CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter will be discussing the relevant theories, prior studies and literatures relevant

to the cigarette filters, plastics, and concrete. This part of the study accounts the works that has

been published related to the topic. Moreover, this will justify the reasons for this research.

Relevant Theories

Compressive Strength Test

Testing the strength of a block is crucial for it establishes its effectiveness as an element

in construction. Thus, it is significant to have compressive strength test when producing a

concrete block. According to Spacey (2017), Compressive strength is the capacity of material or

structure to convey the loads on its surface with no split or redirection. With that being

aforementioned, it signifies that testing the strength of the block is a systematic method to

commend it to consumption. It is also stated by Curley (2019) that “Brittle materials such as

rock, brick, cast iron, and concrete may exhibit great compressive strengths; but ultimately they

fracture. The crushing strength of concrete, determined by breaking a cube, and often called the

cube strength, reaches values of about 3 tons per square inch, that of granite 10 tons per square

inch, and that of cast iron from 25 to 60 tons per square inch”. This compressive strength test is

suitable in this study to determine the potentials of the reinforced block.

Water Absorption Test

The durability of concrete near an exposed surface is largely determined by the rate at

which harmful agents can penetrate into the concrete. Moreover, penetration of water into a
concrete affect its resilience. Thus, water absorption test is demanded to determine if a concrete

is suitable in utilizing. According to the GharPedia (2019). “If the brick absorbs moisture from

water when laid, the mortar will become weak and poor. It fails to make the bond between bricks

and mortar due to insufficient water for the reaction of cement in the mortar and reduces the

strength of construction. Also, if the brick absorbs more water than the recommended result, it

gives adverse effects on the strength of brick as well as the durability of the structure”. This

statement justifies that determining the water absorption of a brick is crucial to establish its

effectivity.

Waste Recycling

Recycling is significant in this generation for the amount of wastes are continuously

increasing. Moreover, it is a valuable process to both human and natural environment. Recycling

is processing utilized materials into new, valuable items. This is done to diminish the utilization

of crude materials that would have been utilized. Reusing additionally utilizes less vitality and

extraordinary method for controlling air, water and land contamination. According to Nicoll,

“Recycling is one of the best and effective ways to keep the environment impregnable. Because

only reusing can lower the amount of waste and save the natural resources for future. Less

landfill trash can save air and water from polluting”. This theory is manifested in this study

through the used cigarette filter tips and plastics.

Related Literature

Foreign

Plastics:
 Plastic pollution in marine water bodies leads to innumerable deaths of aquatic animals,

and this also affects the aquatic plants to a considerable degree. Ethylene oxide, xylene, and

benzene are some of the chemical toxins present in plastic, which can have hazardous effects on

the environment. It is not easy to dispose it off, and it can cause permanent harm to living beings.

Several additives found in plastic, such as phthalates, adipates, and even alkylphenols, have been

recognized as toxic materials. (Gaikwad, 2019)

Environment:

So I’ve just stated the most important things about the environment, and that is it is

essential for our survival. But let us not dwell on the notion that the environment is only for the

benefit of us humans. Because we all know that’s not true and it would be entirely selfish of us to

think so. In our environment there exists ecosystems, communities, biomes, natural processes,

plants, micro-organisms, sea and land creatures and many non-living things. Simple or complex

biological, chemical or physical processes that has shaped the way we have come to live now.

All of the things that we at many a times take for granted because it’s always there. (Kaitani,

2018)

Cigarettes:

According to Elflein (2019), Global consumption of cigarettes has increased rapidly since

1900. In 1920, 300 billion cigarettes were consumed, and in 2009, cigarette consumption had

reached 5.88 billion units. The Western Pacific region consumes about half of the world’s

cigarettes, while about 11 percent is consumed in the Americas. However, there has been a

significant decrease in per capita cigarette consumption in the United States.

 In addition to that, Martin (2019), said that yearly, there is estimated trillions of filters

discarded as waste. Filled with toxic chemicals, the part with the color of white cotton is a form

of plastic called cellulose acetate. The plastic itself is very slow to degrade and it can take 18

months to 10 years to decompose completely.

Moreover, based on the Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety Journal, cigarette filters

reduce the germination success of grass by 10% and clover by 27%, and the shoot length by 13%

and 28%. For the reports of NBC news, the estimated 5.6 trillion cigarettes that are manufactured

worldwide yearly, 4.5 trillion cigarette filters are "dumped irresponsibly".

Filter tip (Cigarette filters):

According to Martin (2019), the core of most cigarette filters, the part that looks like

white cotton, is actually a form of plastic called cellulose acetate. By itself, cellulose acetate is

very slow to degrade in our environment. Depending on the conditions of the area the cigarette

butt is discarded in, it can take 18 months to 10 years for a cigarette filter to decompose. But that

isn't the worst of it. Used cigarette filters are full of toxins, which can leach into the ground and

waterways, damaging living organisms that come into contact with them. Most filters are

discarded with bits of tobacco still attached to them as well, further polluting our environment

with nicotine, which is poisonous.

Local

Plastics:

An audit in the Philippines has shown the country uses a "shocking" amount of single-use

plastic, including nearly 60 billion sachets a year, a new report said Friday. The report, produced

by the NGO GAIA, is part of an effort to collect data on plastic consumption as

environmentalists push for government action to reduce plastic waste. It contains eye-popping

figures: every day, almost 48 million shopping bags are used throughout the Philippines, adding

up to more than 17.5 billion a year (Presse, 2019).

Concrete Block with plastic wastes and filter tip:

Based on the Philippine Agriculture, Cement eco-bricks in terms of strength are more

stable, heavier, and more solid when compared to the standard concrete block. It is also said that

houses that used cement eco-bricks are four times sturdier than the houses that were build using

the standard concrete blocks. The strength of the concrete blocks depends on the amount of

plastic waste added.

Moreover, according to Philippine Real Estate New (2019), each eco-brick can contain

almost about 100 pieces of shredded plastics. The success of these eco-bricks mostly depends on

the waste management and segregation of the people. It costs less than the regular concrete

blocks, and also it is five times stronger than the regular concrete blocks.

Related Study

Foreign

Environment:

Human-caused environmental changes are creating regional combinations of

environmental conditions that, within the next 50 to 100 years, may fall outside the envelope

within which many of the terrestrial plants of a region evolved. These environmental

modifications might become a greater cause of global species extinction than direct habitat

destruction. The environmental constraints undergoing human modification include levels of soil
nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and pH, atmospheric CO2, herbivore, pathogen, and predator

densities, disturbance regimes, and climate. Extinction would occur because the physiologies,

morphologies, and life histories of plants limit each species to being a superior competitor for a

particular combination of environmental constraints (Tilman and Lehman, 2001).

Filter tip (Cigarette filters):

According to Mohajerani,"Cigarette filters are designed to trap hundreds of toxic

chemicals and the only ways to control these chemicals are either by effective encapsulation for

the production of new lightweight aggregates or by the incorporation in fired clay bricks,"

In the study, published in the journal of Construction and Building Materials, the team

encapsulated the cigarette butts with bitumen and paraffin wax to lock in the chemicals and

prevent any leaching from the asphalt concrete. The encapsulated cigarette butts were mixed

with hot asphalt mix for making samples.

Concrete Block with plastic wastes and filter tip:

According to a study published by the International Journal of Scientific and Research

Publications, many researchers have studied the use of waste materials in concrete products such

as plastic wastes. Using these types of concrete products is cheaper and it is also more eco-

friendly than the normal concrete products.

An engineer and his team at RMIT University in Australia has found a way to use

cigarette butts in bricks. It is said that the bricks with the cigarette butts were lighter and a better

insulator than the regular bricks. These ecobricks are cheaper and helps lessen wastes in the

environment better than the standard bricks.

Local

Plastics:

In a report released a few years ago, the Ocean Conservancy singled out the Philippines

as one of five countries from where majority of plastics originates. Also on the list were China,

Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand (Gaia Discovery, 2019).

According to Rappler, written by Ranada (2015), the Philippines was ranked the 3rd top

source of plastic leaking into oceans in a February 2015 study. The country generates 2.7 million

metric tons of plastic garbage each year, 20% or 521,000 tons of which ends up in the ocean. Yet

the country reported one of the highest garbage collection rates in the region – with a national

average of 85% and nearly 90% in some dense urban areas.

In addition, the study found that 74% of the plastics leaking into the ocean from the

Philippines comes from garbage that has already been collected by haulers and garbage trucks.

This amounts to 386,000 tons of plastic trash. Only 26% or 135,000 tons of plastics in seas

actually comes from garbage that is not collected. The study attributed the leakage of collected

garbage to two factors: illegal dumping by garbage-hauling companies, and open dump sites

located near waterways. Based on interviews with local government officials and environmental

groups, the study found that waste leakage in the Philippines often happens while the garbage is

transported from the collection site (households, village material recovery facilities) to the dump

sites.

Environment:

The Philippines are prone to natural disasters, particularly typhoons, floods, landslides,

volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis, lying as it does astride the typhoon belt, in the
active volcanic region known as the “Pacific Ring of Fire,” and in the geologically unstable

region between the Pacific and Eurasian tectonic plates. The Philippines also suffers major

human-caused environmental degradation aggravated by a high annual population growth rate,

including loss of agricultural lands, deforestation, soil erosion, air and water pollution, improper

disposal of solid and toxic wastes, loss of coral reefs, mismanagement and abuse of coastal

resources, and overfishing. Recent scientific studies reveal that human activities have contributed

significantly to the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that causes climate change.

(Ocampo)

Conceptual Framework
Input

Output
Process

Cigarette filter A reinforced

Used tips and plastics
cigarette concrete
were mixed to
block with
filter tips the cement, sad,
cigarette filter
and plastics and gravel to
produce a tips and
concrete block plastics
Figure

1. Research Paradigm

This study used the research paradigm above as a guide in conducting the study. In the

input, this study used cigarette filter tips and plastics as an additive component in manufacturing

concrete block. In the process or the production of the block, the cigarette filter tips and plastics

were mixed to the raw materials in producing a concrete block and after the concrete has been

made, the product was used to further observation and investigation to test its stability,
durability, strength, and water absorption As a result of the coalescence of the cigarette filter

tips and plastics to the concrete block, the researchers produced a reinforced block which are

possible to be the components for higher quality of a standard block.

Hypothesis

There is no significant difference between the block with the cigarette filter tips and

plastics and the standard concrete block.

Synthesis

With the help of related literatures and studies, the researchers will be able to identify the

importance of the study and its significance. These prior studies will be the foundation of a new

research topic that can be conducted in the near future.

Bibliography (Relevant Theories):

Curley, R. (2019). Compressive Strength Test. Retrieved from

[Link]

GharPedia. (2019). Water Absorption Test of Bricks. Retrieved from

[Link]

Nicoll, D. (n.d.). The Importance of Recycling in the Environment. Retrieved from Earth Eclipse:

[Link]
Spacey, J. (2017, November 11). What is Compressive Strength. Retrieved from

[Link]

Tilman , D., & Lehman, C. (2001, May 08). Human-caused environmental change: Impacts on

plant diversity and evolution. Retrieved from [Link]

Bibliography (RRL/RRS):

France-Presse, A. (2019, May 08). Shocking waste: Filipinos using nearly 60 billion sachets a

year. Retrieved from ABS-CBN News: [Link]

[Link]/news/03/08/19/shocking-waste-filipinos-using-nearly-60-billion-sachets-a-year

Gaikwad, A. (2019). Plastic Pollution: Causes and Effects of This Very Serious Issue. Retrieved

from HelpSaveNature: [Link]

John Elflein. (2019, February 18). Global cigarette consumption from 1880 to 2017 (in billion

cigarettes). Retrieved from [Link]

consumption-of-cigarettes-since-1880/

Kaitani, A. (2018). Why is the environment important? Retrieved from Quora:

[Link]

Martin, T. (2019, June 01). How Cigarette Butts Pollute the Environment . Retrieved from Very

well mind: [Link]

you-2824735

Ocampo, E. (n.d.). MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ISSUES . Retrieved

from COUNTRY REPORT ON CLIMATE CHANGE POLICIES, GREEN JOBS :

[Link]
Tilman , D., & Lehman, C. (2001, May 08). Human-caused environmental change: Impacts on

plant diversity and evolution. Retrieved from [Link]

Plastic Problems, pollution in the philippines. (2018, july 3). Retrieved from gaia discovery:

[Link]