7.
TRANSPORT IN HUMANS
Content
7.1 Circulatory system
Transport in humans - the circulatory system
The main transport system of human is
the circulatory system, a system of tubes (
blood
vessels) with a pump (the heart) and valv
es to
ensure one-way flow of blood.
Its functions:
→ To transport nutrients and oxy
gen to the cells.
→ To remove waste and carbon d
ioxide from the cells.
→ To provide for efficient gas exch
ange.
The right side of the heart
collects deoxygenated blood form the body
and pumps it to the lungs.
The left side collects oxygenated
blood
from the lungs and pumps it to the
body.
The double circulation
Beginning at the lungs, blood flows into the left-hand side of the heart,
and then out to the rest of the body. It is brought back to the right-side
of the heart, before going back to the lungs again.
This is call a double circulation system, because the blood travels throug
h the heart twice on one complete journey around the body:
→ one circuit links the heart and lungs (low pressure circulation)
→ the other circuit links the heart with the rest of the body (high
pressure circulation).
The importance of a double circulation
→ Oxygenated blood is kept separate from deoxygenated blood. T
he
septum in the heart ensures this complete separation. Oxygenated
blood flows through the left side of the heart while deoxygenated bl
ood flows through the right.
→ The blood pressure in the systemic circulation is kept higher tha
n that in the pulmonary circulation. The left ventricle, with a thicker
wall, pumps blood under higher pressure to the body and delivers
oxygenated blood effectively to all parts of the body. The right
ventricle has a thinner wall and pumps blood to the lungs under lower pressure, thereby avo
iding any lung damage.
Structure and function of the heart
The function of the heart is to pump blood around the body. The right
side pumps blood to the lungs and the left side pumps blood to the res
t of
the body.
Heart's function
→ Blood circulation
1. Blood in the right ventricle (RV) is pump to the lungs
2. Blood from the lungs flows back into the left atrium (LA) and then
into the left ventricle (LV).
3. Blood in the LV is pumped through the body (except for the lungs)
4. Blood returns to the heart where it enters the right atrium (RA).
→ Muscular contraction
The heart is made of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle which
contracts and relaxes regularly, throughout life.
The heart’s muscle is constantly active, so it needs its own blood supply,
through the coronary artery, to provide it with oxygen and glucose.
→ Working of the valves
Valves in the heart prevent blood from being pushed backwards up into the
atria when the heart ‘beats’.
Cardiac Cycle
Blood is continuously being moved around the body, collecting and supplying vital
substances to cells as well as removing waste from them. The heart acts as a pump using a
combination of systole (contractions) and diastole (relaxations) of the chambers.
Pulse: Each beat of the heart creates a surge of pressure in the arteries, called the p
ulse. There is
no such surge in veins, whereblood flows smoothly under much lower pressur
Effect of exercise on heartbeat and causes of coronary heart disease
A heartbeat is a contraction. Each contraction
squeezes blood to the lungs and body. The heart
beats about 70 times a minute, more if you are
younger, and the rate becomes lower the fitter y
ou are.
→ During exercise the heart
rate increases to
supply the muscles with more oxygen and
glucose à allow the muscles to respire
aerobically à they have sufficient energy to
contract.
→ Regular exercise is important to keep the
heart muscle in good tone à heart is more efficient in maintaini
ng blood pressure and↓risk of coronary heart disease and strok
e.
Coronary arteries
The muscles of the heart are so thick that the nutrients and oxygen in the
blood inside the heart would not be able to diffuse to all the muscles quick
ly enough. The heart muscles needs a constant supply of nutrients so that
it can keep contracting and relaxing. The coronary arteries supply this.
If a coronary artery gets blocked – e.g. by a blood clot – the cardiac
muscles run short of oxygen à they can not respire à can not obtain energy to contract à he
art stops beating. This is called a heart attack or cardiac arrest.
Main causes of a coronary heart disease and preventive measures
1. Atheroma
The lumen of the arteries is narrowed by the deposit of cholesterol on
their inner walls. This
may lead to the blockage of the blood vessels. The blockage of blood ves
sels due to the cholesterol deposit is ca
lled Atheroma.
2. Thrombosis
The formation of a solid lump of blood (blo
od clot) inside the blood vessels is called Thr
ombosis.
A blood clot or any solid particles floating in t
he blood stream is called embolism.
3. Heart Attack
A sudden stoppage of heart beat is called heart attack or heart failure. This may
be due to the blockage of coronary artery by thrombosis or atheroma. Coronary arte
ry supply oxygen and food to the walls of the heart.
Blockage of the coronary arteries is called coronary heart disease.
Arteries, veins and capillaries - structure and functions
There are 3 main kinds of blood vessels – arteries, veins and capillaries.
→ Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They divide again and
again, and eventually form very tiny vessels called capillaries.
→ The capillaries gradually join up with one another to form large
vessels called veins.
→ Veins carry blood towards the heart.
The comparison of blood vessels structure and functions
The transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid
As blood
enters capillaries from arterioles (small arteries), it slows down. Thi
s allows substances in the plasma, as well as O2 from red blood ce
lls, to diffuse through the capillary wall into the surrounding tissues
(the capillary wall is thin and permeable).
Liquid in the plasma also passes
out. This forms tissue fluid, bath
ing the
cells. Waste products from the c
ells, e.g. CO2, diffuse back throu
gh the
capillary walls into the plasma. So
me of the tissue fluid also passes
back.
Diffusion is responsible f
or the transfer of materia
ls between
capillaries and tissue flui
d.
Plan of the main bloo
d
vessels in the human
body
Blood composition and Plasma
If blood is allowed to stand without clotting, it separates out into 4 components: plasma, red
blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
The plasma and red blood cells play an important role in
the transportation of substances, around the body.
White blood cells and platelets are part of the body's immune system.
55% of the blood is plasma. This straw-coloured liquid contain water
with many important dissolved substances which must be carried around the body. Most materials a
re carried by the blood plasma, except for oxygen.
Plasma trans
ports:
→ blood cells
→ soluble nutrients e.g. glucose (products of digestion) from the s
mall
intestine to the organs
→ amino acids (plasma acts as a pool for amino acids for these
cannot be stored in the body)
→ plasma proteins that are important in blood clotti
ng (e.g. fibrinogen).
→ CO2 (waste gas produced by respiration in cells) from the or
gans to lungs
→ Other wastes of digestion (e.g. urea) from the liver to the kidneys.
→ Antibodies and antitoxins
→ Hormones
→ Ions
→ Heat from the liver and muscles to all parts of the body.
Blood cells - structure and functions
Blood consists of cells floating in plasma.
Most of the cells are red blood cells.
A much smaller number are white blood cells.
There are also fragments formed from special cells in the bone marro
w, called platelets.
Red and white blood cells as se
en under a light microscope.
Blood as seen through a microscope:
→ The largest ce
lls
are white cel
ls.
→ The others are all r
ed cells.
→ There are als
o a
few platelets
.
Functions of blood cells
→ Red blood cells transport oxygen.
→ White blood cells protect against disease.
→ Blood platelets help the blood to clot.
[Link] blood cells (erythrocytes)
→ Made in the bone marrow of some bones, including ribs, vertebr
ae and some limb bones. Produced at a very fast rate –
about 9000 million per hour!
→ Transport O2 from lungs to all respiring tissues. Prepare CO2 f
or transport from all rerspiring tissues to lungs.
→ Contain haemoglobin (Hb), a red iron-containing pigment which
can carry O2. In the lungs, Hb combines with O2 to form
oxyhaemoglobin. In other organs, oxyhaemoglobin splits up into H
b and O2
→ Have no nucleus à can fit more Hb inside the cytoplasm, b
ut can lives only for about 4 months.
→ Have a special biconcave disc shape à increases the surface area a
nd makes the diffusion of oxygen into & out of the cell easier.
→ Old red blood cells are broken down in the liver, spleen and bone
marrow. Some of the iron from the Hb is stored, and used for makin
g new Hb, some of it is turned into bile pigment and excreted.
2. White blood cells (leukocytes)
→ Made in the bone marrow and in the lymph nodes.
→ Have a nucleus, often large and lobed.
→ Can move around and squeeze out through the walls of blood
capillaries into all parts of the body.
→ There are many different kinds of white blood cells. They all have the
function of fighting pathogens (disease-causing bacteria and
viruses) and to clear up any dead body cells in your body:
[Link]:
→ Have lobed nuclei and granular cytoplasm.
→ Can move out of capillaries to the site of an infection.
→ Remove any microorganisms that invade the body and might cause
infection, engulf (ingest) and kill them by digesting them.
b. Lymphocytes: produce antibodies to fight bacteria and foreign
materials.
→ Have large nuclei
→ Responsible for immunity
→ There are two different types of lymphocytes:
B-lymphocytes: secrete special proteins called antibodies in
response to contact with their particular antigen, which may be an
invading pathogen or a foreign tissue that has been transplanted.
T-lymphocytes attack foreign or infected cells and kill them.
3. Platelets (thrombocytes)
→ Small fragments of cells, with no nucleus.
→ Made in the red bone marrow.
→ Involve in blood clotting: form blood clot, which stop blood loss a
t a wound and prevent the entry of germs into the body.
Functions of the blood
→ Transportation of R.B.C’s, W.B.C’s, oxygen, food nutrients, hormones
,
and waste products.
→ Defence against disease, by white blood cells phagocytosis an
d production of antibodies.
→ Supplying cells with glucose to respire and keep a constan
t temperature.
Blood clotting
When an injury causes a blood vessel wall to break, platelets are activated. They change shape from r
ound to spiny, stick to the broken vessel wall and each other, and begin to plug the break.
The platelets also interact with fibrinogen, a soluble plasma protein,
to form insoluble fibrin. Calcium is required for that.
Fibrin strands form a net that entra
ps
more platelets and other blood cells
(red cells and white cells), producing
a clot that plugs the break.
Necessity for blood clotting
→ Prevent excessive blood loss from the body when there is a damage
of the blood vessel.
→ Maintain the blood pressure.
→ Prevent the entry of microorganism and foreign particles into the bod
y.
→ Promote wound healing.
Antibody production
Antibodies are produced by lymphocytes, which are formed in lymph
nodes. Lymphocytes produced antibodies in response to the presence
of pathogens such as bacteria. This is because alien cells have chemicals
called antigen on their surface. A different antibody is produced for each
antigen.
The antibodies make bacteria clump together in preparation for action by
phagocytes, or neutralise toxins produced by the bacteria. Once
antibodies have been made, they remain in the blood to provide long-term
protection.
Some lymphocytes memorise the antigens the body has been exposed to.
They can rapidly reproduce and produce antibodies to respond to further
infections by the same pathogen (disease-causing organism).
Tissue rejection
Transplants involve replaci
ng a damaged organ with a
donor
organ. Unfortunately, lymph
ocytes
and phagocytes will respond to any
foreign cells in your body, even if they a
re not pathogens.
If a person's kidneys fail, they can be giv
en a new kidney taken from
another person. However the
recipient's immune system will
recognise the cells in the new
kidney as 'foreign', and will attack
and destroy them.
The transplanted organ trigg
ers an
immune response, antibodi
es
are secreted and the organ may be
rejected. This is called tissue rejectio
n.