Chapters: 12,13,14,15,16
Compare expository/comparative advance organizers:
Both are advance organizers that establish a framework and orient students to material
before the lesson. However, expository advance organizers provides new information
to orient students to a lesson, and comparative advance organizers involve making
connections with prior knowledge to orient students to a lesson.
Five time frames of teacher planning:
Daily, weekly, unit, term and yearly.
Cognitive domain of bloom’s taxonomy:
Knowledge (the students remembers the mathematic formula from last lecture),
comprehension (the student explains how to use the formula in his own words),
application (the student apply the formula in the exercise required by the teacher),
analysis (students breakdown the formula to distinct parts and relate it to other
formulas he has memorized before), synthesis (the students combine information from
the formula and use it in a new exercise) and evaluation (the student makes a
judgment based on the information example if he understood the purpose of using the
formula).
Affective domain:
Receiving (being aware of something the teacher in class is discussing the importance
of science and the recent discoveries the objective is for the student to listen to the
teacher), responding (the student becomes motivated to volunteer in an activity
concerning sciences and recent discoveries), valuing (the student becomes committed
to his volunteering program and values science more), organizing (student integrate
the new value to existing one he might register in the science club or become part of
the annual science fair at school), value characterizing (student act in accordance with
the value and is committed to it, during the school year the student pays more
attention to his science classes and show an increase in his interest to the scientific
topics).
Psychomotor domain:
Reflex movements (student’s involuntary response to a stimulus like blinking an eye
when an object is too close or removing their hand quickly when an object is hot),
basic fundamentals (student’s basic voluntary movements like walking up the stairs to
go on stage), perceptual abilities (student use his senses and listen carefully to the
music to know when to start his dance), physical abilities (student develops great
skills, like learning how to stretch before a dance rehearsal), skilled movements
(student learn complex physical abilities like doing the split and dancing),
nondiscursive behavior (student communicate feelings through bodily actions like
doing expressive dance performances).
Behavioral objectives:
Student’s behavior observable behavior of what the student will learn or do, how their
behavior will be evaluated or tested, what level of performance will be accepted.
Teacher centered instructional strategies:
Orienting ( using advance organizers to introduce new information or make
connection with previous knowledge to orient students to a lesson), lecturing (explain
or demonstrating the material), questioning and discussing (asking questions during
the explanation to make sure student understand the material presented), mastery
learning ( learning a concept before moving to a more complex one), seatwork
(assigning student individual work to do while they’re seated in their usual place),
homework (assigning work for student to practice on while at home).
Learner centered instructional strategies:
Including problem-based learning that will help student in solving real-life problems
like assigning a project that requires the student to explore causes, consequences and
solutions for a certain problem.
Proposing essential questions that reflect the most important ideas and concepts the
student should learn and explore like asking what are the effects of pollution?
Discovery learning it can be guided by the instructor’s questions and hints which
would help the student construct an understanding of a concept on their own.
Cognitive metacognitive learning principles:
Nature of the learning process, goals of the learning process, the construction of
knowledge, strategic thinking (different strategies to think about a certain topic),
metacognition which is thinking about thinking, the context of learning.
Guided discovery Vs discovery learning:
Guided discovery learning involves the teacher’s guidance and assistance by asking
questions or giving hints which could help the student construct their understanding.
However, without the teacher’s guidance the student have to figure things out on his
own.
Learning centered principles:
Cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and emotional, development and social,
and individual differences factors.
Strategies for effective lecturing:
Being prepared and knowing the material well, keeping lectures short and
interspersed with questions to make sure that students are understanding and
paying attention, and activities to avoid making the class boring and increasing the
students’ attention span, making sure the lectures are interesting and exciting ,
following a designed plan and including advance organizers, verbal and visual hints in
addition to relating the material to information students have previously acquired,
providing a summary of the main ideas at the end of the lecture and creating a
connection with future lectures.
Categories of knowledge dimensions:
Factual: basic elements the student must know to be acquainted with a discipline or
solve problems like the formulas he need to learn to solve a statistic problem.
conceptual: the interrelationships among basic elements with a larger structure to
allow them to function together like when the student learn how each organ in the
body works with the other in order for the whole body to maintain functionality,
procedural: how to do something like the criteria and methods needed to perform a
laboratory experiment
metacognition: knowing about knowing which is the awareness of one’s own
knowledge like knowing the strategies i need to perform a certain task and how I can
evaluate it.
Perspective on motivation:
Behavioral: emphasize external rewards and punishments as keys in determining
student motivation; humanistic: related to student’s capacity for personal growth
and freedom to choose their own destiny and positive qualities; cognitive: focus on
the student’s competence and internal motivation to achieve a goal, and their beliefs
that they can effectively control their environment; social: emphasize the need for
affiliation and establishing and maintaining good, close personal relationships.
Extrinsic Vs Intrinsic motivation:
Extrinsically motivated students do something in order to obtain something else,
they’re influenced by rewards and punishments like a student who attains a good
mark in his math exam for the teacher to put his name on the board of honor.
However intrinsically motivated students are internally motivated to do something
for its own sake like studying for the math exam because they like math and find it
interesting. These students when given a personal choice their motivation increases
since they know they’re doing something for their own will.
Flow:
Flow occurs when student have mastered a certain skill ( they perceive the level of
their own skill as high) and they perceive a high challenge (they don’t perceive it as
boring or easy).
Hierarchy of needs:
Physiological (need for food, drink and sleep), safety (to unsure survival and
protection from war and danger), love and belongingness ( to feel secure and receive
affection and attention from others and know that I belong), esteem ( feeling good
about oneself), self-actaulization ( realizing one’s own potential as a human being
“spontaneous” “creative” “problem-centered” ).
Incentives:
Positive or negative stimuli or events that can motivate a student’s behavior. When
rewards are used as incentives the student perceive the behavior as caused by
external reward. However, when rewards are used to convey mastery information
there’s an increase in intrinsic motivation by the increase in the sense of
competence.
Attribution theory:
Individuals are motivated to discover the underlying causes of their performance
and behavior. 3 dimensions of causal attributions: Locus: success is perceived as due
to internal factors this reflect the student’s high self-esteem. Stability: student
attributes a positive outcome to a stable cause. Controllability: failure is due to
external factors the student feels anger; failure is due to internal factors the student
feels guilt.
Achievement goal orientation:
Mastery orientation: the student work on the task rather than their ability, it
generated solution-oriented strategies. For example, an art student will practice his
drawing several times in order to master an artwork; Helpless orientation: student
focus on their personal inadequacies “ a dancing student would say I can’t do the
splits I’m not good at it”. Performance orientation: student is concerned with the
outcome and not the process for example a math student would want to get the
right answer on the test even if he wrongly used the formula.
Mind-set:
Individual develops a cognitive view of themselves; Fixed mind-set: they believe that
their qualities are carved in stone and cannot be changed (a student who believes
he’s not good at math and can’t improve his grades in this subject). Growth mind-
set: individual believes that qualities can change and improve with effort ( a ballet
dancer would most likely think that with practice she would be able to perform
better next time).
Self-efficacy:
Belief that one can master a situation and produce a positive outcome. For example,
a student believes that if she studies properly and prepare for her test daily she can
achieve high grades in the course.
Self-regulation:
help students set both long and short term goals, set personal goals, manage time
effectively, be organized, set their priorities straight and monitor student’s
expectations and progress.
Social motives:
Needs and desires learned through experience with the social world. Social
relationships with parents, peers and teachers.
Students with achievement problems:
Low achievers: need reassurance and rewards toward their effort and progress.
Perfectionists: decrease self-criticism, help them identify costs and benefits, and set
realistic goals and time limits. Anxious: modify negative thoughts by engaging in
more positive task-focused thoughts. Procastinators: assist in time management and
task-analysis. Teach behavioral and cognitive strategies to deal with problems. Who
avoid failure: set realistic goals, encourage positive self-perception, and strengthen
link between effort and self-worth. Uniterested/Alienated: make the task more
interesting and fun for them.
Standardized tests:
Standardized tests can be used to help teachers diagnose students' strengths and
weaknesses. Provide information about students’ progress, help in program
evaluation. Standardized tests have uniform procedures for administration and
scoring, allow comparison of student scores by age, grade level, and local and
national norms.
Aptitude Vs achievement test:
Aptitude predict a student’s ability to learn a skill or accomplish a task with further
education or training. However, achievement tests measure what the student has
learned or mastered. Both assess the student’s current status.
Norms:
The normative group represent all students who may take the test regardless of their
ethnicity, gender or socioeconomic class.
Validity:
Make sure if the test measures what it is supposed to measure. Content: ability to
sample the content that’s being measured; Criterion: test’s ability to predict
performance as measured by other criteria; construct: extent to which there is a
evidence that a test measures a particular unobservable trait such as intelligence and
creativity.
Concurrent Vs predictive criteria:
Concurrent measures the relationship between a test’s score and other criteria
currently available for example, the MCAT and the GPA of a premedical student in
his premed courses. Predictive criteria measures the relationship between a test’s
score and future performance for example, MCAT scores and Medical School
performance.
Reliability:
Are the test score stable and relatively free from error. Test-retest reliability: extent to
which a test yields the same score when given to a student on 2 occasions. Alternate-
form: 2 different forms of the same test given on 2 different occasions to determine
the consistency of the scores (WE REMOVE THE IDEA THAT KIDS HAVE
BECOME FAMILIAR WITH THE TEST THAT’S WHY THEY PERFORMED
BETTER). Split-half: divide test items into 2 halves, then compare scores to
determine test scores consistency.
Advantages of state-mandated testing:
improved student performance; more time teaching subjects tested; high expectations
for students; identification of poorly performing schools, teachers, and administrators;
and improved confidence in the school's test performance.
High-stakes testing:
Tests that have important consequences on student, affecting major educational
decisions. Such as tests required for college admission (SAT,MCAT..) and college
scholarships, and tests required for graduation or advancing to the next grade level.
Classroom management goals:
Help students stay on task, keep students out of trouble, and prevent students from
developing academic and emotional problems.
Classroom management model focuses on students’ needs for nurturing relationships
and opportunities for self regulation. This model place emphasis on guiding students
toward self-discipline and less toward externally controlling the student.
Main goal of effective classroom management:
To help students spend more time engaged in learning and less time on non-goal-
directed behavior; preventing students from developing academical and emotional
problems.
Best practices for increasing academic learning time:
Maintaining activity flow “no flip-flopping”; minimize transition time between
activities by preparing students for upcoming transitions and establishing transition
routines.
Characteristics that reflect the complexity of a classroom:
Classrooms are multidimensional with different activities either academical or non-
academical social activities; activities occur simultaneously for example, a student
might be answering the teacher’s question while another one is writing his answer on
the board; things happen quickly and need an immediate response for example, a
student might disturb his friends during an exam and the teacher has to immediately
stop him; events are often unpredictable even if we carefully plan the day’s activities
for example, a teacher might set the test date for Monday and during class time the
fire alarm might go off and prevent the students from taking the test; there is little
privacy since the classroom is considered a public place; classrooms have histories for
example, the students will remember how their teacher reacted to a previous situation
and will remember any promises the teacher had made.
Connection between students’ successful experiences and classroom management:
When students are given activities and assignments that are a bit challenging but
also ensure the students’ success, students will develop a positive attitude toward
learning and will become motivated to engage in academic activities not to mention
how they’ll become confident in their abilities. When students are motivated to
engage in academic activities they’re most likely to stay on task in order to achieve a
certain academical goal.
Strategies for the teacher to establish a spirit of management in the classroom:
Establish expectations for behavior and resolve student uncertainties, the student
should guess what the teacher expects instead the teacher should explain to her
students what is expected from them in terms of academics and behavior in the
classroom; the teacher should make sure that students experience success in order
for the students to develop a positive attitude toward learning and be able to stay
focused on their tasks; the teacher should be both available and visible because the
students will be more comfortable in discussing a problem with a teacher knowing
that she’s aware and involved in the different aspects of the classroom; the teacher
should be in charge, no matter what the students will test to see if their teacher will
reinforce rules and that’s why at the start the teacher should communicate all rules
to the students.
Type of assessments:
Pre-instruction assessment: diagnostic assessment given before the instructions to
know the level of the student and determine the pace and what needs to be looked
for; Formative assessment: given in the middle of explanation by asking students
questions, it keeps students alert and make them active learners and stimulates their
thinking. Also, it provides a feedback if the students are getting the information
that’s being explained or not; Summative assessment: it’s done at the end and
provide and idea of how much the student grasped from the material that was
presented to him.
Learning targets:
Define what students should know and be able to do. Provide criteria for judging
whether students have attained the stated target or not.
To establish a high-quality assessment what need to be taken into consideration:
Validity: the exam should measure what it is intended to; Reliability: the exam
should yield stable, dependable scores, and relatively free of errors; Fairness: all
students should have the same opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge and
skills.
Selected response items:
MCQ: task is highly structured, broad sample of achievement can be measured,
incorrect items can provide diagnostic information, scores are less influenced by
guessing in comparison to T/F questions, scoring is easy, objective and reliable.
Limitations: ineffective to measure some types of problem solving, it’s time
consuming to construct and it’s frequently difficult to find distractors (false choices
that could distract the student from distinguishing the right answer), and scores can
be influenced by reading abilities.
T/F: scoring is easy, objective and reliable. Places less demand on reading ability and
many sets of questions can be answered during a short period of time. Limitations,
difficult to write such items, the student might know that the item is false but
doesn’t really know why it’s false. Scores are more likely to be influenced by
guessing. No diagnostic can be made regarding the incorrect answers.
Matching.
Short-answer essays:
Provide highest level of learning outcome, needs less preparation time and place
emphasis on integration and application of ideas. Limitations, scoring is time
consuming, scores are influenced by writing skills (poor hand writing for example can
lead to a low score), achievement may not be adequately sampled to the time
needed to answer each question.
Authentic assessment:
Evaluate a student’s knowledge or skill in a context that approximates the real world,
like giving projects or portfolios.
Performance assessment:
There’s a specific criteria that’s followed by the student, that’s why the teacher
should be specific on what they expect from their student. Guidelines: clear purpose,
an observable criteria, appropriate setting and scoring the performance.
Strategies for scoring essay questions:
Score the essays without knowing which student wrote it; evaluate all answers to the
same question together; decide on a policy for handling incorrect or irrelevant
responses; try to reread the papers; write comments on the paper; prepare an
outline for what constitute an acceptable answer.
Purpose of grading:
Administrative, to determine class rank or provide information about graduation and
promotion decisions; informational, to inform students, their parents or the
administration about a student’s work; motivational, provide the student with a
source of extrinsic motivation for academic performance and attaining high grades,
and fear low grades; guidance, help students and their counselors to select the
appropriate courses, level of work, and identify students with special needs.
Standards of comparison:
Non-referenced grading: based on comparison with the classmate’s performance,
grading on the curve, grading scale determines what percentage of students get
particular grades; Criterion-referenced grading: based on comparison with
predetermined standards/criteria, absolute grading, grading is based on level of
mastery.