SWAT functions.
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knowledge that in order to reach teens they would ultimately Initially, because of a clause in the state’s settlement, the
have to drive a wedge between the tobacco industry’s advertising campaign was restricted from directly attacking the tobacco
and their target audience. The program’s managers initiated this industry. This challenge was overcome by focusing the campaign
strategy by assembling a team of advertising and public on the supporters of tobacco in the advertising and publishing
relations firms to develop the marketing portion of the industries, a tactic that received considerable attention in the
campaign, and by going directly to Florida’s youth themselves national media and inspired other prevention programs. The
and listening to their attitudes and opinions. After a short time, “truth” campaign had repositioned tobacco control as a hip,
the program emerged with the concept of a youth movement rebellious youth movement with the message that tobacco use
against Big Tobacco promoted through grassroots advocacy and is an addictive drug marketed by a callous adult-establishment.
a creative, youth-driven advertising campaign. (The restriction was later lifted following the Texas settlement.)
Make Anti-smoking Advocacy Cool Support “truth” Coolness
At the Teen Tobacco Summit in March of 1998, the teen Putting equal emphasis on its advocacy campaign, the marketing
delegates, invigorated by what they had learned about the team designed “truth”-branded merchandise, such as T-shirts
tobacco industry’s false statements and manipulation, voted to and baseball caps, and distributed it via an official campaign van
change the campaign’s theme to “Truth, a generation united at teen functions throughout the state. Other grassroots
against tobacco.” The new “truth” campaign also included the promotional efforts included “truth”-sponsored teen events
formation of a new youth anti-tobacco advocacy group called and development of an FTPP website containing facts and
SWAT (Students Working Against Tobacco). statistics on tobacco, SWAT information, and online advocacy
activities.
Target Credibility Through Teen Action
The FTPP and its marketing team established a plan to give the Events Pump-up the Program
“truth” campaign message maximum reach and visibility In August 1998 the FTPP launched the Reel “truth,” a program
through a wide range of multi-media ads, teen events, mer- designed to expose how the tobacco industry has permeated
chandising, and media outreach. The marketing plan also popular culture to manipulate society’s attitude towards
included using teen input in every phase of the development to smoking, and to empower teens to combat it. The program
add style and legitimacy and to empower the teen movement. included a number of conferences and seminars and ran in
With these efforts, they hoped to make the “truth” into a conjunction with the “truth” tour, which featured a 13-city train
credible brand name easily recognized by the campaign’s target ride and concert series. Carried out by the marketing team
audience. through members of SWAT, the Reel “truth,” with the help of
celebrities and politicians, encouraged advocacy participation and
petitioned the entertainment industry to portray smoking more
accurately and denormalize its use.
Case Study III: Social Marketing to
Control the Spread of Aids: Switzerland
Stop Aids is an example of one of the longest running and
most carefully evaluated social marketing programs for AIDS
prevention in the world. Its initial audience was gay men, but as
the epidemic began to expand it reached out to a truly national
audience. Its most important difference was to constantly
measure not only condom use, but changing attitudes toward
the epidemic. Condom use among men between the ages of
17-30 yrs old, for example increased from 8% to almost 50%
between ‘87 and ‘90. One product was the condom, but another
product was anti-discrimination and later needle exchange. The
Swiss were convinced that as long as AIDS was feared, risky sex
would remain underground. The price of prevention was lower
than the price of high-risk behavior, because the price of
prevention no longer included the fear of discovery. In addition
to condom promotion and needle exchange being promoted
In April of 1998, the FTPP launched a $25 million dollar
on radio and TV, community groups were organized, a special
advertising campaign that ultimately included 33 television
Hot rubber brand created for gay men, and new distribution

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points opened throughout the country for condoms and for STOP AIDS did not increase the number of partners: It had been

DEVELOPMENT
counseling and testing. suggested that the campaign’s support of condom use would
Country: Switzerland promote promiscuity among young adults and result in an
increase in the number of individuals’ sexual partners. This
Target Audience: General population and targeted population
argument was contradicted by a study conducted between 1987
segments: heterosexuals, homosexuals, hemophiliacs, adoles-
and 1989 that found the number of people that considered
cents, drug users, foreign nationals, prostitutes and their
mutual faithfulness effective protection against HIV transmis-

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customers.
sion had increased from 18% to 49% between those years. In
Objectives: The Stop AIDS Campaign was initiated to: the 17-20 year age group, the number of those who had had
1. Increase condom use among Switzerland’s general more than three partners actually decreased slightly.
population and among targeted risk groups.
The STOP AIDS Campaign
2. Decrease discrimination against individuals with HIV/AIDS. Created by a joint task force of the Swiss AIDS Foundation and
3. Increase solidarity among the infected and between those the Swiss Federal Office for Public Health, STOP AIDS is the
infected and the general population. longest running HIV/AIDS prevention program in the world.
Media: Billboards, print ads (newspapers, tabloids, magazines, It was launched in 1987 as a national, multi-media campaign
student newspapers), television, radio, movie theater commer- designed to: (1) increase condom use among Switzerland’s
cials, sporting events. general population and targeted risk groups, (2) reduce discrimi-
nation against individuals with HIV/AIDS, (3) increase
Donors/Sponsors: Federal Office for Public Health, Swiss
solidarity among those living with HIV/AIDS and with the
AIDS Foundation
rest of the population. Through an advertising strategy of
Duration: 1987 – Present persuasive, gradually phased in messages and mainstream
Evaluation imagery, and a system of constant evaluation, the program
Evaluation of the STOP AIDS prevention campaign was based achieved successful results during the first few, critical years of its
on a model that assumes that acceptance and retention of operation. The STOP AIDS campaign remains in place as
protective behavior is due in part to changes in attitude, opinion Switzerland’s primary AIDS prevention program, and is one of
and knowledge motivated by intervention and prevention the hallmark examples of successful social marketing.
programs. The program was evaluated from the onset using Introducing a New Condom Product for Gay Men:
both qualitative and quantitative measurements; and because it The Hot Rubber
was often not possible to measure individual campaign Prior to the STOP AIDS campaign, there were two successful
segments, the evaluation included a variety of the elements national prevention efforts initiated in Switzerland. The first
affecting protective behavior including the attitude and level of occurred in 1985 when the Swiss AIDS Foundation established
awareness of the general population and targeted groups. its own brand of condom, Hot Rubber, to market to gay men.
Increased condom sales: Observed changes in the market for Through its own distribution channels and targeted marketing,
condoms, the central focus of the campaign, was one of the key the Swiss AIDS Foundation set out to make condoms readily
factors used to measure the program’s impact on the popula- available, to diminish the stigma and embarrassment associated
tion. After systematic market observation of the manufacturers with purchasing them, and to encourage consistent use. The
supplying at least 80 percent of condoms in Switzerland, results effectiveness of the Hot Rubber brand’s promotion is illus-
indicated that between 1986 and 1990, condom sales had trated in its sales volume from that time. In just a nine- month
increased by 80 percent (from 7.6 million to 15 million units). period of 1985, condom sales rose from 2,000 units per month
Increased condom use: The campaign’s impact attitude and to more than 55,000, leveling off a year later at 75,000 units.
behavior change was measured through recorded changes in The Early Effort: Build Awareness
condom use among targeted age groups. Between 1987 and The second effort, initiated by the Swiss Federal Office for
1990 condom use among 17-30 year-olds increased from 8% to Public Health in 1986, was an informational brochure about the
almost 50%. Condom use among 31-45 year-olds also increased AIDS virus mailed to every household in the country. Its main
during that time (from 22% to 35%). purpose was to confront the population with an official
government recognition of the virus, to present the known
facts about transmission, and to dispel some of the fear-
inducing rumors that had developed out of media speculation.
A survey conducted immediately after the brochure’s distribu-
tion showed that at least 75 percent of the population had
looked at the pamphlet, and that 56 percent said they had read
it.
The STOP AIDS marketing plan was designed to maximize
behavior change and individual responsibility through a series
of products and messages promoting increased knowledge,
awareness, and action. The central strategy of the campaign was
based on the learning method, a concept that assumes that

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 individuals are capable of both changing their behavior and fight all the various forms of discrimination taking place against
DEVELOPMENT

taking responsibility for protecting themselves. As part of this those living with HIV/AIDS. The ads showed prominent
strategy, inducement of fear was eliminated as possible means Swiss personalities, elders and AIDS victims making a public
for altering behavior. Scare tactics were seen as a cynical method appeal for solidarity and promoting the basic human rights of
for affecting change, and because they often produced their own dignity, equality and respect. It was thought that by promoting
set of negative results, fear was deemed inappropriate as a unity among those with the disease and between those infected
credible prevention technique. The campaign, instead, used a and the rest of the population, the HIV/AIDS issue would be
COMMUNICATION

positive message promoting individual awareness and self- dealt with in a more effective and caring manner. With the other
determination, and avoided imposing a judgmental or elements of the campaign, this additional message formed a
moralistic view on any particular behavior. This was seen as a more complete package of social awareness.
more effective way to address the socially sensitive subjects of
Media
sexuality and illicit drug use, while encouraging safe prevention
During its first five years, the STOP AIDS campaign’s multi-
habits.
media strategy featured numerous messages and employed
Target Condom Use every media available to reach the maximum number of
Building on the success of the Hot Rubber Program and the sexually active individuals. By 1992, the campaign had produced
raised awareness of the national brochure, STOP AIDS made and placed over 75 different billboards and posters in three
condoms the central focus of its campaign, promoting their use languages at 1,200 locations around Switzerland. Billboards
as the most reliable and effective method of preventing the were used because of their wide exposure and ability to impose
spread of HIV. The campaign’s logo itself incorporates a pink, the maximum visual image with minimal copy, an ideal format
rolled condom within the STOP AIDS title, and delivers a clear for communicating simple messages to the population at large.
visual message about preventing HIV transmission. In less For the more complex messages, print, radio and television ads
than a year’s time, the logo enjoyed a recognition factor of over were employed. Television ads ran on all of the major networks
90% among the Swiss population. Initially, the condom was and in each of the three language areas to achieve a reach of
treated more as a neutral technical aid, but as the campaign 72.6% of the overall population. Other targeted populations
evolved it was shown in its unrolled form placed over a model’s such as adolescents and foreign nationals were reached through
thumb to illustrate its use for foreigners, tourists and adoles- movie theater advertisements, student newspapers, and
cents that didn’t understand the symbol’s meaning. Later on, sporting events. In the two months in which they ran, movie
the STOP AIDS condom ads also began to feature individuals theater commercials were successful in reaching more than 50%
as the focal element in order to inject reality, voice and emotion of Switzerland’s 14-34 year age group. Because of lessening
into the campaign’s message. These ads used young adults attention in the media and the lack of effective treatment
from different walks of life and sexual orientations to show available for HIV/AIDS victims, the STOP AIDS Campaign
their support for condom use and responsibility. enacted a policy of permanent presence.
Monitor and Readjust Strategy Case Study: Social Marketing in India for
An important element of the STOP AIDS campaign was its AIDS Prevention
strategy of gradually phasing in different messages over a period Approximately 6,000 sex workers serve more than half a
of several years. This approach had the effect of allowing the million male clients a year in Sonagachi, a red-light district in
population to slowly digest the information being presented central Calcutta. In 1992 the All India Institute of Hygiene and
while making subtle changes in attitude and behavior. Soon Public Health launched a program to reduce the transmission
after the initial condom campaign, the media strategy began to of HIV/AIDS in Sonagachi. The project began with two key
include ads targeting the issues of needle sharing and faithful- interventions: a health clinic and outreach by peer educators. It
ness. has since triggered a broader self-empowerment movement by
sex workers in the state of West Bengal.
Target Needle Exchange and Faithfulness
Because media campaigns addressing drug use are relatively From the first, it was clear that the project’s original focus on the
ineffective due to their inability to influence drug availability or prevention and treatment of STIs, including HIV/AIDS, was
distribution, STOP AIDS concentrated its messages around too narrow. Indeed, the first nine sex workers who sought
preventing needle sharing and first-time drug-users while medical advice from a project doctor wanted help with infertil-
making the connection between drug use and the spread of ity—a common problem among sex workers who contract
AIDS. That same year, the campaign also promoted the concept multiple STIs. Therefore, the Sonagachi clinic was designed to
of mutual faithfulness among partners as an important means offer a full range of primary health care services to sex workers,
of protection from infection and as a complement to the central their children, and other local people. During its first 15 months
message of condom use. of operation, the clinic drew more than 4,500 clients, over three-
quarters of them women. A second clinic was opened during
Target Isolation and Discrimination evening hours to target sex workers who commuted to work in
In 1989, to address the stigma and isolation felt by those living
Sonagachi and their male clients. The project has since expanded
with HIV and AIDS, the concept of mutual solidarity was
into other red-light districts and now operates 13 health clinics
introduced into the campaign. With large-scale exposure on
in Calcutta and Howrah.
numerous television and print ads, the campaign sought to

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Hundred of peer educators carry the project’s message directly to

DEVELOPMENT
sex workers, madams, and pimps in their homes and brothels.
Peer educators are current and former sex workers from the local
community who are paid to work four hours a day, during clinic
hours, although they volunteer far more time than that. They
receive extensive training in:
• transmission and treatment of STIs, including HIV/AIDS;

COMMUNICATION
• negotiation skills needed to persuade clients to use
condoms;
• reproductive health;
• treatment and prevention of common communicable
diseases;
• lab training to carry out general medical tests; and
• local laws and the legal system as it pertains to the sex trade
and women’s rights.
Because rapid growth has strained program resources, volun-
teers are now recruited to supplement the efforts of paid peer
educators.
The peer educators, who are easily recognized by the green
medical jackets they wear over their saris, visit sex workers at
home during the day to educate them about HIV/AIDS and
other STIs, to distribute condoms, and to motivate them to
visit the project’s clinics and to return for follow-up care.
Initially, madams and pimps resisted the peer educators’ efforts,
because they believed that insisting on condoms would drive
customers away. The peer educators persisted and eventually Organizing gave sex workers the power to challenge the local
convinced the madams that condoms would be good for madams, pimps, and hoodlums who preyed on them. Peer
business since they keep sex workers healthy and working. educators and other DMSC members have successfully pres-
sured reluctant madams into accepting a condom-only policy,
As the peer educators gained experience and confidence, they rescued children who are sold or duped into prostitution,
played an increasingly important role in every aspect of the picketed police stations to demand action against criminals who
project, participating in strategic planning, policy formulation, injure sex workers, and staged a protest march against police
implementation, and monitoring. They also sparked a broader corruption. In 1998, sex workers and their children began
empowerment movement among Sonagachi’s sex workers. staffing the Positive Hotline for sex workers and other people
Literate peer educators began teaching uneducated sex workers in Calcutta who are HIV-positive. Positive Hotline teams make
how to read and write in the clinic courtyard each day. Later, they home visits to offer counseling, medical and legal referrals, and
tackled other problems, such as police raids, police corruption, social support and to sensitize the local community. In
and violence against sex workers. With the encouragement of addition, the DMSC has formed its own financial cooperative
project leaders, the peer educators and other sex workers so that sex workers can borrow money at reasonable rates, and
established the Durbar Mahila Samanwaya Committee (DMSC), it operates a nursery and other programs for sex workers’
or Women’s Collaborative Committee, in 1995. DMSC acts as a children.
trade union and now has 30,000 dues-paying members
throughout West Bengal, including more than half of the sex Under the banner of DMSC, Sonagachi peer educators work
workers working in Sonagachi. Since 1999, it has run the STI/ after hours to network with other red-light districts in West
HIV prevention project, having taken over from the consor- Bengal, to explain the importance of unionism, to promote
tium of NGOs and government agencies that first social marketing of condoms, and to fight the trafficking of
implemented it. women. They founded a regional network of sex workers in
1998 and have developed links with sex worker projects in
Nepal and Bangladesh, where many Sonagachi workers come
from.
In 1997, the DMSC organized the first of its annual conferences
of sex workers from all over India to highlight their problems
and demand recognition from the government.
The conference manifesto (available online at
[Link]/[Link] or at [Link]/csis/
groups/nswp/conferences/[Link]) explores issues of
gender, poverty, and sexuality that define and limit sex workers’

231
 existence and reduce the quality of their lives. With slogans like, themselves and their children. Broader social and economic
DEVELOPMENT

“Sex work is real work, we demand workers’ rights,” the issues, such as sex workers’ uncertain legal and social status,
conference sought an independent governing board that would create or exacerbate some of their health problems.
recognize prostitution as a means of livelihood and address 3. Health care is not enough. Sex workers also need the social
corruption. and political power to protect themselves from being
While it has branched out from its original health objectives, the victimized by corrupt policemen, exploitative madams and
Sonagachi project has made a major health impact. Its many pimps, violent clients and criminals, greedy money lenders,
COMMUNICATION

achievements include: and so on.

• Condom use by sex workers in Sonagachi increased from 3 4. To make an impact, project leaders must continually
percent in 1992, to 70 percent in 1994, to 90 percent in 1998. negotiate with the people who hold power within the
In fourteen catchment areas outside of Sonagachi that are community and control the sex trade. These include
served by DMSC clinics, condom use rose from 30 percent in politicians, gang leaders, brothel landlords, madams, and
1996 to 52 percent in 1998. pimps.
• HIV prevalence among sex workers in Sonagachi has Sonagachi workers also attribute the success of their efforts to:
remained steady at about 5 percent since 1992, while HIV • working to reduce the harm caused by sex work rather than
rates among sex workers in most parts of India have to abolish the sex trade;
increased dramatically.
• taking a positive judgmental stand toward sex workers and
• STI rates have dropped: the proportions of sex workers their profession;
with recent syphilis and genital ulcers fell from 28 percent and
• using a noncoercive approach;
7 percent, respectively, in 1993 to 11 percent and 2 percent in
1998. • giving priority to the perceived needs of sex workers;

The project has accomplished this at a relatively low cost by • involving sex workers throughout the planning, design, and
relying heavily on part-time peer educators and DMSC volun- implementation process;
teers and by selling condoms at bulk rates rather than • supporting the sex workers’ fight against social exploitation
distributing them free. and injustice;
An even greater accomplishment, however, has been the • being flexible in planning and executing programs so that
project’s success in building self-esteem, self-reliance, and self- adjustments can be made at the field level;
respect among sex workers. The Sonagachi project relies on the • designing strategies that fit the local power base, culture, and
three R’s: respect for, reliance upon, and recognition of sex functioning of sex trade rather than looking for universal
workers. Active participation in planning and implementing the solutions; and
Sonagachi project helped sex workers realize that they had the
• relying on the syndromal management of STIs.
power to fight all forms of social exploitation. The result has
been a community movement, under the leadership of DMSC, Further information about the Sonagachi project and DMSC
that has improved all aspects of sex workers’ lives. DMSC also activities is available online in the UNAIDS Best Practice
has expanded the network of health clinics for sex workers in Collection and at [Link]/csis/groups/nswp/dmsc/
West Bengal by opening clinics in 19 red-light districts outside [Link].
of Sonagachi and by launching an HIV-intervention program Communication in Health Education: An
for street-based sex workers and their clients. The government Appraisal
of India also plans to replicate the Sonagachi model in other Though the mass media has long played a prominent role in
cities, but it is not clear how well it can succeed in places like the area of health, nutrition and medicine, it is questionable as
Bombay, which lacks Calcutta’s strong tradition of trade to whether it plays an important role in health education. Does
unionism and where the sex trade is controlled by organized the advertising of various drugs and nutritional food items
crime. equip the masses with sufficient information to improve health
Among the many lessons learned by the Sonagachi project are: or does it create more psychological dissonance by confusing
them with conflicting information? Answers to these questions
1. Information and a supply of condoms is not enough to
may provide some conclusions about the communication
change the sexual behavior of sex workers. Sex workers must
obstacles to health education.
value themselves before they will take steps to protect their
health; they must overcome the fear of losing clients and As Amunugama (1972) points out, in Sri Lanka today, health
income to other sex workers; and they must be able to communication has become a competition between various
enforce condom use by the client. This requires self- advertisers. The competition is not only between Western
confidence, negotiation skills, and the cooperation of medicine and local (Ayurvedic) medicine but also with the
madams and pimps. The goal of the Sonagachi project was miracle healings, etc. Confusion created by this is common in
to create an enabling environment, so that sex workers as a many Third World countries and is a hindrance to efforts at
community could practice safer sex. health and nutritional education.
2. Sex workers’ health needs reach beyond STI prevention and Apart from this, as Bunnag (1981) points out, there are many
treatment to the full range of primary health care services for inherent problems with the perception of the Western medical

232
system, which generates many communication obstacles.

DEVELOPMENT
According to her, the overriding reason for the inability of
doctors and patients to communicate is the exclusionist and
elitist nature of the professional medical system. Selection of
medical trainees is usually done from within the middle and
upper levels of society, and therefore, the profession is ‘mysti-
fied’ to a great extent among ordinary people. The

COMMUNICATION
doctor-patient relationship is clearly unequal and it inhibits
communication between them.
Bunnag asks, if this is the case in those developed societies
where the system is indigenous, how much more critical is the
situation in countries where the Western medical system is
imported. Quoting Franz Fanon’s Algerian example, Bunnag
further points to medical science rather than eliminating social
roots of ill health to promote commodity-based disease
therapy.
In spite of the high status of the medical profession, and the
doctor-patient communication gap in the Third World, in most
of the health-based programmes, the educators/ communica-
tors such as the health officers or the village level health workers
have low status vis-a-vis the physicians. As many examples
show, they are inadequately trained. under-equipped and have
low credibility as communicators/ educators among rural
people. The reason for this, as Bunnag points out, is that the
physicians’ belief that communicators have little to offer is self-
fulfilling.
Just as in agricultural development, in health education too,
technology bias and linguistic, semantic and cultural barriers
operate. The introduction of nutritional elements of food to
rural people sometimes ignored the taste and cultural and
religious values of food. Rogers (1971) illustrates how a two-
year campaign in a Peruvian village failed to introduce the habit
of boiling drinking water for cultural reasons. The technical
typology such as protein, iron, calcium, malnutrition, etc. could
not be translated into observable meaning. Beyond all this, the
economic conditions of poor people did not permit behavioral
change toward a higher nutritional status.
As far as development is concerned, in many health
programmes, the lowest segments of the population seem to
be left out (Arole 1980). Even in welfare states where free
medicine is available, this problem is observed. However, recent
efforts in some pans of India seem to have been able to elicit
participation of the lowest segments of the population such as
lower castes and tribes through awareness building (Arole 1980;
D’Abreo 1980).

Note

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DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 29:
SOCIAL MARKETING FOR FAMILY PLANNING
COMMUNICATION

Objectives : After completing the lesson you are expected The Sexual and Reproductive Health
Dimension
To know the importance of family planning
It has been clear for some time that the health and wellbeing of
To lean how social marketing can help to control population growth women and their families improve when mothers are able to
decide the number and spacing of their children. But there are a
Family planning is one of the success stories of development.
number of health problems and other issues related to
Today, over half of all couples in developing countries are using
sexuality and reproduction that concern people during the
contraception, whereas less than 10 per cent were doing so 30
course of their lives, and the terms sexual and reproductive
years ago. Family size has dropped in most areas of the world,
health have evolved to take account of such concerns.
and in some countries by as much as a third. Consequently, the
health of women and children has improved and the rate of IPPF recognized these additional needs when, in 1992, it
global population increase is slowing down. adopted its Vision 2000 Strategic Plan. The plan, which was
approved by all IPPF’s member family planning associations,
Most governments around the world are now convinced that
commits the Federation to adopting a sexual and reproductive
family planning is an essential part of maternal and child health
health approach to its work. It makes promoting sexual and
services, and accept the responsibility of providing contraceptive
reproductive health as a human right and responding to
information and services. But there is still a long way to go
people’s sexual and reproductive health needs one of IPPF’s six
before a wide choice of family planning services is universally
priorities for the 1990s.
available.
Family planning services remain at the core of sexual and
In spite of the progress that has been made, there are still
reproductive health care. But there are a number of other
hundreds of millions of couples worldwide who wish to plan
elements which are also considered important. These include:
their families but have no access to information or quality
services. There are millions of unwanted pregnancies and the • providing gender-sensitive information, education and
health of both mothers and children suffers when pregnancy is counselling on sexuality;
too early, too late or too closely spaced. Half a million women • providing care during pregnancy, delivery and post- partum;
still die each year as a result of pregnancy or childbirth - as many • monitoring infant growth and development with particular
as 100,000 of them from the consequences of unsafe abortion. attention to the girl child and her nutrition, to ensure she
And it has been estimated that 20 per cent of infant deaths grows up in an environment conducive to her development,
could be averted if all births were spaced by at least two years. including the development of her sexuality;
• taking care of people’s concerns over sexually transmitted
diseases and infertility;
• HIV/AIDS prevention;

The Cairo and Beijing Conferences

In 1994, two years after IPPF’s Strategic Plan was approved, the
International Conference on Population and Development
(ICPD) in Cairo gave an important impetus to IPPF’s reproduc-
tive and sexual health agenda. This conference, which involved
representatives from more than 180 world governments, was a
decisive one in that it firmly moved the focus of family
planning away from fertility targets and national demographic
goals towards meeting the needs of individuals for family
The need for services will continue to grow: the number of planning and reproductive and sexual health care. The ICPD
women of childbearing age in the developing world will rise Programme of Action made it a goal for the world’s govern-
from 1 billion in 1990 to 1.5 billion by 2010. The challenge ments to make available universal access to a full range of high
remains to provide family planning and reproductive health quality reproductive health services, including for family
services for this increasing population. planning and sexual health, by 2015.
Some segments of society require special efforts because their The commitment to take action on sexual and reproductive
needs are often overlooked: young people, ethnic minorities health was reinforced at the Fourth World Conference on
and other marginalized groups, and the urban and rural poor. Women in Beijing in 1995. The Platform for Action recognized
that the “human rights of women include their right to have
control over and decide freely and responsibly on matters related

234
 DEVELOPMENT
to their sexuality, including sexual and reproductive health, free message credibility to generate actual behaviour change (Bunnag
of coercion, discrimination and violence”. 1981).
Communication in Family Planning Banergee (1979) has explained why the use of film in family
Family planning is another area included in health programmes, planning campaigns in India did not succeed in getting the
which has received much attention during the last decade. message across for several reasons. For a long time films in
Family planning programmes are often promoted through India have mainly been a medium of entertainment rather than

COMMUNICATION
health services in Third World countries. Despite the immense an educational or informational tool. Furthermore, the films
effort made in instituting family planning programmes in the were produced by urban-based elites and did not really capture
Third World, these have been criticized for failing to meet its the idiom of the illiterate rural folks. Contributing to the lop-
goals. Critics attribute several reasons for their failure. But most down attitude of the family planning effort was the traditional
observers place the biggest share of the blame on poor education system, which is truly pedagogical, a means of
communication strategies, which were based on faulty assump- banking knowledge, rather than encouraging dialogue. Added
tions. to all these, the unavailability of mass media—television and
films—was a problem in the rural areas. Thus, the enthusiastic
family planning communication programme of the first ‘Five-
Year Plan’ in India failed to achieve its ultimate goals.
Overcoming mass media bias in disseminating family planning
messages was attempted by some researchers using traditional
folk media such as puppetry or folk drama (Crawford and
Adhikarya) or some intermediate technologies such as audio-
cassettes (Colle 1974; Adhikarya and Colle). Prospects such as
‘Mothers Club of Oryu Li’ in Korea, have successfully used the
group participatory methods to promote family planning
(Kincaid et al. 1974). The implication of these efforts is that the
success of family planning does not depend on one particular
Bogue (1975) lists 25 communication obstacles to the success
media, but on the use of the most appropriate media. How-
of family planning. These could be summarized into several
ever, some combination of interpersonal media seem to bring
categories. For the most part, the failure to adopt or to continue
better success.
family planning methods seem to be based on the subjects’
own fear. This fear is created either by their own false beliefs or Social Marketing & Poverty Eradication
miscommunication by family planning agents. Secondly, many Broad improvements in human welfare will not occur unless
subjects seem to have been pressured either by their peers or poor people receive wider access to affordable, better quality
family members and relatives against planning their own family. services in health, education, water, sanitation, and electricity.
The major obstacle seems to be communicators’ unawareness Without such improvements in services, freedom from illness
of the obstacles that prevent the subjects from adopting family and freedom from illiteracy - two of the most important ways
planning methods. poor people can escape poverty - will remain elusive to many.
Family planning messages are faced with linguistic and semantic The World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work
barriers inherent in much scientific information. Many terms for Poor People says that too often, key services fail poor people
used in family planning are simply borrowed or translated from - in access, in quantity, in quality. This imperils a set of develop-
English. As Rogers (1973) points out, the word for the ‘pill’ in ment targets known as the Millennium Development Goals
Pakistan and Kenya is the same used for aspirin and for other (MDGs) which call for a halving of the global incidence of
medications. In Sri Lanka, however, the family planners poverty, and broad improvements in human development by
successfully invented the word ‘Preethi’ meaning happiness, 2015.
instead of a foreign name and found it to be very effective The report provides powerful examples of where services do
(Clearing House on Development Communication 1979). The work, showing how governments and citizens can do better.
irrational psychological fear of adopting vasectomy (Wolfers There have been spectacular successes and miserable failures in
1970), was partly based on the terminology itself particularly in the efforts by developing countries to make services work. The
Muslim societies such as Pakistan, North India and Indonesia main difference between success and failure is the degree to
where ‘vasectomy’ was confused with ‘castration’. As Rogers which poor people themselves are involved in determining the
(1973) reports, family planning or birth control methods are quality and the quantity of the services which they receive.
considered a taboo topic in many rural areas of Asia. “Too often, services fail poor people. These failures may be less
Similar to agricultural innovations, Bogue (1975) argues that in spectacular than financial crises, but their effects are continuing
family planning too, the use of the innovation diffusion model and deep nonetheless,” says World Bank President, James D.
was inadequate to convey the complexity of the situation. Even Wolfensohn. “Services work when they include all people, when
though it created broader awareness of family planning girls are encouraged to go to school, when pupils and parents
methods and the necessity for family planning, the indiscrimi- participate in the schooling process, when communities take
nate borrowing of mass media were unable to produce enough charge of their own sanitation. They work when we take a

235
 comprehensive view of development - recognizing that a “Improving the delivery of key services such as healthcare and
DEVELOPMENT

mother’s education will help her baby’s health, that building a education to poor people is critical to accelerate progress in
road or a bridge will enable children to go to school.” human development, because more public spending by itself
The report comes at a time when rich countries have pledged to will not do it,” says Jean-Louis Sarbib, the World Bank’s new
increase foreign aid, and poor countries Senior Vice-President for Human Development, and former
have pledged to improve their policies and Vice President for the Middle East and North Africa Region of
institutions, to try to reach the MDGs. the World. “The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region
COMMUNICATION

“To accelerate progress in human develop- spends more on public education than any other developing
ment, economic growth is of course region, and yet it has some of the highest rates of youth
necessary, but it is not enough,” says illiteracy in the world. A girl in MENA is as likely to be illiterate
World Bank Chief Economist and Senior as a girl in Sub-Saharan Africa, which is a much poorer region.”
Vice-President for Development Econom- Services can Work for Poor People
ics, Nicholas Stern. “Mobilizing to reach The report points to several success stories. Indonesia used its
the 2015 development goals will require oil windfalls to build new schools and hire more teachers,
both a substantial increase in external doubling primary enrollment to 90 percent by 1986. The
resources and more effective use of all number of children enrolled in primary schools in Uganda
resources, internal and external. The report increased from 3.6 million to 6.9 million in five years. A
offers a practical framework for using program in Mexico that gives cash to poor households if they
resources more effectively.” visited a clinic regularly and their children attended school
How Services are failing Poor People reduced illness among children by 20 percent, and increased
Personal accounts from poor people in the new report describe secondary enrollment by 5 percentage points for boys and 8 for
how they receive shoddy services. girls.
In Adaboya, Ghana, “children must walk four kilometers to “Services can work when poor people stand at the center of
attend school because, while there is a school building in the service provision - when they can avoid poor providers, while
village, it sits in disrepair and cannot be used in the rainy rewarding good providers with their clientele, and when their
season.” In Potrero Sula, El Salvador, villagers complain that voices are heard by politicians - that is, when service providers
“the health post here is useless because there is no doctor or have incentives to serve the poor,” says Shanta Devarajan,
nurse, and it is only open two days a week until noon.” A Director of the World Development Report 2004 , and Chief
common response in a client survey by women who had given Economist of the World Bank’s Human Development
birth at rural health centers in the Mutasa district of Zimbabwe Network.
is that they were hit by staff during delivery. The report documents three ways in which services can be
Anecdotes like these are supported by accounts from other improved:
countries as well. The average poor child in rural Mali has to 1. By increasing poor clients’ choice and participation in service
walk 8 kilometers to primary school. Her counterpart in rural delivery, so they can monitor and discipline providers. School
Chad has to walk 23 kilometers to get to a clinic. A billion voucher schemes - such as a program for poor families in
people worldwide lack access to an improved water source; 2.5 Colombia, or a girls’ scholarship program in Bangladesh
billion lack access to improved sanitation. (that paid schools based on the number of girls they
enrolled) - increase clients’ power over providers, and
substantially increased enrollment rates. Community-
managed schools in El Salvador, where parents visited
schools regularly, lowered teacher absenteeism and raised
student test scores.
2. By raising poor citizens’ voice, through the ballot box and
making information widely available. Service delivery surveys
in Bangalore, India, that showed poor people the quality of
the water, health, education and transport services they were
receiving compared to neighboring districts, increased
Even when poor people have access, the quality of services is demand for better public services, and forced politicians to
distressingly low. In random visits to 200 primary schools in act.
India, investigators found no teaching activity in half of them 3. By rewarding the effective and penalizing the ineffective
at the time of visit. Up to 45 percent of teachers in Ethiopia delivery of services to poor people. In the aftermath of a
were absent at least one day in the week before a visit - 10 civil war, Cambodia paid primary health providers in two
percent of them for three days or more. A survey of primary districts based on the health of the households (as measured
health care facilities in Bangladesh found the absenteeism rate by independent surveys) in their district. Health indicators, as
among doctors to be 74 percent. well as use by the poor, in those districts improved relative
to other districts.

236
 productivity of public spending varies enormously across

DEVELOPMENT
Public Services versus Private - a False Argument ?
Providing communities with healthcare, education, and other countries. Ethiopia and Malawi spend roughly the same
services has been a contentious issue in many countries, with amount per person on primary education - with very different
government services pitted against large-scale privatization. outcomes. Peru and Thailand spend vastly different amounts -
The report says that while there are frequent problems with with similar outcomes.
public services, it would be wrong to conclude that government The Report concludes that no one size fits all. The type of
should give up and leave everything to the private sector. If service delivery mechanism needs to be tailored to characteristics

COMMUNICATION
individuals are left to their own devices, they will not provide of the service and circumstances of the country. For instance, if
levels of education and health that they collectively want. Not the service is easy to monitor, such as immunization, and it is
only is this true in theory, but in practice no country has in a country where the politics are pro-poor, such as Norway,
achieved significant improvement in child mortality and primary then it can be delivered by the central government directly, or
education without government involvement. contracted out. But if the politics of the country are such that
Furthermore, private-sector participation in health, education, these resources are likely to be diverted to the well-off by way of
and infrastructure is not without problems - especially in patronage, and the service is difficult to monitor, such as
reaching poor people. The extreme position that the private student learning, then arrangements that strengthen the client’s
sector should do everything is clearly not desirable either. power as much as possible are necessary. Means-tested voucher
schemes, as in Colombia or Bangladesh, community-managed
“Instead of getting caught up in the public versus private
schools as in El Salvador, or transparent, rule-based programs,
services argument, the only issue that really matters is whether
such as Mexico’s ‘Progresa”, are more likely to work for poor
the mechanism that delivers key services strengthens poor
people.
people’s ability to monitor and discipline providers, raises their
voice in policymaking, and gets them the effective services they Taking good examples nationwide
need for their families,” says Ritva Reinikka, the Co-Director of Innovating with service delivery arrangements will not be
WDR 2004, and Research Manager for Public Services at the enough, according to the report. What is needed are ways of
World Bank. widening the reach of these innovations or ‘scaling up’ so the
entire country can benefit. To achieve this, the report empha-
sizes the role of information - as a stimulant for public action,
as a catalyst for change, as an input to making other reforms
work. In Uganda, publishing in the newspaper the fact that only
13 percent of the money due to primary schools was actually
reaching the schools, galvanized the populace. The share now is
80 percent and the entire budget of the school is posted on the
schoolroom door.

The report says that some aid donors take a variant of the
“leave-everything-to-the-private sector” position. If govern-
ment services are performing so badly, donors may ask, why
give more aid to those governments?
“That would be equally wrong,” says Reinikka. “There is now
substantial research showing that aid is productive in countries
with good policies and institutions, and those policies and
institutions have recently been improving. The reforms detailed Systematic evaluations of these innovations, with a control
in this Report (aimed at recipient countries and aid agencies) can group assessed alongside the “treatment group,” gives
make aid even more productive.” policymakers confidence that what they are seeing is real. Such an
When policies and institutions are improving, the report argues, evaluation of Mexico’s Progresa led to the program being scaled
aid should increase, not decrease, to realize the mutually-shared up to cover 20 percent of the Mexican population.
objective of poverty alleviation, such as the Millennium The authors of the report warn that achieving these reforms
Development Goals. At the same time, simply increasing public will be difficult. “There is no silver bullet,” says Devarajan, “just
spending - without seeking improvements in the efficiency of the hard slog of reforming institutions and power relations.
that spending - is unlikely to reap substantial benefits. The

237
 But the needs of the world’s poor people are urgent. And The political commitment by [lie Government since indepen-
DEVELOPMENT

services have too often failed them. We must act now.” dence to wipe out illiteracy on its own without assistance from
other organizational or institutional help has aggravated the
Social Marketing in Education
situation.
Education aims at creating a person to achieve his/her full
potential. “The ultimate aim should be to enable the participant INDIA & LITERACY . 2001
to become an independent learner.” It is a process of active India/ State/ Union territory * Literacy rate (%)
COMMUNICATION

learning from experience, leading to systematic and purposeful Persons Males Females
development of the whole person: body, mind and spirit. INDIA 1,2 65.38 75.85 54.16
“Development Training ... enhances individual effectiveness by Jammu & Kashmir 54.46 65.75 41.82
evoking a sense of purpose, developing coping and learning Himachal Pradesh 3 77.13 86.02 68.08
skills and increasing self-understanding ... Development
Punjab 69.95 75.63 63.55
training accelerates learning and cultivates the habit of learning
Chandigarh * 81.76 85.65 76.65
from life.” (Everard, 1993).
Uttaranchal 72.28 84.01 60.26
Development training embraces a range of active approaches to
Haryana 68.59 79.25 56.31
learning which aim to develop people’s ability to learn from
experience. Delhi * 81.82 87.37 75.00
Rajasthan 61.03 76.46 44.34
Definitions of development training often make use of its two
Uttar Pradesh 57.36 70.23 42.98
component words to describe it as two concepts in one. For
example: Bihar 47.53 60.32 33.57
Sikkim 69.68 76.73 61.46
‘Whole person development’ is central to development training
philosophy but it is usually expressed more modestly in Arunachal Pradesh 54.74 64.07 44.24
programme aims. Commitment to self-development and Nagaland 67.11 71.77 61.92
customer satisfaction makes it difficult for providers of training Manipur 68.87 77.87 59.70
to have purposes other than those of meeting customer needs Mizoram 88.49 90.69 86.13
and providing opportunities for self-development. Because of Tripura 73.66 81.47 65.41
this difficulty (let alone the difficulty of evaluating whole person Meghalaya 63.31 66.14 60.41
development) I have argued in a research report that: Assam 64.28 71.93 56.03
“Development training may be better represented as being West Bengal 69.22 77.58 60.22
development through the whole person, rather than as Jharkhand 54.13 67.94 39.38
development of the whole person. The learning climate in Orissa 63.61 75.95 50.97
development training enables development through the whole Chhatisgarh 65.18 77.86 52.40
person.” (Greenaway, 1986)
Madhya Pradesh 64.11 76.80 50.28
Communication Support in the Spread of Gujarat 4 69.97 80.50 58.60
Literacy Daman & Diu * 81.09 88.40 70.37
Mahatma Gandhi had considered illiteracy a ‘sin and shame’ for Dadra & Nagar Haveli * 60.03 73.32 42.99
the simple reason that the spectre of illiteracy usually afflicts
Maharashtra 77.27 86.27 67.51
people at grassroots level. Education is the key to a nation’s self-
Andhra Pradesh 61.11 70.85 51.17
sufficiency and progress. There is a need for every citizen to lead
a happy life and also participate in societal affairs. To this end, Karnataka 67.04 76.29 57.45
education is the most effective instrument to bring about a Goa 82.32 88.88 75.51
desired change in the lower strata of society. Lakshadweep * 87.52 93.15 81.56
The rapid improvements in the fields of industry economics, Kerala 90.92 94.20 87.86
politics, and progress in arts, science and technology are essential Tamil Nadu 73.47 82.33 64.55
to growth. Therefore, literacy plays a pivotal role in our daily Pondicherry * 81.49 88.89 74.13
lives. India will have the dubious distinction of having 500 Andaman & Nicobar Is.* 81.18 86.07 75.29
million illiterates by the year 2000 which is a serious threat to the Illiteracy in India is a phenomenon most people in developed
nation. Why has illiteracy increased and its growth surpassed countries can hardly imagine. The number of people who
even that of population growth? This is because the goal of cannot read and write is nearly 450 million, the combined
universalization has not been achieved. We are thinking of population of USA and UK (see Table 1). Illiteracy leads to
secondary schools, college and university education without ignorance, exploitation, unemployment and poverty. To cite an
giving much importance to the primary education which is the example: a villager might refuse primary medical care for his
very foundation for all human progress. family putting all his faith in superstitious beliefs and black
Among the 100 million children admitted to schools every year magic, and wasting his money in the process. Literacy in such a
60 percent drop out. Besides, multiplicity of languages makes situation can create an atmosphere of understanding, sagacity
the literacy drive a formidable task. The annual relapse from and self-confidence.
literacy to illiteracy is 20 per cent.

238
In a series of attempts to raise the literacy level, there were difference between male and female figures is so large that

DEVELOPMENT
several schemes and programmes to raise the standard of population expansion cannot be the only answer.
education. But there were also problems in the implementation In the 0-14 age group, there should have been a further break
process. The latest attempt by the Government of India is the up to correspond to the primary and secondary school ages. In
introduction of the National Technology Mission for Literacy. 1971,6.65 per cent of males were working and the figure
When the planning process began in 1951, barely 16 per cent of dropped to 5-46 per cent in 1981.
the population could claim knowledge of alphabets or num-

COMMUNICATION
Lack of adult education in women has adversely affected the
bers. The rate had gone up to 24 percent in 1961 and 36.23 per
many opportunities for women. Women working in factories,
cent in 1981-The rate is believed to be much higher now, as the
mines, plantation, public undertakings, railways, etc., need to be
total population (including O. 4 age group) of 300million
made participants in the program. At present, women working
during that period has been increased to 550 million approxi-
in the industrial sector (not to mention those working in the
mately. The situation is very grim and needs corrective measures
rural sector) have been relegated to jobs requiring minimum
from ground level.
skill and lower remuneration. They have also been denied
The position of literacy among Scheduled Castes (SCs) is much training and consequent promotional opportunities. Women
worse compared to the general populace. While [he general workers in semi-organized industries like construction, bidi-
figure is 21.38 per cent, specifically the SC women have only a 1) making, agarbatti-making, etc., need education. So also women
per cent literacy rate. In the case of Scheduled Tribes (STs) this is in low-paid jobs. Women attending educational programmes
even worse, the general figure being 16.35 per cent with only 8 should be given off-duty during class hours and these classes
per cent among women. should be organized in work premises.
Literacy has a direct impact on raising the status of women and
Mission to End Illiteracy
improving the health of the family. An educated mother makes
What is National Literacy Mission (NLM)? It was on 8 Septem-
a tremendous difference to a child’s health and education.
ber 1965 that the World Congress of Ministers of Education
Studies show that an illiterate mother has six children on the
had met in Teheran to discuss the problems of illiteracy for the
average, while a tertiary-educated mother has two.
first time at an international level. Since then, this date has
Voting patterns are directly affected by literacy too. The 1984 become historic and has been officially declared as International
general elections showed that the highest amount of voting Literacy Day by Unesco at its 14th Session in November 1966.
took place in those states whose literacy rates were above the
Every year, September is therefore a very important month for
national average.
all those engaged in literacy and adult education programmes.
People have now begun to realize that adult education classes For the Indians who are working for me National Literacy
arc not training grounds for white collar Jobs, but for helping Mission it is a very significant occasion this year as it provides an
villagers improve their skills in trading and farming. The opportunity to lake stock of the progress already made to
conditions in workers’ education centers attached to industrial eradicate illiteracy and also to chalk out and organize new
establishments may be slightly better due to greater trade union programmes/movements to create awareness and promote
involvement. But the functional literacy classes in villages still literacy.
need much improvement.
In a developing country like India with large resources and
Need to Improve Girls’ Education manpower, to gel optimum results, the development efforts,
(he skills, altitudes and knowledge of manpower have to be
developed and utilized. With limited capital and few resources
available for investment in the rural areas, the only potent
instrument for ushering in development seems to be adult
education. No doubt it can also help in removing the inequali-
ties in the social, cultural and economic fields. Literacy has to be
considered as a fundamental human right. It is perhaps not
only a means of liberation but also an instrument of social
For all those who believe female literacy has been rising, here is change.
some startling news. Indian girls dropped out of school much What is most crucial for the success of NLMs is sincere
faster in 1981 than 1971. The trend may be continuing as motivation, scrupulous dedication and meticulous monitoring.
shown by the 2001 census. One reason seems to be that girls are In fact, the central issue in literacy is motivation.
increasingly being taken out of school and put to work.
In 1971, some 38 per cent of girls completed primary school. By
1981, the figure dropped to 33 per cent. In rural areas, the
dropout rate was even sharper—from 43 per cent to 37 per cent.
While the rural figures rose from 12.32 percent to 15.04 per cent,
it actually declined in urban areas from 19.79 per cent to 8.98 per
cent. A steep rise has occurred in female child labour. To sum
up, it is a reflection of the population growth itself. But the

239
 It is the linchpin on which the entire mission hinges. But can there seems to be Government commitment as re fleeted in the
DEVELOPMENT

these illiterates who are fighting a losing battle for their preparation of plans, designs and schemes and even in the
livelihood be motivated to the three R’s whatever may be the allotment of funds. But what is grievously lacking in the field
relative importance of literacy. of education at all levels is their commitment in implementa-
Women, particularly those in the rural areas rank foremost tion. The bitter truth is that instead of creating an environment
among the illiterates in the country. The National Literacy conducive to learning and teaching, hurdles are created at every
Mission promises to give special attention to them, but as they step and in every way. The whole approach to the entire NLM
COMMUNICATION

are thoroughly occupied throughout the day in domestic chores, project is elitist. A major part of the budget is to be spent on
farming operations and raising their families, they have no will running a giant network and laying an extended infrastructure
left after going through the day’s strenuous routine. Literacy for executing literacy imparting programmes. It is proposed to
programmes will have to be designed in accordance with their set up a national institute. 26 state institutes and some 400
daily engagements. district-level institutes to support NLM activities including the
provision of raiding rooms, libraries, and recreation centres for
It is essential for the National Literacy Mission that an appropri-
music and cultural programmes for people living in remote
ate monitoring mechanism be set up. Unless such a mechanism
areas where the literacy programme is being introduced.
is created, co-ordination between different organizations and
Although these things are important in some ways it is not clear
agencies contributing to the programme will suffer. It will also
how these will constitute an essential part of the literacy
be appropriate to link the literacy mission with projects
mission.
pertaining to drinking water, oil needs, dairy development,
immunization and telecommunications. Literacy is a societal National Literacy Mission Authority Launched
mission where success depends not only on Government (NLMA)
support but also on the active participation of the potential The Government has constituted a National Literacy Mission
beneficiaries. Authority (NLMA) to administer the literacy mission which
With the higher emphasis on rural development projects and aims at imparting functional literacy to 80 million illiterate
people’s participation, it is anticipated that the NLM will be able persons in the 15-35 age group by 1995.
to motivate the backward and rural areas to lake an active part in The NLMA is headed by the Minister of Human Resource
the programmes. NLM aims at making people acquire skills in Development and functions as an independent and autono-
specific areas and imbibe values like national integration, mous wing’ of the Human Resource Development Ministry. It
women’s equality, environment conservation and the small is vested with full executive and financial powers in its sphere of
family norm. work. The education secretary heads the 17-member executive
It has a new concept of continuing education through Jana committee.
Shiksha Nilayams (JSN). One nilayam consists of a cluster of The NLMA would go a long way in removing bottlenecks in
four to five villages, with a population of about 5000 and by the traditional administrative procedures and make for effective
1990 it is planned to set up 60.000 nilayams. These nilayams implementation of the various schemes under the new
will hold evening classes for adults for upgrading literacy and mission.
skills, providing literacy, reading rooms, discussion groups. The NLMA would strive to de-bureaucratize the administration and
learners will be encouraged to participate in sport and adventure evolve cost-effective processes for implementing the schemes
activities and cultural programmes. under the mission. ‘Management-wise, the mission promises
The NLM document of the Union Human Resources Develop- to be a success’. While the NLMA will be the national apex
ment Ministry (Department of Education) containing the main body, the state governments and Union Territories have been
objectives of the mission: imparting literacy and numeracy, asked to set up similar organizations at their end.
making people aware of the causes of deprivation and moving The evaluation of the 382 voluntary agencies during 1987-88
towards the amelioration of their conditions through organiza- showed that the performance of only 27 of them was ‘fully
tion and participation in the process of development acquiring satisfactory’. Deficiencies were found in 115 cases. The perfor-
skills to improve [heir economic status and general well-being. mance of 45 agencies was unsatisfactory and their bonafides
What are, therefore the basic requisites for the success of the were not in doubt. The work of 155 agencies was not only
National Literacy Mission? These, according to the official unsatisfactory, but their bonafides were also in doubt.
document, are; national commitment, creation of an environ- Political parties, trade unions, employers’ organizations, ex-
ment conducive to learning, motivation of learners and servicemen, the territorial army, prison Staff and paramilitary
teachers, mass mobilization and people’s involvement, techno- organizations are-proposed to be involved in one way or
pedagogic inputs and efficient management and monitoring. If another in the implementation of the literacy mission.
the NLM is to meet with any degree of success, it will be
Role of Media in Implementation of Literacy
essential to ensure that all these or most of these requirements
Mission
are provided in full measure.
Technology mission is an experiment to create public awareness
But the reality is that if one considers all these factors step by to help and reach out to people to a large extent. It is a mecha-
step, the findings will be almost discouraging, in fact, disheart- nism to have people’s participation, perform concurrent
ening for the promotion of literacy in the country. For example, evaluation, suggest improvements for delivery. There is a need

240
to set up a system of credible and objective feedback that would executing its policies. The media should be committed to

DEVELOPMENT
be responsible to people’s needs, concern and problems in the support the technology mission for literacy in India, It should
spread of literacy through communication support. be allowed to serve in an objective, unbiased, and a socially
The need of the hour is to give top priority to improve the responsible manner to build national awareness with deepening
quality of services delivered particularly to the poorer sections interest.
of society for their betterment The poor and the illiterate do It is equally difficult to say to what extent communication
not have access to communication. The media should support support will be extended in achieving the above objectives

COMMUNICATION
or should enlist the involvement and support of all sections of because media is not independent of ” the national ethos nor
society. can it reverse the democratic process. Freedom of the press has
The mass media should work out elaborate plans to give been guaranteed in Article 19 of the Constitution of India
meaning to the literacy mission. There is an urgent need to which confines to speech and expression subject to reasonable
formulate a media policy which could give positive communica- restrictions on the exercise of the right ‘in me interests of the
tion support country, and the security of the state.
Traditional Folk Forms as a Vital Tool of
Communication
India is a repertory to traditional art forms which are routed in
its culture. Of late, it has been realized by media experts and
scholars that the traditional art forms should be used for
development communication because they are close to the
hearts of the rural people and they are acceptable to the rural
population. There is a growing need for communication
support for development in the rural areas to preserve, adopt
and utilize traditional media in the spread of literacy.
One of the basic problems of the implementing agencies
without Government interfering in the functioning of the concerning literacy is the low motivation of the intended
media, be it newspapers, radio or television. The media should learners because the learners scarcely understand the need for
clearly define the extent of government involvement. education. Also, the communication pattern used by the rural
The prevailing system of literacy-spread through media shows folk is the holistic oral model with folk rhetoric, which is just
no concern for any obligations. If the emphasis is more on the opposite in urban areas where an atomistic model with a
television which is allocated nearly half of the total outlay of disjointed rhetoric is used.
the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, and expansion The communication matrix employed by the rural folk ranges
of the television network all over the country neglecting other from face-lo-face communication to group communication
media units (there are 13 other units including All India Radio), through established traditional forms of folk songs, drama,
it is Justified in terms of people’s actual access to the medium. puppetry, theatre, Harkatha (songs), and Yakshaghana (theatre).
With a population of nearly 800 million, we still have only 12 These acquire a special status as media of social interaction,
million TV receivers three quarters of which are in the urban information exchange and cohesion. These art forms derives
areas. The small newspapers have not resulted in great diversity importance due to the fact that the villagers trust and derive
of views nor promoted media at the grassroots. While the values and directions from the content of the theme delivered
urban population, a much smaller section, has access to all to them. So the technology mission can make best use of
modem mass media, the much larger rural section is being traditional art forms in propagating literacy.
neglected. These are the people who are deprived of informa-
Folk composers and singers should be encouraged to compose
tion, education and entertainment through the mass media.
songs on the importance of literacy in their lives. The miscon-
Thus for want of a clear approach and their relevance to the
ception about education should be removed from the minds
people we have created media-rich and media-poor.
of the rural people. It is possible to uncover things in which the
The rural people do not have access to modern technology like importance of the programme might be communicated to the
satellite and computer technology. Media should address the people for whom the technology mission is intended. The
social effects of high technology to all age groups. Media oneness of Indian ethos should become a reality depicting
support should not be exploited for a narrow purpose. Any social concern or event by identifying the actual problems of a
Government that comes to power in India is accused of using particular village especially regarding their disinterest in educating
public funds to promote their political and social programmes, themselves.
which are related to the political party in power. This under-
In a literacy scheme, the medium of communication is very
mines media credibility rather than strengthens it because the
important. With the launching of the technology mission,
political power is widely recognized.
communication media has assumed greater significance,
A mechanism can be evolved to ensure the implementation of relevance and importance. Folklore has always played an
literacy mission, which commands authority over Government- important role in educating the rural communities, constituting
controlled media like radio and television. There should be no the most popular and widespread media of communication.
interference whatsoever in the freedom enjoyed by the media in

241
 Folk artistes should he given a chance to express them selves to tional tool in familiarizing the masses with the cultural and
DEVELOPMENT

the rural masses on television and radio because they are the literary values. The traditional forms can educate the rural people
performers who know their people and can be identified as one by utilizing the rural and visual modes giving scope to interac-
among them. They need to visit the Jana Shiksha Nilayams to tion. A suggestive model for communication support to
speak to the rural people and make them aware of the impor- technology mission in the spread of literacy is exhibited in the
tance of literacy. Folk artistes must be motivated to work for the model framed to suit the existing communication system.
technology mission conducting training camps, workshops and
COMMUNICATION

Enriching Learning with Media Support

seminars because they have always been closer to the masses.
The program of action of the National Policy on Education
Integration of MASS Media and Folk envisages mobilizing media support as one of the essential
Media strategies needed to make education ‘reach out’ to the most
Motivation is a long and continuous process and therefore the distant and deprived areas simultaneously with areas of
task is not an easy one. Motivation comes from clarity of comparative affluence. It states: Education requires media
purpose. It is a critical element. Nebulous goals do not support which is related to the curriculum as well as enrichment.
motivate people. The youth and student community, social Curriculum-based education also requires materials which the
workers and voluntary organizations need to play their role in teacher can draw upon in the course of his teaching. This could
imparting literacy. The question of motivation cannot be tackled be provided in the form of charts, slides, transparencies, etc.
by itself. Concrete steps need to be taken to improve the lot of Video technology offers considerable potential for improving
a rural folk. the quality of education especially at higher levels.
One way of keeping the tempo and focus on literacy Further, it must be noted that all technology requires support-
programmes is to integrate both mass media and traditional ing infrastructure, and unless that infrastructure like trained
media. The modem media like radio and television can help manpower, competent and willing teachers, school buildings,
promote literacy blending with traditional media. Folk compos- etc. exists, no technology—direct/distant—is likely to succeed.
ers and singers should be allowed to give their best in the The present paper considers the issue of mobilizing media
programmes they arrange for showing on television or on air. support and suggests an action programme adding to the
The poor people do not have access to electronic media. existing system to enable proper media use in education.
Newspapers do not reach them because they cannot read. Radio
and television are beyond their means. If media men could
project local folk forms weaving themes based on literacy
programmes on television, radio and newspaper. The villagers
may get the feel of education. Adaptation of folk forms on
mass media where roots of folk arts are still strong, and giving
exposure to modem media can be quite effective.
Puppetry serves as a powerful vehicle for communication. It
forms the basis for situations, judgments and leaves a lasting
impact on the minds of the people because they depict
interesting subjects both appreciative as well as critical. It reflects The action programme to be proposed should be one that
the values and culture and is seen with rapt attention when it is provides media support to curriculum programmes of
shown by a folk performer. Puppetry has found appreciation educational institutions. This can be of two kinds: a. supple-
among the masses. In the final analysis, the message finds mentary; and b. complementary.
acceptance. The folk performer has the knack of presenting the
The supplementary support should be what is being taught on
message very convincingly. It is here that both the modern
a complete audio visual mode. Complementary support should
media and traditional media have the facility to spread literacy to
provide instruction in selected areas and topics enabling
alt sections of the rural masses.
coverage of actual content of the curriculum. It should also
Television and radio need not be blamed for the decline of provide media support to reach out and enrich all recipients of
traditional media or performing arts. Actually, they form the education—laymen, workers, students, teachers and al] educated
most potent media in disseminating the messages to vast in general—with latest information on relevant fields of
segments of the Indian population provided they are properly interest.
used and managed by reviving, revitalizing and disseminating
the traditional media and its art forms. Though the reach of
television is low in the rural areas, it can enhance the popularity Note
of folk arts. Even in the urban areas, one finds most people
have village backgrounds and they look for local culture which
they can enjoy and appreciate.
With suitable chances, some states in India arc showing
performing arts on television, but it is time the national media
wakes up and brings about desired changes by blending mass
media and traditional media which can be treated as an educa-

242
 DEVELOPMENT
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