Chapter II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In the year 2017, the website Thesis Notes stated that review of related literature is
the annotation of available papers both published and unpublished that contain information or
evidence related to the topic that a person proposes to research on. This chapter presented the
related literature and studies both foreign and local. A review of related literature should
have information about the problem statement, the theories that explain the presence of the
problem, the findings of the study and the recommendation for further study. This chapter
aimed to defend the researcher’s paper such as the methods used in the study. Overall, this
study presented some articles that will help researchers to know more about the topic.
2.1 Review Related Literature
This study reviewed several articles, books, and researches related to the study being
conducted. It states different literature and studies, which supports the main study of this
research. The literature and studies, both local and foreign, contain facts, information, and
knowledge. It also yields explanations on every literature associated to produce relevance
and connection the study.
Projects can generally be classified into three sectors: buildings, infrastructure, and
process. Examples of building-sector projects include commercial buildings, schools, office
buildings, and hospitals. For building-sector projects, where the architect is the prime
designer, the design follows three stages: schematic design development, and contract
documents. The schematic design produces the basic appearance of the project, building
elevations, layout of floors, room arrangements within the building, and overall features of
the project. At the conclusion of schematic design, the owner can review the design
configuration and the estimated cost before giving approval to proceed into design
development. Design development defines the functional use and systems in the project in
order to produce the contract documents, the plans and specifications for constructing the
project (Oberlender, 2006).
Foreign - Literature
Over many years, engineers have observed that some structural systems perform
better in earthquakes than others. Based on these observations, the Provisions design criteria
for building structures are based on the structural system used. Structural systems are
categorized based on the material of construction (e.g., concrete, masonry, steel, or wood), by
the way in which lateral forces induced by earthquake shaking are resisted by the structure
(e.g., by walls or frames), and by the relative quality of seismic-resistant design and detailing
provided Moment-resisting frame systems are commonly used for both structural steel and
reinforced concrete construction. In this form of construction, the horizontal beams and
vertical columns provide both support for the structure’s weight and the strength and stiffness
needed to resist lateral forces. Stiffness and strength are achieved through the use of rigid
connections between the beams and columns that prevent these elements from rotating
relative to one other. Although somewhat more expensive to construct than bearing wall and
braced frame structural systems, moment-resisting frame systems are popular because they
do not require braced frames or structural walls, therefore permitting large open spaces and
facades with many unobstructed window openings. It shows a steel moment-resisting frame
building under construction (Buildings, 2011).
There is a large overlap in the costs of different construction methods, so modern
methods of construction can be at least as competitive as more established techniques in
appropriate circumstances. Nevertheless, many modern methods of construction are still
more expensive on average than established brick and block techniques. Open panel
techniques provide an exception and are cost-competitive. The financial benefits of time
savings go around a third of the way towards bridging the average cost gap for modern
methods of construction. A potential reduction in the price of manufactured components as
the market matures could close the cost gap. Modern methods of construction make it
possible to build up to four times as much using the same onsite labor. This is crucially
important when work for the London Olympics, coupled with a policy to build more homes,
will place increasing demands on existing resources. There is uncertainty about whether on-
site labor supply will increase to match higher demand, particularly in the light of recent
reports from the Chartered Institute of Building of existing widespread recruitment
problems.8 Modern methods of construction have the potential to provide more building
work with existing on-site labor, particularly as factory based production does not generally
draw from the same labor pool as on-site construction and is not competing for the same
skills (Allison and Fawcett, 2009).
At present, different types of large-tonnage test loading equipment are being
developed and manufactured by Tianshui Hongshan testing machine factory, who can
represent super testing machine manufacturers in China. Though the loading capacity of the
machines increased gradually, the test function was still simple. For example, the 15,000 kN
electro-hydraulic servo horizontal tensile testing machine is mainly used for tensile strength
tests of long specimens, general metal or non-metallic materials. The 20,000 kN electro-
hydraulic servo compression testing machine is mainly used for compression, flexural and
shear tests of metals and compression and flexural performance tests of non-metallic
materials [9]. The 30,000 kN electro-hydraulic servo multifunctional pressure shear testing
machine is mainly used for mechanical property tests and comprehensive tests of large
structures In the 1960s, the development of super structural testing machines began in Japan,
which owns the largest number of testing machines in the world, involving universities,
research institutes, steel enterprises, construction companies and shipbuilding factories [2 -
4]. Vertical testing machines and horizontal testing machines are two types of super
structural testing machines. The vertical testing machine is mainly used for compression tests
and is composed of a base, columns and beams. The loading cylinder is generally placed
underground in order to lower the center of gravity and ensure stable loading. The upper
beam and the lower beam are driven by a single or multiple cylinder to load specimens.
Eccentric loads and vibration shock are mainly borne by the external frame. The horizontal
testing machine is mainly used for tensile tests, which do not need a huge base and large
space. It is mainly composed of cylinders, columns, left beam and right beam. The two
beams with trolley wheels can move freely on the rail, resulting in a long travel and a large
load. The machine is suitable for test specimens that are long and heavy (Yan, 2017).
RELATED STUDIES
Local – Studies
Structures comes in all shapes and sizes, but their primary function is to carry loads.
The form of the structure, and the shape and size of its members are usually selected to suit
this load-carrying function but the structural forces can also be dictated by the function of the
systems of which structure is part. In some cases, the form of the structure is dictated by
architectural considerations (Ghali, n.d.).
Living in an age of robotic armor, autonomous farm tractors, and nuclear clocks that
are accurate for over 100 million years, it is easy to think that we live in the most
technologically advanced age in human history. It can seem that almost any task, any activity
can be accomplished with the mere push of a button or the flip of a switch. (Becker, 2012)
Foreign - Studies
The construction industry has matured and continued to enhance the integration of
activities in the design, fabrication, construction, and operation of constructed facilities.
Major advancements in computer hardware and software have produced two-dimensional (2-
D) and three-dimensional (3-D) computer aided design (CAD) systems. The CAD
technology has progressed to versatile modeling systems that can be used throughout the
design, engineering, and construction phases to greatly improve the capability to detect and
prevent interference during field construction Cruz, 2014).
Over the last thirty years, with the gradual application of artificial intelligence inside
buildings, the worlds of construction and technical systems have witnessed revolutionary
changes. The first automatic systems in the 60sconsisted on simple switchboards which could
be programmed and controlled at a distance. Since then, spurred by the energy crisis in the
70s, we have progressed to complex automated systems networks linking various
apparatuses. Developments in electronic technology and growing collaboration between the
fields of information and telecommunication technologies have led us to make the most of
the possibilities offered by centralized control systems. In some buildings, the different
automated systems are now interconnected (Travi, n.d.).
Buildings and infrastructures degrade. The mechanisms by which this occurs in
concrete structures are complex, as are the procedures and methods for inspection and for
rehabilitation. Structural Renovation in Concrete examines the various problems caused by
non-uniform deformation changes, poor durability, and natural and human disasters such as
earthquakes and fire. Attention is given to the causes and mechanisms of the deterioration.
General procedures and commonly used techniques for inspection and evaluation of existing
infrastructures are introduced. The desk study, destructive test, and non-destructive test are
discussed - in particular the newly developed non-destructive methods for deterioration
monitoring (Leung, 2009)
Most people believe that concrete has been in common use for many centuries, but
this is not the case. The Romans did make use of a cement called pozzolana before the birth
of Christ. They found large deposits of a sandy volcanic ash near Mt. Vesuvius and in other
places in Italy. When they mixed this material with quicklime and water as well as sand and
gravel, it hardened into a rocklike substance and was used as a building material. One might
expect that a relatively poor grade of concrete would result, as compared with today’s
standards, but some Roman concrete structures are still in existence today. One example is
the Pantheon (a building dedicated to all gods), which is located in Rome and was completed
in a.d. 126. Frenchmen Franc¸ois Le Brun, Joseph Lambot, and Joseph Monier. In 1832, Le
Brun built a concrete house and followed it with the construction of a school and a church
with the same material. In about 1850, Lambot built a concrete boat reinforced with a
network of parallel wires or bars. Credit is usually given to Monier, however, for the
invention of reinforced concrete. In 1867, he received a patent for the construction of
concrete basins or tubs and reservoirs reinforced with a mesh of iron wire. His stated goal in
working with this material was to obtain lightness without sacrificing strength (McCormac
and Brown, 2014).
Over many years, engineers have observed that some structural systems perform
better in earthquakes than others. Based on these observations, the Provisions design criteria
for building structures are based on the structural system used. Structural systems are
categorized based on the material of construction (e.g., concrete, masonry, steel, or wood), by
the way in which lateral forces induced by earthquake shaking are resisted by the structure
(e.g., by walls or frames), and by the relative quality of seismic-resistant design and detailing
provided.
Many engineering materials, such as metals, but also concrete and wood, exhibit
linear stress-strain-behavior, at least up to a certain stress level. This means that the
deformations will be twice as large if the stresses are twice as large. This property is
described by Hooke’s law, and the materials are called linear elastic. Soils do not satisfy this
law. For instance, in compression soil becomes gradually stiffer. At the surface sand will slip
easily through the fingers, but under a certain compressive stress it gains an ever increasing
stiffness and strength. This is mainly caused by the increase of the forces between the
individual particles, which gives the structure of particles an increasing strength. This
property is used in daily life by the packaging of coffee and other granular materials by a
plastic envelope, and the application of vacuum inside the package. The package becomes
very hard when the air is evacuated from it. In civil engineering the non-linear property is
used to great advantage in the pile foundation for a building on very soft soil, underlain by a
layer of sand. In the sand below a thick deposit of soft clay the stress level is high, due to the
weight of the clay. This makes the sand very hard and strong, and it is possible to apply large
compressive forces to the piles, provided that they are long enough to reach well into the
sand The creation of soil by ancient geological processes also means that soil properties may
be rather different on different locations. Even in two very close locations the soil properties
may be completely different, for instance when an ancient river channel has been filled with
sand deposits. Sometimes the course of an ancient river can be traced on the surface of a soil,
but often it can not be seen at the surface. When an embankment is built on such a soil, it can
be expected that the settlements will vary, depending upon the local material in the subsoil.
The variability of soil properties may also be the result of a heavy local load in the past. A
global impression of the soil composition can be obtained from geological maps (Verruijt,
2012).
2.2 Conceptual Framework
Methods of Building Infrastructures
Modern Ways of Building Traditional Ways of
Infrastructure Building Infrastructure
Information is easy to Both of these ways help the Manual process is
access people for their convenience being applied in
Innovation and It give people a better way of constructing
creativity are levelled living infrastructure
up Both of these give benefits to Traditional materials
Faster methods of the people are more complex
constructing are Traditional ways most
present likely to have
The figure shows the difference and similarity between Modern and Traditional way
of building infrastructures. Modern way of building infrastructures produce important
benefits for housing authorities and developers, not the least of which is the reduced
emphasis on on-site activity. This is particularly important in a time of increasing demands
on an already stretched labor force. As with any new way of doing things there are risks, but
these can be mitigated through good project planning and management. It is possible to build
faster and cheaper using modern methods of construction while keeping the same high
quality as traditional methods. Traditional materials which are more complex than, and often
incompatible with modern materials used today. Works must be carried out using methods
that are compatible with those already used on the building. Failure to use old traditional
method most likely to have a detrimental impact on the character and appearance of the
building and also affect its structural integrity, causing permanent damage to the building.
2.3 Synthesis of Review of Related Literature
Becker (2012) states that living in an age of robotic armor, autonomous farm tractors,
and nuclear clocks that are accurate for over 100 million years, it is easy to think that we live
in the most technologically advanced age in human history. It can seem that almost any task,
any activity can be accomplished with the mere push of a button or the flip of a switch. This
research discusses about the modern and old traditional ways of building infrastructure and
perceptions of engineering students. This study deals about the perceptions of engineering
students about which is more preferable between modern and old traditional ways of building
infrastructure. In this chapter, review of related literature, conceptual and theoretical
framework were presented to support the study conducted by the researchers. The review of
related literature and studies presented in this chapter tackles about the similarities,
differences, and methods of how the two ways: modern and old tradition, can be determined
and recognized.
REFERENCES
Local Literature
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Foreign Literature;
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Li, Z., Leung, C., & Xi, Y. (2009). Structural renovation in concrete. London: Spon Press.
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