Boiling Heat Transfer
Dr Vishwas Wadekar
HTFS, Aspen Technology
Definitions/Terminology
Saturation temperature (Tsat ) - boiling point
temperature at prevailing pressure. For a mixture this will
be bubble point temp.
Superheat-excess temperature over the saturation value
(T - Tsat)
•Wall superheat = (Twall - Tsat)
Subcooling- opposite of superheat given by
(Tsat - T )
Quality- Vapour phase mass fraction, ratio of vapour
flowrate to total flowrate
Subcooled and saturated boiling
Pool Boiling
Pool Boiling Curve - I
Single Phase - No Single Nucleate Transition Film
Phase Boiling Boiling Boiling
bubbles, wall
superheat too low Critical
heat flux
Nucleate Boiling -
LOG (q)
Bubbles grow and
break away from
wall. Coefficient
increases with ∆Tsat
Transition Boiling -
Localised dry
patches on the wall
Film Boiling - Vapour LOG Wall Superheat ( Tw - Tsat )
film at wall
(Wall temperature controlled case)
Pool Boiling Curve - II
Single Phase - No
bubbles, wall Single Nucleate Transition Film
superheat too low Phase
Critical Boiling Boiling Boiling
heat flux
Nucleate Boiling -
LOG (q)
Bubbles grow and
break away from
wall. Coefficient
increases with ∆Tsat
Transition Boiling -
Localised dry
patches on the wall
LOG Wall Superheat ( Tw - Tsat )
Film Boiling - Vapour (Heat flux controlled case)
film at wall
Pool Boiling Curve for water
Equilibrium Bubble- Force
Balance
r σ
p pb
∆p
π r2 ∆p = 2π r σ
∆p = 2 σ/ r
∆p - Excess pressure; σ - surface tension
Bubble Growth-I
∆p = 2 σ/ r
Bubble will be at equilibrium if (pb - p) = ∆p
Bubble will grow if (pb - p) > ∆p
Bubble will grow if (Tb - Tsat ) > ∆Τs where,
∆Ts = (2 σ/ r)(dT/dp)
dT/dp can be obtained from Claussius-Clapeyron
equation; assuming ρl >> ρg
dT
∆p = T sat
p dp ∆ h v ρ g
∆T
Tsat
Bubble Growth-II
Final equation
2 σ T sat
∆T s =
r ∆ hv ρ g
For water @ 373 K with r = 5x10-6,
superheat required is -
2 × 0.059 × 373
∆T s = = 6 .5 K
(5 × 10 − 6 )( 2260 × 10 3 )(0.6)
Bubble Nucleation
2 σ T sat
∆Ts =
r ∆ hv ρ g
Bubble starts with r = 0, therefore ∆Ts = α !!
Equation is based on continuum theory; we should look
at behaviour of molecules as r → 0
However, even statistical thermodynamics gives very
high ∆Ts ( in hundreds of K )
How to reconcile this with practical experience??
Heterogeneous Nucleation
• Microscopic cavities in
heating wall surface
• Initially gas/vapour is
trapped in them as
liquid is filled
• This provides for initial nucleation
• What about subsequent continued nucleation?
Heterogeneous Nucleation
• Each departing
bubble leaves
small amount
vapour at the
cavity bottom
• This provides nucleation for
subsequent bubble
• Thus the cycle of nucleation,
bubble growth and departure
continues
Bubble Departure
Surface tension holds the
bubble to the surface
Buoyancy force, g(ρL– ρV)
detach bubble from heating
surface
Bubble departs when it has
become large enough so that
buoyancy forces > surface tension
forces
What will happen if buoyancy
forces are decreased? How?
Nucleate Boiling Correlations
From pool boiling curve
q = B(∆T)m
Define q = αnb∆T
so αnb = Aqn
Note: A and n depend on fluid, pressure,
and surface
Typical value of n is 2/3, hence αnb is
dependent on heat flux (or ∆T)
Nucleate Boiling Correlations
• Correlations - Two types
– Based on reduced pressure
– Based on physically based dimensionless groups
• Reduced Pressure correlation
– Example: Cooper correlation
α nb = Xq 0.667
X = Apr(0.12−0.21log10 ε ) (− log10 pr )
−0.55
M −0.5
where pc is critical pressure (N/m2), pr = p/pc, , M = molecular weight, A =dimensional
constant, ε = surface roughness (µm)
Two-phase Flow Patterns and ∆p Prediction
Definitions/Terminology
– Mass flow rate M& = M& g + M& l
– Vapour quality M& g
xg =
(M& g + M& l )
– Mass flux
m& =
M&
=
(M& g + M& l )
; m& g =
M& g
; m& l =
M& l
– Superficial S S S S
m& (1 − x g )
velocity
m& x g
Ug = ;U l =
ρg ρl
Definitions: Void Fraction
S - total area
Ag - gas phase – Void fraction is a
volume fraction for
flow area
gas phase
– For one dimensional
model this becomes
the area fraction for
Ag gas phase
Ag
εg =
S
Flow Patterns – Vertical Upflow
Bubble Slug Churn Annular Wispy annular
Flow Patterns – Horizontal Flow - I
Bubble Flow
Stratified Flow
Wavy Flow
Flow Patterns – Horizontal Flow - II
Plug Flow
Semi-slug Flow
Slug Flow
Annular Flow
Example of Flow Pattern Map - I
– Flow
Wispy
pattern Annular
annular
map of
Hewitt and
Roberts ρ U2
(1969) for g g Churn Bubble
vertical
upflow in
tubes Slug
ρ lU l2
Example of Flow Pattern Map - II
Composite graph of Taitel and Dukler (1976) based on models for
flow pattern transitions (horizontal tubes)
(dp / dz ) l
T=
gD∆ρ
ρg .1
Fr = U g
gD∆ρ
0 0
K = Fr Re l
Flow Pattern Transition
Slug Annular
flow flow
Flow Patterns: Upflow Boiling
Dispersed
– Single phase
liquid inlet Annular
– Amount of vapour
fraction increases
along the length Churn
– Hence different
Slug
flow patterns
Bubble
Frictional Pressure Drop
For single phase flow
dp &2
2f m
= L L
dz L D ρL
then for two phase flow
dp 2f m&2
= TP TP
dz TP D ρTP
What are fTP, mTP, ρTP?
Frictional Pressure Drop
Dividing two phase ∆p by single phase ∆p
dp f TP m 2
& TP ρ L dp
=
& ρ dz
2
dz TP f L m L TP L
dp
= φ 2L
dz L
Thus ΦL contains all unknowns
Lockhart-Martinelli Correlation
dp dp 2 dp 2f m&
= φL = L L
dz TP dz L L
dz D ρ L
φ l2 = function of (X )
2
100 100
dp
φl φg
dz l
X2 =
dp
dz g X
Lockhart-Martinelli Parameter
• Martinelli parameter is square root of ratio
of liquid to gas frictional pressure gradient
• For turbulent-turbulent flow it can be shown
that
Xtt Martinelli parameter
0.5 0.1
1− x
0.9
ρg ηl
=
x η
ρl g
Flow Boiling
Flow
• Convective heat transfer component
αc = F αL
where αL is coefficient for liquid phase; F an
enhancement factor
• Nucleate boiling component
Treated similar to nucleate pool boiling heat transfer,
accounting for the interaction with flow
Components of Flow Boiling
Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m 2 K)
Nucleate boiling region
Typical variation of
α for fixed mass
flux
Decreasing q&
Quality
Convective Component
Flow
Two-phase convective heat transfer component
Here the heat transfer is through faster moving liquid
film being dragged by higher velocity vapour
Favourable conditions
- Low pressure and low heat flux
- High flow rate and high vapour quality
- Plain surface
Nucleate Boiling Component
Nucleate boiling component
Here the heat transfer is driven by vapour bubble dynamics
Favourable conditions
- High pressure and high heat flux
- Low flow rate and low vapour quality
- Enhanced boiling surfaces
Two-phase Forced Convection
Heat transfer is through a thin liquid film
Temperature at vapour-liquid interface is Tsat
No bubble generation
Evaporation occurs at vapour-liquid interface
Tw
Liquid
Tsat Liquid
Flow Vapour
Flow Boiling
Flow
• Convective heat transfer component
αc = F αL
where αL is coefficient for liquid phase; F an
enhancement factor
• Nucleate boiling component
Treated similar to nucleate pool boiling heat transfer,
accounting for the interaction with flow
Chen F factor
1
1 if ≤ 0 .1
X tt
F =
0 .736
2 . 35 1 + 0 .213 if
1
> 0 .1
X
tt X tt
1/Xtt
Increasing vapour mass fraction
Chen Nucleate Boiling Component
αnb= Sαp where S is a
suppression factor; αp ,
pool boiling coefficient
is obtained from
Forster-Zuber
correlation
∆Te, pool Suppression factor, S,
∆Te, flow is related to a two-
phase Reynolds
number, ReTP
ReTP = F1.25 Rel
Chen Suppression factor
• Suppesion
factor for
nucleate
boiling
• Effect of flow
on nucleate
boiling
1
S=
• Overall correlation 1 + 2 .53 ⋅ 10 − 6 Re 1.17
TF
α = FαL+Sαnb
Heterogeneous Nucleation
• Each departing
bubble leaves
small amount
vapour at the
cavity bottom
• This provides nucleation for
subsequent bubble
• Thus the cycle of nucleation,
bubble growth and departure
continues
More Complex Shapes
Re-entrant Doubly re-entrant
cavity cavity
• Vapour in these can sustain a degree of subcooling
without condensing
• Liquid flows down partially inside the cavities giving
high coefficients associated with evaporation from very
thin liquid film
Enhancing Nucleate Boiling
• Large number of
artificially made re-
entrant /doubly re-entrant
cavities
• These initiate and sustain
nucleate boiling at low
wall superheat
• These cavities need to be
interconnected so that
vapour can pass from one
cavity to another
Tubes with Porous Metallic Coating
High flux tube - Porous coating of thin metallic matrix
from fine metal particles
Random interconnected passages provide numerous
nucleation sites
Different metal coatings
are available on inside 0.2 - 0.3
or outside tubes mm
Dry-out could occur at
lower vapour quality
Results with Composite Test-
section
Composite test-section for in-tube boiling
Three parts of the test-section
Electrical resistance heating
Detailed thermal measurements
Results with and without enhancement
device can be directly compared for
single phase and flow boiling heat
transfer
Same mass flux
Same heat flux
Nearly same pressure
High Flux Coating-Flow Boiling
70 0 00
Pressure = 1.66 bar
Heat transfer coefficient (W/m K)
60 0 00 Mass flux = 285 kg/m2s
2
Heat flux = 41 kW/m2
50 0 00
40 0 00
30 0 00
coated section plain section coated section
20 0 00
Flow
10 0 00
0
0 1 2 3
Length (m)
Wire Loop Inserts- Single phase
3000
Heat transfer coefficient (W/m K)
F low
2
2000
section with section with
wire inserts plain section wire inserts
1000
Pre s s ure = 1.44 bar
M ass flux = 287 kg/m2 s
He at flux = 2.59 kW/m2
0
0 1 2 3
Length (m)
Wire Loop Inserts- Single phase
8000
Heat transfer coefficient (W/m K)
7000
2
6000
5000 Pressure = 1.66 bar
Mass flux = 285 kg/m2s
4000 Heat flux = 41 kW/m2
3000 Flow
2000 section with section with
wire inserts plain section wire inserts
1000
0
0 1 2 3
Length (m)
Flow Boiling and Critical Heat Flux Limit
• For in-tube boiling critical heat flux is
related to dryout phenomenon in the
annular flow region
• Dryout is influenced by entrained liquid
droplets in the vapour core
Critical vapour quality associated with CHF
• Critical quality can be increased
if entrained droplets are deposited on
heating surface
Flow Boiling and Critical Heat Flux Limit
• Entrained droplets can be deposited on
heating surface if swirling motion is imparted
to them
• Swirl flow devices such as helical
microfins, twisted tape inserts, etc
can be used for this purpose