Defensive Design James A. Shipe and Charles J. Carter, P.E., S.E.
How can you design buildings for blast resistance?
How do you design structures to prevent
progressive collapse? Here are some answers for
typical, prescriptive and performance-based
building designs.
rovisions in the applicable collapse in areas not directly affected ance criteria affect more than the struc-
P building code are oriented al-
most exclusively toward life
safety, with little considera-
tion of property protection.
Similarly, there are no explicit require-
ments for the consideration of blast and
progressive-collapse resistance, except
by the blast.
Performance-based building de-
signs: Performance-based criteria are
used for a small number of buildings,
normally ones that are government-re-
lated, high-risk or high-profile. Perfor-
mance criteria vary, but generally
tural frame, and often require non-
structural elements, like blast-resistant
windows, special site layouts, and site-
perimeter protection.
Many designs combine prescriptive
and performance-based approaches.
Some guidance is available:
for general statements about resiliency, require that the building withstand the ■ The General Services Administra-
redundancy and robustness. This arti- effects of the blast, protect the occu- tion (GSA) published its “Progres-
cle gives guidance for typical buildings, pants of the building, and/or maintain sive Collapse Analysis and Design
and special cases of prescriptive and a defined level of operability. The na- Guidelines for New Federal Office
performance-based design for blast and ture and characteristics of the threats Buildings and Major Modernization
progressive-collapse resistance. are identified realistically and modeled Projects,” available for free down-
Considerations for defensive design in the design. Note that the perform- load at [Link].
usually fall into one of three general
categories:
Typical building designs: The ma-
Designing for Defense – Step by Step
jority of buildings receive no special
treatment other than judicious atten- 1. Create a complete security plan: consider non-structural solutions and avoid ar-
tion to redundant configurations and bitrary structural choices without consideration of the actual security threat.
robust connection designs so that the 2. Determine the nature and magnitude of a potential blast loading:
structural (and non-structural) compo- • the means of transport for explosives
nents are tied together effectively. The • the amount/type of explosive that can be delivered
typical details used in steel buildings • the distance from the building an explosive could be placed
inherently provide for redundancy and Consider structural and non-structural solutions to potential threats.
robustness, with the capability for load 3. Determine the level of structural design: typical (no special treatment); pre-
redistribution through alternative load scriptive (going beyond the basic building code with prescriptive criteria); and
paths. This fact has been demonstrated performance-based (for high-profile or high-risk buildings, design for the blast’s
repeatedly when steel buildings have dynamic loading).
been subjected to abnormal loadings. 4. For typical buildings: give attention to redundant configurations and robust con-
Prescriptive building designs: nection designs
Some buildings receive special treat-
5. For prescriptive building designs: apply prescriptive criteria, such as perimeter
ment through the application of pre-
moment frames, the use of a strong story or floor, or other innovative solutions.
scriptive criteria for design that go
beyond those in the basic building 6. For performance-based designs: Determine blast loading by calculating the
code. While there are a variety of pre- total dynamic pressure and positive phase duration. Determine blast
scribed criteria, such as the removal of effects–consider member and connection ductility, overstrength, beneficial
a building column, there is usually no strain-rate effects, and the benefits of composite construction. Design for indi-
attempt to characterize the exact effects vidual structural elements by applying the dynamic load to members of the
of the blast. Instead, the goal could be structural system.
to reduce the probability of progressive
November 2003 • Modern Steel Construction
■ The Department of Defense (DoD) ■ The type of explosive is important ■ Use typical shear, moment and/or
published its “DoD Minimum An- because all explosives behave differ- bracing connections judiciously. Re-
titerrorism Standards for Build- ently. Some types of explosives are serve strength is gained at low cost
ings,” available for free download at easier to obtain than others. if connection details are clean. It
[Link]/files/pdf/dodstan- ■ The distance from the building at costs little to fill the web of a girder
[Link]. which an explosive could be placed with bolts using a single-plate or
More specialized and advanced is perhaps the most critical factor. A double-angle connection.
guidance exists, particularly in terms of large stand-off distance from the ■ Recognize other sources of redun-
high-end defensive design such as for blast is essential to blast resistance. dancy and robustness inherent in
U.S. Department of State embassy Can a defensible perimeter be used steel buildings, including: the com-
buildings. Security clearance is re- to ensure a certain stand-off dis- mon overstrength in the steel mate-
quired to obtain these documents. tance? rials and connecting elements,
Equally important is to determine membrane action in the floor and
BLAST THREAT ANALYSIS what level of design is required: typi- roof diaphragms, and the strength
When considering the need for cal, prescriptive or performance based. and stiffness contributions of non-
blast-design criteria, a complete build- structural components.
ing security plan must be developed STRATEGIES FOR TYPICAL With little – sometimes no – modifi-
and the appropriate design criteria BUILDINGS cation, steel framing provides redun-
identified. The most critical aspects of a The majority of buildings receive no dancy and robustness.
security plan could be non-structural in special design treatment, but the fol-
nature. Chemical and/or biological lowing ideas can be beneficial: STRATEGIES FOR PRESCRIP-
threats, alarm-system tampering, ■ Configure the building’s lateral sys- TIVE BUILDING DESIGNS
power disruption, arson, potable tems to provide multiple load paths Some buildings receive special treat-
water-supply protection, protection of from the roof to the foundations. ment through the application of pre-
sensitive information, and computer Multiple lateral framing systems scriptive criteria. An example is design
network infiltration are all potential distributed throughout the building for the removal of a building column,
areas of need. are generally better than fewer iso- where several strategies can be em-
From a structural perspective, the lated systems. ployed:
use of prescribed “solutions” or arbi- ■ Provide horizontal floor and roof di- The use of a perimeter moment
trary choices without consideration of aphragms to tie the gravity and lat- frame. This can result in a system that
the actual security threat(s) and ef- eral framing systems together. is significantly robust. As an extreme
fect(s) might do nothing but add cost or ■ Minimize framing irregularities in example, the perimeter moment frame
result in a building that fails to meet both horizontal and vertical framing in the tube structure of each of the
the needs of the owner or its occupants. when possible. Horizontal and ver- World Trade Center towers spanned a
The arbitrary use of concrete encase- tical offsets with copes and/or ec- hole about 140’ wide before succumb-
ment, or the prescriptive reliance upon centricities can reduce the available ing to the combined effects of struc-
seismic detailing in applications where strength at member ends – or re- tural damage and fire, each likely at
normal construction would suffice, quire extensive reinforcement to their lifetime maximum values. More
wastes money. Who would choose to maintain that strength. likely, the prescribed criteria will be the
live or work in a windowless bunker? ■ Use multiples of the same shape, removal of a single column.
The key aspect of structural design rather than changing girder and col- In some cases, the framing will have
to resist blast effects and progressive umn sizes. The additional strength enough redundancy to accept column
collapse is determining the nature and in girders and columns that are removal without modification. If not,
magnitude of the blast loading. This in- heavier for convenience could cost the column spacing can be reduced or
volves assessing the amount and type less or be free. The use of a smaller the framing hardened by increasing
of explosive, as well as its distance number of different shapes in the size or switching to composite con-
from – or location within – the build- building means a labor savings in struction.
ing. Another factor is the level of secu- fabrication and erection, and often The use of a strong story or floor.
rity that can be placed around and more than offsets the cost of the ad- This solution can be a truss system
withing the building. ditional steel weight, which is only with diagonals or a Vierendeel truss
■ The means of transport for the ex- around 20 cents per pound. system, incorporated into a single story
plosives can be the limiting factor as ■ Remember that serviceability limit or multiple stories in the building. Ad-
to the amount of explosive that can states indirectly add significant ditionally, a recent study by Simpson
be delivered. Does the threat in- structural redundancy to steel fram- Gumpertz and Heger Consulting Engi-
clude a package bomb, vehicle- ing. Usually, beams and girders are neers demonstrated that a single,
borne bomb, both, or another means sized for deflection or floor-vibra- strong floor with heavier framing and
of delivery? Is there a security pres- tion criteria, and girders and moment connections throughout could
ence or feature that limits the dis- columns are commonly sized for carry or hang at least 10 floors.
tance or size at which the explosive drift control. As a result, these ele- The World Trade Center towers
can be delivered? ments have significant reserve demonstrate this solution. The dam-
strength. aged core columns in each tower to
Modern Steel Construction • November 2003
some extent hung from the hat trusses, liseconds) are found using TNT equiv- even beneficial. For example, there
which created strong-story framing at alents (the equivalent weight of the ex- is little structural consequence to
the top of each tower. The link between plosive in TNT), the distance from the connection-slip or bearing deforma-
the core gravity columns and the blast, and other information in TM5- tions at bolt holes due to blast ef-
perimeter tube framing carried more 1300. To calculate blast loads, the blast fects. Moreover, these phenomena
than 10 stories in one tower and more must be scaled. Hopkinson (1915) and consume energy when they occur,
than 25 stories in the other. Nonethe- Cranz (1926) formulated the most com- progressively reducing the blast ef-
less, exercise caution when considering mon form of blast scaling, postulating fect through the structure.
hat-truss framing to create a strong that similar blast waves are produced ■ Overstrength: Structural steel usually
story. Unless specifically designed for at identical scaled distances when two is stronger than the specified mini-
progressive-collapse resistance, hat explosive charges of similar geometry mum strength. For example, ASTM
trusses normally reduce the level of re- and of the same explosive, but of dif- A992 has a specified minimum yield
serve strength and redundancy be- ferent sizes, are detonated in the same strength Fy = 50 ksi. From Table I-6-1
cause of the efficiency they allow in the atmosphere. The scaled distance pa- in the 2002 AISC Seismic Provisions,
structural system. rameter Z (ft per lb TNT equivalent) is: it has an expected yield strength Fye
Other innovative solutions. One of 55 ksi. This supports the practice
particularly innovative solution has R endorsed by the Department of De-
Z= 1
been used by Magnusson Klemencic W 3
fense Explosives Safety Board, which
Associates in the Seattle Courthouse. allows the use of an average yield-
The building has a steel-framed com- where R is equal to the distance from strength increase factor (generally a
posite core and gravity steel framing the center of the blast (ft) and W is the 10-percent increase in the yield
around it. The perimeter has steel ca- weight in lb TNT equivalent. With the strength) for blast design.
bles banding it to prevent progressive scaled distance in the correct units, ■ Beneficial Strain-Rate Effects: Struc-
collapse should a column be lost. The graphs in TM5-1300 can be used to find tural steel benefits from an increase
result is one of the most open and invit- the total dynamic pressure and the pos- in apparent strength when the rate
ing blast-hardened buildings built to itive phase duration. of loading is rapid. The yield point
date. Blast Effects on Structural Steel increases substantially by a factor
There are other potential prescrip- and Composite Structures. Steel’s re- that is called the dynamic-increase
tive criteria, but structural solutions sponse to the characteristics of a blast factor for yield stress. The ultimate
usually flow from criteria like those de- affects the loading for several reasons: tensile stress also increases, but not
scribed above. Most often, there is no ■ Member Ductility: Structural steel has as greatly as the yield stress. The
attempt to rigorously assess the actual a linear stress-strain relationship up total elongation at failure typically
blast effects and the emphasis is on ar- to the yield stress but then can un- remains unchanged or decreases
resting the effects of the blast. dergo extreme elongation without slightly because of the increased
an increase in stress; about 10 to 15 strain rate. The modulus of elastic-
STRATEGIES FOR PERFOR- times the amount needed to reach ity is unaffected by the strain rate.
MANCE-BASED BUILDING DE- yield. Stress then increases in the ■ Beneficial Effects of Composite Con-
SIGNS “strain hardening” range until a struction: The use of composite con-
Performance-based criteria are used total elongation of about 20 percent struction can have benefits for
for a comparatively small number of to 30 percent. This response has ben- blast-design applications due to the
buildings, where the nature and char- efits beyond routine design-level mass effect of composite systems
acteristics of the threat are realistically forces for resisting the effects of a with steel elements (490 lb/ft3) and
identified and modeled in the design. blast. The ductility ratio m, defined concrete elements (150 lb/ft3). The
When the threat, building characteris- as the maximum deflection over the inelastic action in a composite sys-
tics, and performance criteria are elastic deflection, commonly is used tem generally will limit deflections
known, the solution is a matter of de- to account for this effect. and local deformations, and par-
sign for the dynamic loading of the ■ Connection Ductility: Steel connec- tially mitigate rebound effects
blast, including mitigation of damage tions can be extremely ductile. As in through the damping effect of con-
and the associated progressive collapse seismic design practice, connections crete cracking.
potential. There are several references can be configured so that yielding- Designing the Individual Struc-
available. One is the U.S. Army Techni- limit states will control over frac- tural Elements for Blast Loads. Once
cal Manual TM5-1300 Structures to Re- ture-limit states. However, there is the total dynamic pressure and the pos-
sist the Effects of Accidental Explosions. still significant ductility in many itive phase duration are known, apply
Though written in the 1960s, it is still limit states that involve fracture. the dynamic load to members of the
used today. Normally, software also is Block shear rupture, for example, is structural system. One approach is rec-
required to model the dynamic effects a fracture-limit state accompanied ommended in TM5-1300.
of the blast and the structure’s re- by significant deformation prior to ■ Perimeter Column Design: At the
sponse. the actual failure. building perimeter, the columns
Determination of Blast Loading. Additionally, some limit states will be loaded by the blast through
The total dynamic pressure (in psi) and have “failures” that, in blast appli- the façade. A critical design decision
the positive phase duration (in mil- cations, can be considered benign or is the selection of an appropriate
November 2003 • Modern Steel Construction
tributary area for the column, which states like flange-local buckling, formance objective is established,
must be based upon the expected web-local buckling, shear yield, and the blast pressure can be applied to
performance of the façade in the interaction between flexural and the slab and the reinforcement se-
blast. Will the façade and its connec- axial forces. lected appropriate for the loading.
tion to the structure be such that the ■ Perimeter Girder Design: The conse-
full blast load will be delivered to quences of a girder failure normally James A. Shipe, E.I.T. is Graduate
the framing, or will the façade com- are not as high as the consequences Structural Engineer with the URS Corpo-
ponents be shattered in the blast be- of a column failure. If you are de- ration in Washington, DC. Charles J.
fore the load can be delivered signing the girder to the same per- Carter, P.E., S.E., is Chief Structural Engi-
through it? formance level as the columns, use neer with the American Institute of Steel
The tributary area is then used the forgoing approach to column Construction, Inc., in Chicago, IL.
with the maximum total dynamic design for the girder design, with-
pressure and the dynamic load fac- out the axial load. Otherwise, use a ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
tor to find an equivalent static load less restrictive approach, permitting The authors thank Mohammed Et-
on the column. Either a rigorous inelastic deformations. It is impor- touney, Louis Geschwindner, Farid Al-
beam-column design approach or tant to consider the differing sup- fawakhiri and Christopher Hewitt for
the simplified approach suggested port conditions between the top and their helpful contributions, comments
in TM5-1300 can be used: bottom flanges of the girder. Often and suggestions.
• Support conditions for the col- this can be mitigated by orienting
umn are taken as if the column the infill beams to provide restraint REFERENCES
were a simple-span beam. to the girder bottom flange along Cranz, C., “Lehrbuch der Ballistik, Springer-Ver-
• The moment perpendicular to the the span. Also, the girder end con- lag,” Berlin, 1926.
Department of Defense, DoD Minimum Antiter-
plane of the façade is taken as nections often will be best config- rorism Standards for Buildings, available for
wl2/8 based upon the blast loading. ured as moment connections. free download at [Link]/files/pdf/dod-
• The moment in the plane of the ■ Slab Design: The blast pressure could [Link].
façade is a function of the magni- subject the slab to significant uplift, General Services Administration, Progressive Col-
lapse Analysis and Design Guidelines for New
tude of the strong-axis moment depending upon the expected per- Federal Office Buildings and Major Modern-
and the angle of incidence of the formance of the façade in the blast. ization Projects, available for free download at
blast to the column. As with girder design, the conse- [Link].
• The axial load applied concur- quences of a local slab failure nor- Hopkinson, B., “British Ordnance Board Minutes,”
rently with the blast load is mally are not as high as the 13565, 1915.
U.S. Army Technical Manual TM5-1300 Struc-
based upon the full dead load consequences of a column failure, so tures to Resist the Effects of Accidental Ex-
and one-quarter of the live load. it could be sufficient to utilize the plosions. ★
Based upon these loadings, TM5- typical reinforcing steel in the upper
1300 recommends checking limit portion of the slab. If a higher per-
Modern Steel Construction • November 2003