SOIL

CARREON, BRYAN CESAR H ENGR. RODRIGO CANLAS

BSCE-IV JUNE 18, 2018

  SOIL -The upper layer of earth in which plants grow, a black or dark brown material typically
consisting of a mixture of organic remains, clay, and rock particles.

WHAT DOES SOIL MEANS IN OTHER FIELDS ?

• To a Pedologist - is the substance existing on the earth's surface, which grows and
develops plant life.

• To a Geologist - is the material in the relative thin surface zone within which roots
occur, and all the rest of the crust is grouped under the term ROCK irrespective of its
hardness.

What Soil Means in our Field?

 Soil – sediments or other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles produced by the

physical and chemical disintegration of rocks, and which may contain organic matter.

 Soils – are one of Earth's essential natural resources, yet they are often taken for granted.
Most people do not realize that soils are a living, breathing world supporting nearly all terrestrial
life.

The Beginnings of Soil Formation

• It has taken billions of years to yield the soil as we know it now. Over the course of these mind-
boggling stretches of time, the chemical elements on Earth came into existence, and the
uniformly rocky surface of the planet gradually gave way to deposits of softer material. This
softer matter, the earliest ancestor of soil, became enriched by the presence of minerals from
the rocks and, over a longer period, by decaying organic matter.

WEATHERING
– Is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical processes into
smaller pieces.

– is the breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well as wood and artificial

materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, water, and biological
organisms. Weathering occurs in situ (on site), that is, in the same place, with
little or no movement, and thus should not be confused with erosion, which
involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow,
 wind, waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other
locations.

TWO TYPES OF WEATHERING

• MECHANICAL WEATHERING

• May be caused by the expansion and contraction of rocks from the continous
gain and loss of heat, which results in ultimate disintegraation.

• CHEMICAL WEATHERING

• The original rock minerals are transformed into new minerals by chemical
reaction.

• Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through
direct contact with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure. The
second classification, chemical weathering, involves the direct effect of atmospheric
chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known as biological weathering in the
breakdown of rocks, soils and minerals.

Air Contents
By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen,[2] 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon
dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor,
on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content
and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use
in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in
Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres

PRODUCTS OF WEATHERING
• GLACIAL SOILS – Formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers

• ALLUVIAL SOILS- Transported by running water and deposited along streams

• LACUSTRINE SOILS- Formed by deposition in quiet lakes.

• MARINE SOILS- Formed by deposition in the seas

• AEOLIAN SOILS- Transported and deposited by wind

 • COLLUVIAL SOILS- Formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity, such
as during lanslide.

WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF SOIL?

• SAND AND GRAVEL

– Are cohesion-less aggregates of rounded angular fragment of more or less unaltered

materials

– The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but
the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-
tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.
The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example, aragonite,
which has mostly been created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life,
like coral and shellfish. 

• Gravel is a loose aggregation of rock fragments. Gravel is classified by particle size range and
includes size classes from granule- to boulder-sized fragments. In the Udden-Wentworth
scale gravel is categorized into granular gravel (2 to 4 mm or 0.079 to 0.157 in)
and pebble gravel (4 to 64 mm or 0.2 to 2.5 in). ISO 14688 grades gravels as fine, medium, and
coarse with ranges 2 mm to 6.3 mm to 20 mm to 63 mm. One cubic metre of gravel typically
weighs about 1,800 kg (or a cubic yard weighs about 3,000 pounds

• HARDPAN
• Is a soil that offer an exceptional great resistant to the penetration of drilling tools.

•  Hardpan or Ouklip is a dense layer of soil, usually found below the uppermost topsoil layer.

[1]
 There are different types of hardpan, all sharing the general characteristic of being a distinct
soil layer that is largely impervious to water. 

• Silt 
• is granular material of a size between sand and clay, whose mineral origin
is quartz[1] and feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil (often mixed with sand or clay) or
as sediment mixed in suspension with water (also known as a suspended load) and soil in a body
of water such as a river. It may also exist as soil deposited at the bottom of a water body,
like mudflowsfrom landslides.

• Clay is a finely-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay

minerals with possible traces of quartz (SiO2), metal oxides (Al2O3 , MgO etc.) and organic
 matter. Clay deposits are mostly composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable
amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to particle size and
geometry as well as water content, and become hard, brittle and non–plastic upon drying
or firing.[1][2][3] Depending on the soil's content in which it is found, clay can appear in various
colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red.

• Loam is soil composed mostly of sand (particle size > 63 µm), silt (particle size > 2 µm), and a

smaller amount of clay (particle size < 2 µm). By weight, its mineral composition is about 40–40–
20% concentration of sand-silt-clay, respectively. [1] These proportions can vary to a degree,
however, and result in different types of loam soils: sandy loam, silty loam, clay loam, sandy clay
loam, silty clay loam, and loam.[1] In the USDA textural classification triangle, the only soil that is
not predominantly sand, silt, or clay is called "loam". Loam soils generally contain more
nutrients, moisture, and humus than sandy soils, have better drainage and infiltration of water
and air than silt and clay-rich soils, and are easier to till than clay soils.

• PEAT

• Sphagnum moss, also called peat moss, is one of the most common components in peat,
although many other plants can contribute. Soils consisting primarily of peat are known
as histosols. Peat forms in wetland conditions, where flooding obstructs the flow of oxygen from
the atmosphere, slowing the rate of decomposition

LAYERS OF ROAD
• WE HAVE NGS natural ground soil

• Then backfill or embankment

• Sub-base course

• Base course

WHAT ARE THE EQUIPMENT USED?

• LOADER-  is a heavy equipment machine used in construction to move aside or load materials
such as asphalt, demolition debris, dirt, snow, feed, gravel, logs, raw minerals, recycled
material, rock, sand, woodchips, etc. into or onto another type of machinery (such as a dump
truck, conveyor belt, feed-hopper, or railroad car). There are many types of loader, which,
depending on design and application, are called by various names, including bucket
loader, front loader, front-end loader, payloader, scoop, shovel, skip loader, wheel loader,
or skid-steer.
 • Bulldozers-are considered one of the strongest and most reliable heavy equipment used in the
construction industry. It is powerful and extremely heavy equipment used to move dirt along
large open tracts of land. Bulldozers have a wide flat blade in front that can be operated using
two hydraulic pistons allowing the blade to be moved in limited angles or depths.

• Excavators-Excavators are used most of the times to dig dirt or to lift heavy pieces including
prefab pieces, pipes and other smaller equipment.

• The most common uses of an excavator are:

• Material handling

• Digging of trenches, holes and foundations

• Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments

• Demolition

• Rough grading

• Heavy lifting and pipe installation

• Mining

• River dredging

BACKFILL MATERIALS

What is backfilling?
• In construction, backfill replaces soil that is removed during building construction, and it is used
to strengthen and support a structure’s foundation. The backfills are of different types which are
used according to the requirement.

Embankments shall be constructed of suitable materials, in consonance with the following definitions:

• Suitable Material – Material which is acceptable in accordance with the Contract

and which can be compacted in the manner specified in this Item. It can be common material or
rock. 

• Selected Borrow, for topping – soil of such gradation that all particles
will pass a sieve with 75 mm (3 inches) square openings and not more than 15 mass percent will
 pass the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve, as determined by AASHTO T 11. The material shall have a
plasticity index of not more than 6 as determined by ASSHTO T 90 and a liquid limit of not more
than 30 as determined by AASHTO T 89

MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING METHODS

• -Gradation

• -Unit Weight and Specific Gravity

• -Moisture-Density Characteristics

• -Shear Strength

• -Compressibility

• -Bearing Capacity

• -Permeability

• -Corrosion Resistance

• Gradation – well-graded fill materials that consist of two or more soil types, usually a
mixture of granular and fine-grained soils, are most suitable for embankment construction.
Because of the wide variety of soils that may be encountered, there is no universally
recommended range of gradation for fill materials, although the maximum particle size should
be less than 100 mm (4 in) so that it can be readily placed within a 200 mm (8 in) layer. Rock, or
other oversize materials to be used as an embankment base, should consist of different size
particles, with a specified maximum particle size.

• Shear Strength – the shear strength characteristics (cohesion and/or internal

friction) are indicative of the ability of a fill material to support loads that are imposed upon it
under given drainage conditions. Shear strength characteristics are not always specified for
earthen fill materials, but are determined by tri-axial compression or direct shear testing and are
used to compute the slope stability of an embankment.

• Unit Weight and Specific Gravity – fill materials can vary in unit
weight over a fairly wide range, depending on the type of material and its moisture content. Fill
materials that are relatively low in unit weight offer the advantage of transmitting less dead load
to the underlying soil that supports an embankment. There are usually no specified
requirements for a minimum or maximum unit weight, either before or after compaction.
 • Compressibility – compressibility refers to the consolidation or settlement
characteristics of a material under long-term loading conditions. The compressibility of a fill
material is related to its shear strength, degree of compaction, void ratio, permeability, and
degree of saturation. The settlement characteristics of an earthen fill material are determined
by one-dimensional consolidation testing. Some settlement of an embankment or fill will occur
during its construction, while the remainder of the settlement (if any) will occur in the
postconstruction period.

• Moisture-Density Characteristics – the compaction characteristics

(optimum moisture content and maximum dry density) of a soil fill material are the most
important single property that affects embankment performance. Most specifications for
embankment construction require the compacted fill material to have an in-place density that is
within a certain percentage (usually 95 percent or greater) of the maximum dry density at a
moisture content that is within a certain percentage (usually 3 percent or less) of optimum. The
optimum moisture and maximum dry density of fill material(s) are determined in advance in the
laboratory by means of either standard or modified moisture-density compaction tests. These
tests methods are applicable for soils or earthen fill materials. Moisture-density characteristics
cannot usually be determined for oversize (over 100 mm (4 in) materials) materials.

• Bearing Capacity – bearing capacity refers to the ability of a fill material to

support the loadings imposed upon it over the life of the facility without undue settlement,
volume change, or structural damage. Bearing capacity can be determined by laboratory testing
and by field load tests.

• Permeability – permeability or hydraulic conductivity refers to the ability of a soil (or

an oversize material) to transmit water through the pore structure of the fill material at a given
rate. This property is indicative of the ability of a compacted fill material to provide drainage for
excessive moisture.

• Corrosion Resistance – corrosion is a basic chemical or electro-chemical

property of a material that can induce damage to concrete structures, steel piles, or metal
appurtenances with which the embankment or fill material may come in contact.

Unsuitable Material – Material other than suitable materials such as:

– Materials containing detrimental quantities of organic materials, such as grass, roots
and sewerage.

– Organic soils such as peat and muck.

 – Soils with liquid limit exceeding 80 and/or plasticity index exceeding 55.

– Soils with a natural water content exceeding 100%.

– Soils with very low natural density, 800 kg/m 3 or lower.

– Soils that cannot be properly compacted as determined by the Engineer.

TYPES OF BACKFILL MATERIALS

• Course Grained Soil

- Coarse-grained soils include gravelly and sandy soils and range from clayey sands (SC)
through the well-graded gravels of gravel-sand mixtures (GW) with little or no fines.

• Fine-Graded Soils of Low to Medium Plasticity

- In organic clays (CL) of low to medium plasticity (gravelly, sandy, or silty clays and lean clays)
and inorganic silts and very fine sands (ML) of low plasticity (silty or clayey fine sands and clayey silts)
are included in this category.

• Commercial by-products
-The use of commercial by-products, such as furnace slag or fly ash as backfill material, may be
advantageous where such products are locally available and where suitable natural materials cannot be
found. Fly ash has been used as a lightweight backfill behind a 25-foot-high wall and as an additive to
highly plastic clay. The suitability of these materials will depend upon the desirable characteristics of the
backfill and the engineering characteristics of the products.

• CLSM
-CLSM is a self-compacting, flowable, low-strength cementitious material used primarily as
backfill, void fill and utility bedding as an alternative to compacted fill.

-Conventional CLSM mixtures usually consist of water, Portland cement, fly ash or other similar
products, fine or coarse aggregates or both. Fly ash obtained from thermal power plant was used.

Procedure
• Prior to construction of embankment, all necessary clearing and grubbing in that area shall have
been performed in conformity with Item 100, Clearing and Grubbing.
• Embankments and backfills shall contain no muck, peat, sod, roots or other deleterious matter.
Rocks, broken concrete or other solid, bulky materials shall not be placed in embankment areas
where piling is to be placed or driven.

TYPES OF BACKFILL

• Granular Backfill

-The granular backfill shall be placed in layers not to exceed 150 mm in depth and each
layer shall be thoroughly compacted by means of packers or mechanical tampers to a relative
compaction of not less than 95% Standard Proctor Density for the backfill material at optimum
moisture content.

• Culvert Gravel
– Culvert gravel for bedding shall be spread uniformly along the full length of the culvert
foundation. For metal culverts, the bedding shall be constructed so that after
compacting, a depth of at least 150 mm of gravel remains under the full length of the
culvert. Culvert gravel shall be compacted at optimum moisture content to a minimum
of 95% Standard Proctor Density.
• Non-Granular Cohesive Material
• Cohesive backfill shall be deposited in horizontal layers not exceeding 200 mm in
thickness. Every layer shall be tamped in place and well compacted by means of
mechanical tampers before the next layer is deposited.

-Non-granular cohesive material shall be highly plastic clay (exhibiting putty-like properties
with considerable strength when dry) and non-organic. Material with very high swelling
potential such as bentonite clays will not be permitted. When proposed material
characteristics are in question, the Engineer may require the Contractor to classify the
material using Test Method ASTM D2487 – Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes.
Non-granular cohesive material shall have a minimum Plasticity Index of 40.

-The non-granular cohesive material shall be free of rocks and stones.

• Subsurface Drainage Fill

• Placing of the granular subsurface drainage fill shall be done in accordance with the
Drawings and Special Provisions or as directed by the Engineer. Compaction of the granular
subsurface drainage fill will not be required.
Compaction
• Compaction Trials

Before commencing the formation of embankments, the Contractor shall submit in writing to the
Engineer for approval his proposals for the compaction of each type of fill material to be used in the
works. The proposals shall include the relationship between the types of compaction equipment, and
the number of passes required and the method of adjusting moisture content. The Contractor shall carry
out full scale compaction trials on areas not less than 10 m wide and 50 m long as required by the
Engineer and using his proposed procedures or such amendments thereto as may be found necessary to
satisfy the Engineer that all the specified requirements regarding compaction can be consistently
achieved. Compaction trials with the main types of fill material to be used in the works shall be
completed before work with the corresponding materials will be allowed to commence.

SUBGRADE PREPARATION
• This Item shall consist of the preparation of the subgrade for the support of overlying structural
layers. It shall extend to full width of the roadway. Unless authorized by the Engineer, subgrade
preparation shall not be done unless the Contractor is able to start immediately the construction
of the pavement structure.

• Provide strength and support to the overlying pavement

 • Provide drainage and frost protection

• Prevents settlements to pavement and slab on grade

• It can be reused if you decide to change your pavement surface.

• It will keep workers out the mud.

• It can create a workable surface prior to placing the finished pavement

• Reduces construction costs

Typical Sub-base Materials

• Some of the most used subbase materials are:

• Recycled concrete

• Granular fill as indicated in ACI 302 'Concrete Floor and Slab Construction'

• Manufactured aggregate

• Crush rock

• Lean concrete
AGGREGATE SUBBASE COURSE
• Aggregate for subbase shall consist of hard, durable particles or fragments of crushed stone,
crushed slag, or crushed or natural gravel and filler of natural or crushed sand or other finely
divided mineral matter. The composite material shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps
or balls of clay, and shall be of such nature that it can be compacted readily to form a firm,
stable subbase.

SUB-BASE COURSE
• The fraction passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve shall not be greater than 0.66 (two thirds) of
the fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve.

•  

• The fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not greater than 35 and
plasticity index not greater than 12 as determined by AASHTO T 89 and T 90, respectively.

•  

• The coarse portion, retained on a 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve, shall have a mass percent of wear not
exceeding 50 by the Los Angeles Abrasion Tests as determined by AASHTO T 96.

•  
 • The material shall have a soaked CBR value of not less than 25% as determined by AASHTO T
193. The CBR value shall be obtained at the maximum dry density and determined by AASHTO T
180, Method D.

Placing of SUB-BASE MATERIALS

• The aggregate subbase material shall be placed at a uniform mixture on a prepared subgrade in
a quantity which will provide the required compacted thickness. When more than one layer is
required, each layer shall be shaped and compacted before the succeeding layer is placed.

• The placing of material shall begin at the point designated by the Engineer. Placing shall be from
vehicles especially equipped to distribute the material in a continuous uniform layer or
windrow. The layer or windrow shall be of such size that when spread and compacted the
finished layer be in reasonably close conformity to the nominal thickness shown on the Plans.

Spreading and Compacting

• When uniformly mixed, the mixture shall be spread to the plan thickness, for compaction.

• Where the required thickness is 150 mm or less, the material may be spread and compacted in
one layer. Where the required thickness is more than 150 mm, the aggregate subbase shall be
spread and compacted in two or more layers of approximately equal thickness, and the
maximum compacted thickness of any layer shall not exceed 150 mm. All subsequent layers
shall be spread and compacted in a similar manner.
AGGREGATE BASE COURSE

• Material Requirements
– Aggregate for base course shall consist of hard, durable particles or fragments of
crushed stone, crushed slag or crushed or natural gravel and filler of natural or crushed
sand or other finely divided mineral matter. The composite material shall be free from
vegetable matter and lumps or balls of clay, and shall be of such nature that it can be
compacted readily to form a firm, stable base.
Base courses include:
• Rolled Granular Base

• Processed Aggregate Base

• Bituminous Concrete Class 4

• Concrete Base

• Rolled Granular base consists of one or more courses constructed on a

prepared subbase. The material is a mixture of bank or crushed gravel or reclaimed
miscellaneous aggregate and approved binder material. Rolled granular base is covered in
Article 3.02 of the Standard Specifications.

• Processed Aggregate Base- The material for processed aggregate base is

a mixture of coarse and fine aggregate. The coarse aggregate consists of gravel, broken stone,
or reclaimed miscellaneous aggregate, at the contractor's option. However, only one type of
coarse aggregate can be used on a project unless specifically permitted by the Engineer. The
fine aggregate is natural sand, stone sand, screenings, or any combination. Processed
aggregate base is covered in Article 3.04 of the Standard Specifications.
• Bituminous Concrete Class 4- This material consists of a graded
mixture of course and fine aggregates to which mineral filler is added if necessary, combined
with asphalt cement in accordance with an approved job mix formula. Article 4.06 of the
Standard Specifications and Chapter 2-6, “Bituminous Pavements,” cover Class 4 bituminous
concrete, along with other types of bituminous concrete. Automatic grade controls should be
used when placing Class 4.

• Concrete Base- The base consists of portland cement concrete and may be
reinforced. Construction is the same as for concrete pavements, except there usually are no
joints. Concrete base is covered in Article 3.03 of the Standard Specifications. Article 4.01 of
the Standard Specifications and Volume 2 Chapter Seven covers concrete pavements. Joints
are constructed around objects that project through the base and between the base and
curbs, concrete gutters, etc., if ordered by the Engineer. If there are no transverse joints, make
a bulkhead at the end of a day's run. The bulkhead should be made of steel or 2 in. (50 mm)
plank. It is perpendicular to the surface and at right angles to the centerline. The concrete is
finished to it.

PLACING
• The aggregate subbase material shall be placed at a uniform mixture on a prepared subgrade
in a quantity which will provide the required compacted thickness. When more than one layer
is required, each layer shall be shaped and compacted before the succeeding layer is placed.

• The placing of material shall begin at the point designated by the Engineer. Placing shall be
from vehicles especially equipped to distribute the material in a continuous uniform layer or
windrow. The layer or windrow shall be of such size that when spread and compacted the
finished layer be in reasonably close conformity to the nominal thickness shown on the Plans.

Spreading and Compacting

• -When uniformly mixed, the mixture shall be spread to the plan thickness, for
compaction.

• Where the required thickness is 150 mm or less, the material may be spread and compacted in
one layer. Where the required thickness is more than 150 mm, the aggregate subbase shall be
spread and compacted in two or more layers of approximately equal thickness, and the
maximum compacted thickness of any layer shall not exceed 150 mm. All subsequent layers
shall be spread and compacted in a similar manner.
Thank You Very Much :D