Instructors Manual —Organizational Behavior & Management, 9th edition

Chapter Twelve: Power, Politics, and Empowerment

Chapter Synopsis
This chapter focuses on the concept and sources of power. It begins with a definition of power
(legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, and referent) and its sources, followed by a discussion of
interpersonal power and structural power. The final segment of the discussion revolves around
"powerlessness" and its symptoms.

The next section defines "empowerment," describes its stages, and explains its impact on individuals
and organizations, and especially on self-managed teams. The authors explain how organizations can
create the power to cope with uncertainty via prevention, information, and absorption. They also
explain the concepts of centrality and substitutability, and use the infamous Milgram experiment as
an insightful example of the illusion of power.

The chapter also touches on organizational politics, political tactics (rule evasion, personal-political,
educational, and organizational), and characteristics identified by top CEOs and managers as
essential for success. Game playing (insurgency game, sponsorship game, line-versus-staff game,
coalition-building game, and whistle blowing) is followed by a discussion of politics and the
influencing tactics managers can use.

The chapter concludes with impression management, followed by a brief examination of ethics,
power, and politics, each an aspect of ethical decisions.

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Distinguish between the terms influence and power.
2. Identify five interpersonal power bases.
3. Describe three forms of structural power.
4. Discuss the concepts of powerlessness and empowerment.
5. Identify the contingencies that influence subunit power.
6. Explain what is meant by the term illusion of power.
7. Describe several frequently used influence tactics.
8. Discuss the criteria for determining ethical behavior.
9. Identify the considerations involved in using power effectively.

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Key Terms
legitimate power—Capacity to influence derived from the position of a manager in the
organizational hierarchy. Subordinates believe that they “ought” to comply.
authority—The ability to influence others based on the perceived power of one’s position and role
within an organization.
reward power—An influence over others based on hope of reward.
coercive power—Influence over others based on fear.
expert power—Capacity of influence related to some expertise, special skill, or knowledge.
referent power—Power based on a subordinate’s identification with a charismatic superior.
empowerment—Encouraging and/or assisting individuals and groups to make decisions that affect
their work environments.
strategic contingency—An event or activity that is extremely important for accomplishing
organizational goals.
substitutability—The ability of various work units to perform the activities of other work units.
impression management—A political strategy that refers to actions individuals take to control the
impressions that others form of them.
self-promotion—An impression management tactic whereby individuals communicate their
accomplishments to appear able and competent.
intimidation—An impression management tactic whereby individuals use threats and harassment to
appear powerful.
self-handicapping—Any action taken in advance of an outcome that is designed to provide either
an excuse for failure or a credit for success.

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Chapter Outline

INTRODUCTION
 Power is a pervasive part of the fabric of organizational life
 Both managers and non-managers use it
 A person’s success or failure in using or reacting to power is determined by…
 Understanding power
 Knowing how and when to use it
 Being able to anticipate its probable effects

THE CONCEPT OF POWER

 The terms power and influence are frequently used interchangeably, but there are subtle
differences
 Power represents the capability to get someone
to do something (the potential to influence)
 Influence is the exercise of that capability
(power in action)
 Power is not an attribute of a particular person; it is an aspect of the relationship that exists
between two or more people
 No individual or group can have power in
isolation
 Obtaining, maintaining, and using power are all essential to influencing the behavior of
people in organizational settings
 In symmetrical relationships, both parties have
the same amount of power
 In asymmetrical relationships, one person has
more power than the other
 This symmetry can change over time, as a
person or group gains or loses power
Reality Check: How much do you know about power, politics, and empowerment?

WHERE DOES POWER COME FROM?

 Power facilitates an organization’s adaptation to its environment
 The people and groups within the organization
that can assist that adaptation are the ones that will hold power
 Interpersonal Power

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 Legitimate Power: refers to a person’s ability to

influence others because of the position within the organization that person holds
(authority)
 This organizational authority is invested
in a person’s position, is accepted by subordinates, and is used vertically

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 Reward Power: based on a person’s ability to

reward a follower for compliance
 Backed up by legitimate power
 If the reward has no value to an
individual, it will not likely influence behavior
 Coercive Power: the power to punish
 One need not be in a position of
authority to possess coercive power
 Expert Power: special expertise that is highly
valued
 This power is not related to formal
positions
 The more difficult it is to replace the
expert, the greater the power he or she possesses
 Expert power is a personal characteristic
 Referent Power: the charisma of a person
 Often held by politicians, entertainers, or
sports figures
 The five source of interpersonal power can be divided into two major categories:
organizational and personal
 Legitimate, reward, and personal power are
primarily prescribed by the organization, the position, or specific interaction patterns
 Expert and referent power are the result of an
individual’s personal expertise or style and are grounded in the person, not the
organization
 The five types of interpersonal power are not independent of each other
 Power can be used in various combinations
 When subordinates believe a manager’s
coercive power is increasing, they also perceive a drop in reward, referent, and
legitimate power
 Some types of power are more likely to engender positive responses than are others
Management Pointer: Subordinate Responses to Different Power Sources
 Structural Power
 Structural sources of power result form the
nature of the organizational social system rather than from personal attributes
 Organizational structure creates formal
power and authority by specifying certain individuals to perform specific tasks and
make certain decisions

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 It impact informal power through its

effect on information and communication flows within the system
 Every organization has its own unique structure
and, as such, power is distributed in different ways
 Organizations with few levels of
management between the customer and top management have a more balanced
distribution of power among their employees than do traditional, multilevel
organizations

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 Resources
 Kanter argues that power stems from (a) access
to resources, information, and support, and (b) the ability to get cooperation in doing
necessary work
 In organizations, vital resources are allocated
downward long the lines of the hierarchy
 To ensure compliance with goals, top-
level managers allocate resources on the basis of performance and compliance
 Decision-Making Power
 The degree to which individuals or subunits can
affect decision making indicates the amount of power acquired
 Individuals who influence a decision-making
process and its outcomes may or may not have formal authority
Global OB: Google in China: “Do No Evil?”
 Information Power
 Knowledge is considered by some to be more
powerful than any part or structure of an organization
 Knowledge is a conclusion or analysis
derived from data and information
 Having access to relevant and important
knowledge information is power
 Those who possess the information
needed to make optimal decisions have power
 A powerful manager allocates required
resources, makes crucial decisions, and has access to important information
Exhibit 12.1: Symptoms and Sources of Powerlessness

EMPOWERMENT
 Defined by Conger and Kanungo as enhancing feelings of self-efficacy among
organizational members by identifying and then removing conditions that foster
powerlessness
 Removal may be accomplished by both formal
organizational practices and informal techniques
 Reasons that empowering employees is not universally embraced
 Managers fear the loss of power, control, and
authority
 Employees are unable to make responsible
decisions

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 Empowering employees was tried before and it

failed
 Sharing proprietary information means leaking
ideas, plans, and knowledge to competitors
 Not everyone wants to be empowered

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 Strengthening the capabilities and commitment of employees through empowerment is one

of the most important challenges facing managers today
 Stage 1: identify the condition that lead to
feelings of powerlessness
 Poor communications, highly centralized
resources, management styles, reward systems, the nature of the jobs
 Stage 2: implement empowerment strategies and
techniques
 Participative management, goal-setting
programs, merit-based pay systems, job enrichment
 Stage 3: remove the conditions identified in
stage 1 that contributed to powerlessness, and provide self-efficacy information to
subordinates
 Stage 4: receiving such information results in
feelings of empowerment
 Stage 5: the enhanced empowerment feelings
from stage 4 are translated into behaviors
Management Pointer: Increasing Your Effectiveness in Empowering Others

INTERDEPARTMENTAL POWER
 Subunit power, the power differential between subunits, is influenced by…
 The degree of ability to cope with uncertainty
 The centrality of the subunit
 The substitutability of the subunit
Exhibit 12.2: A Strategic Contingency Model of Subunit Power
 Coping with Uncertainty
 The subunits most capable of coping with
uncertainty typically acquire power
 Types of coping activities:
 Coping by prevention
 Coping by information
 Coping by absorption
 Centrality
 The subunits that are most central to the flow of
work typically acquire power
 No subunit has zero centrality

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 A subunit possess power if its activities have a

more immediate or urgent impact than those of other subunits

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 Substitutability
 The ability of other subunits to perform the
activities of a particular subunit
 A subunit’s power will be diminished if the
organization can obtain alternative sources of skill, information, or resources
 The lower the substitutability of the activities of
a subunit, the greater is its power within the organization

THE ILLUSION OF POWER

 Where a person or subunit’s power starts or stops is difficult to pinpoint
 Even people who seemingly possess only a little
power can influence others
 A series of studies conducted by Milgram focused on the illusion of power
 It showed that people will administer electric
shocks to test subjects, if instructed to do so by an authority figure, even if they were
uncomfortable doing so
 The eye of the beholder plays an important role in the exercise of power
Exhibit 12.3: Results of Milgram’s Classic Experiment on Obedience

POLITICAL STRATEGIES AND TACTICS

 Political behavior can mean:
 Behavior that is outside the legitimate,
recognized power system
 Behavior that benefits an individual or subunit,
often at the expense of the organization in general
 Behavior that is intentional and is designed to
acquire and maintain power
 Political behavior can displace formal
power
 Research on Politics
 A study of 142 purchasing agents found that
they practiced these political behaviors
 Rule evasion: evading the formal
purchase procedures
 Personal-political: using friendships to
facilitate or inhibit order processing
 Educational: persuading engineering to
think in purchasing terms

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 Organizational: changing the formal and

informal interaction patterns between engineering and purchasing
Exhibit 12.4: Personal Characteristics of Effective Organizational Politicians
 Playing Politics
 Politics and political behavior exist in every
organization

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 Game Playing
 Henry Mintzberg identified 13 types of political
games played in organizations, by managers and non-managers alike
 Games are played to:
 Resist authority (insurgency)
 Counter the resistance to authority
(counter-insurgency)
 Build power bases (sponsorship and
coalition-building)
 Defeat rivals (line versus staff)
 Bring about organizational change
(whistle-blowing)
 It is unrealistic to assume that game playing can
be eliminated
 It is practiced even in the most efficient,
profitable, productive, and responsible organizations
 Political Influence Tactics
 Influence is what playing politics is all about
 Individuals and groups try to influence
the perceptions or behaviors of other individuals and groups
 Common tactics used to influence others
 Consultation
 Rational persuasion
 Inspirational appeals
 Ingratiating tactics
 Coalition tactics
 Pressure tactics
 Legitimating
 Personal appeals
 Exchange tactics
 Not all of these tactics are equally effective in
bringing about desired results
 Inspirational appeals and consultation
are the most effective tactics
 Most tactics lead to one of three
outcomes: commitment, compliance, or resistance
Exhibit 12.5: Frequency of Outcomes for the Use of Political Influence Tactics

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 Those using ingratiating behaviors and logic

have a greater chance of succeeding at their careers than do those who do not use those
tactics

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 Impression Management
 Refers to the actions individuals take to control
the impressions that others form of them
 Impression management is universal
 Impression management does not imply that a
false impression is being conveyed, but creating blatantly false impressions can damage
your credibility and reputation
 Many impression-management tactics are
designed to emphasize the positive
 Self-handicapping refers to any action taken in
advance of an outcome that is designed to provide either an excuse for failure or a
credit for success

ETHICS, POWER, AND POLITICS

 When the use of power is outside the bounds of formal authority, policies, procedures, job
descriptions, and organizational goals, it is political in nature
 When this occurs, ethical issues are likely to be
present
 Examples: bribing government officials, lying
to employees and customers, polluting the environment, and a general “ends justify the
means” mentality
 Managers confront ethical dilemmas in their jobs because they use power and politics to
accomplish their goals
 A manager’s behavior must satisfy certain
criteria to be considered ethical
 Criterion of utilitarian outcomes
 Criterion of individual rights
 Criterion of distributive justice
 The behavior may still be considered ethical in a
particular situation if it passes
the criterion of overwhelming factors
 The Organizational Encounter on page 360
presents a decision-tree approach to the application of these criteria
Org Encounter: Using an Ethical Decision Tree
 In an organization where decisions are forced down to the lowest levels, employees must
be constantly aware of the ethical implications of what they do

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USING POWER TO MANAGE EFFECTIVELY

 Nothing gets done in any organization until someone makes it happen
 Making the right things happen is what a
manager’s job is all about
 Organizational theorist and researcher Jeffry Pfeffer has identified considerations that are
important is using power to manage effectively
 Recognize that there are multiple interests in
virtually every organization
 Know what position relevant individuals and
groups hold with respect to issues important to you
 Understand that to get things done you must
have power, and in the case of those who oppose you, you must have more power than
they do
 Recognize the strategies and tactics through
which organizational power is developed and used
 An organizational member does not have to be in a formal leadership position to possess or
use power
You Be The Judge: Can Business Schools Teach Ethics?
You Be The Judge Comment

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Summary of Key Points

 Power is the capability one party has to affect the actions of another party. Influence is a
transaction in which one party induces another party to behave in a certain way. Another way
of making the distinction is to think of power as the potential to influence, and influence as
power in action.
 French and Raven introduced the notion of five interpersonal power bases; legitimate
(position based), reward, coercive (punishment based), expert, and reference (charismatic).
These five bases can be divided into two major categories: organizational and personal.
Legitimate, reward, and coercive power are primarily prescribed by an organization, while
expert and referent power are based on personal qualities.
 Organizational structure creates power by specifying certain individuals to perform certain
tasks. Three important forms of structural power include (1) access to resources, (2) ability
to affect decision-making processes, and (3) having access to relevant and important
information.
 Powerlessness occurs when an individual has little or no access to the bases of interpersonal
or structural power. Empowerment refers to a process whereby conditions that contribute to
powerlessness are identified and removed. Two important factors in empowerment are
helping organizational members feel confident of their ability to perform well and increasing
the linkages between effort and performance.
 The strategic contingency approach addresses subunit power. A strategic contingency is an
event or activity that is extremely important for accomplishing organizational goals. The
strategic contingency factors that have been disclosed by research include coping with
uncertainty, centrality, and substitutability.
 Individuals with very little or no real power may still influence others because they appear to
be powerful. This is the illusion of power that was clearly illustrated in the Migram
experiments on obedience.
 Frequently used influence tactics include consultation, rational persuasion, inspirational
appeals, ingratiating tactics, coalition building, use of pressure, legitimating, personal
appeals, and exchange tactics. A particularly important and frequently used tactic is that of
impression management.
 A manager’s behavior should satisfy certain criteria to be considered ethical. These include
the (1) criterion of utilitarian outcomes (the greatest good for the greatest number), (2)
criterion of individual rights (respecting rights of free consent, speech, privacy, and due
process), and (3) criterion of distributive justice (respecting the rules of justice).
 Using power to manage effectively means (1) recognizing that there are multiple interest in
every organization, (2) knowing what position others hold with respect to issues important to
you, (3) understanding that getting things done requires having and using power, and
(4) recognizing the strategies and tactics through which organizational power is developed
and used.

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Review and Discussion Questions

1. Think about a previous job you have held. Which, if any, were the sources of your power?
Did you attempt to increase your power? If so, how?
Ans: Student answers will vary depending on their individual experience.

2. What is meant by the term empowerment? Why is empowerment a concept that is resisted
by some and rejected by others?
Ans: Empowerment means encouraging and/or helping individuals and groups to make decisions
that affect their work environment. It is resisted by some, and rejected by others, because:
1. Managers fear the loss of power, control, and authority.
2. Employees are not able to make responsible decisions.
3. Empowering employees was attempted before and it failed.
4. Sharing proprietary information means leaking ideas, plans, and knowledge to competitors.
5. Not everyone wants to be empowered.

3. If you wanted to gain compliance from subordinates, what type of power would you use?
Explain what compliance means.
Ans: To gain compliance, one would use legitimate or reward power. Compliance means that
subordinates will obey requests, but they are unlikely to exert more than the minimal effort
necessary.

4. Assume that the printing process is a strategic contingency for a publishing company, and
that only one group of employees knows how to operate the printing press. How could the
environment be changed to more evenly balance power within the printing department?
Ans: The more individuals in the organization who can use the printing press, the less vulnerable the
organization and the lower the power of the printing group. If the company trains a number of
groups or individuals to run the printing press, it lessens the power of the original group. Another
strategy might be to increase the number of presses. This would require hiring more operators, thus
reducing the power of each individual within the department.

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5. How the illusion of power can be just as effective as actual power was clearly illustrated in
the "obedience to authority" experiments of Milgram. Can you think of other examples where
people have responded to the illusion of power? Does this happen in organizations?
Ans: Students may cite several examples, such as complying with the norms of a group that the
individual perceives to be more powerful than it really is. Subjecting oneself to the degradation of a
hazing initiation would be one obvious example. Such behavior does occur in organizations,
sometimes formally (as in rites of initiation), sometimes informally (as in cases where authoritative
managers overstep their boundaries and insist that employees perform tasks that are not part of their
jobs).

6. Political games are played at all organizational levels by both managers and non-managers.
Identify the purposes for which these games are played.
Ans: Games are played to (1) resist authority, (2) counter the resistance to authority, (3) build power
bases, (4) defeat rivals, and (5) bring about organizational change.

7. A number of frequently used influence tactics were discussed in the text. Have many have
you witnessed being played in organizations of which you are a member? What other tactics
have you seen used?
Ans: Student answers will vary. Use this question to stimulate class discussion. Note the differences
in response from work experienced and non-work experienced students. Also, see if the international
student responses differ from the American students.

8. The use of power and politics often involve ethical issues. What are the criteria that may be
used to determine the extent to which a manager's behavior is ethical? Are there ever
legitimate exceptions to these criteria?
Ans: One set of criteria to use in determining the ethics of a manager's behavior involves
considering:
1. The net good (utility) of the behavior.
2. The extent to which the behavior honors the rights of all parties involved.
3. The fairness and equity of the behavior.
If a situation has "overwhelming factors" that speak to the rightness of another situation, behavior
that does not fit the three criteria may be justified.

9. Which power would you prefer to develop for yourself: expert power or legitimate power?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each of these sources of power? Explain.
Ans: Student answers will vary, depending on how they view each type of power and whether or not
they feel they have (or can develop) a talent that is of expert level.

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Expert power is a personal characteristic of individuals who deal in technical, medical,

administrative, or personal matters. It is a power than can be held for as long as the person remains
an expert in the field and the field does not become obsolete. In other words, the power is not job or
company dependent; the holder takes it with him or her where ever they go. Plus, orders coming
from someone with expert power are likely to result in commitment rather than just compliance.
However, expert power can always be overruled by legitimate power.

Legitimate power is awarded by the organization and is more dependant on the position held than on
the knowledge of the person in the position. This type of power is lost as soon as the job is lost.
Subordinates often believe that they must carry out orders given by someone with legitimate power,
but they may not be as committed to it as they would be if the order-giver was an expert in the field.

10. When was the last time you engaged in impression management? Was it effective? Why or
why not? How might you use impression management to get a promotion? To receive a better
grade in a course?
Ans: Student answers will vary.

REALITY CHECK: Now, how much do you know about Power, Politics, and Empowerment?

EXERCISE 12.1: Empowerment Profile

EXERCISE 12.2: How Political Are You?

CASE 12.1: The Power and Politics of Privacy on Social Networking Sites
Page 366

1. What is your opinion regarding these online privacy issues? To what extent are you
concerned about how your personal information on Facebook, MySpace, and Google is used?
Explain.
Ans: Student answers will vary.

2. Looking back at the section on “political influence tactics” in this chapter, which tactics did
Facebook’s CEO Mark Zuckenberg use after he changed the original terms of use on
February 4, 2009? Describe.
Ans: The two tactics that Zuckenberg used after changing the original terms of use on Facebook
were consultation and coalition. He used consultation by setting up a place for users to provide their
ideas, allowing users to participate in planning the next action. This site also incorporated coalition

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tactics. Zuckenberg could use feedback on the site to help persuade other users to support his
decisions.

3. Of the stakeholders listed in the last paragraph of the case, which group do you think is
most powerful in terms of shaping the future direction of online privacy issues? Explain.
Ans: Student answers will vary. Power represents the capability to get someone to do something.
Users represent power in that they are the reason all of the other groups exist. However, their power
is limited in that they are not a cohesive group. The social networking companies have power
because they are the ones who provide access to the users. The advertising firms have power
because they are the ones spending the money. Privacy advocacy groups have power because they
can unite users. In this situation, technology companies probably have the least amount of power.
Governments always have power because they have the ability to make and change laws affecting
privacy issues.

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Teaching Hints and Tips

Lecture Ideas
1. To enhance understanding of French and Raven's five bases of interpersonal power, have
students identify a leader for whom they have worked and then assess the leader's power in
terms of the five bases. In discussing their power profiles, have them consider:
a. The limits of expert power (the boundaries of the power base).
b. The potential costs of coercive power (why its use can have unpredictable effects).

2. Use an article on self-managed teams to illustrate the methods of empowerment alluded to in

the Conger article at the end of the chapter. Better still, give students a copy of an article, and
ask them to look for examples of empowerment as they read it.

3. Students should be able to provide numerous examples of subunit/departmental power based

on substitutability, centrality, and in particular, the ability to cope with a key strategic
contingency. Ask your students: in an organization in which you've worked, what department
was the most powerful? Why? What impact did this have on morale and on the way people did
their jobs?

4. Most people at some point have experienced an illusion of power, believing that someone or
some unit was more powerful than was actually the case. Ask students whether they've ever
observed a power illusion and discuss why the individual or unit appeared to possess more
power than was actually so. What was the source of this illusory power?

5. Ask students to recall examples of political game playing in organizations. Ask them to cite
examples that may not be fit neatly into the games discussed in the chapter. What effects did
these games have on the players, on the observers, and the organization?

Project Ideas and Suggested Class Speakers

1. To get students to think about how managers might work out ethical dilemmas, especially
those related to power and politics, ask them to right a mini-case about some real or
hypothetical issue that an entry level employee or beginning manager might face. The
assignment should include an explanation of how the student would reason through the
situation to make an ethical decision. Make this a homework assignment. On the day that the
assignment is due, ask for volunteers to read to the class that portion of the paper that describes
the dilemma, or case. Then let the class discuss the case, perhaps applying the three criteria
identified in the chapter, or using the decision-tree approach. Students will have no trouble
identifying ethical dilemmas. The variety and nature of the cases they bring in will probably
surprise them, however.

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2. Invite an executive director of a non-profit agency to your class as a guest, specifying that your
purpose is to have that person talk with students about power, politics and leadership. Non-
profit leaders typically have to be creative in building coalitions, in appealing to multiple
audiences, and in finding rewards, other than monetary ones, to encourage people to give their
time and energy to the organization's work. Encourage students to ask questions of the speaker,
especially questions related to the concepts discussed in this chapter and the chapter on
motivation.

Term Paper Topics

1. (Selected example): A Profile of the Use of Referent Power
2. The Five Bases of Interpersonal Power: An Overview of Research
3. Negotiations: Study of the Resolution of a Public Policy Dispute.
4. Power in Washington: What is the Impact of Political Power on Corporate America and Visa
Versa?
5. Topic for Term Paper Debate: Is Politics Really Necessary in Organizations?
6. A Tactical Plan for Gaining Administrative Support of (some cause, e.g., animal rights
policies, sex education, AIDS in Africa, Gay and Lesbian Rights, Prayer in Schools, faith
based charities)
7. (Selected example): Profile of a Subunit's Substitutability/Centrality and Its Resulting Power
8. Can Self-Managed Teams Do Without Political Games?
9. Milgram's Study of Authority and Power: Was the Study Itself Unethical?
10. (Selected example): Profile of an Illusion of Power

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