SECTION

SUSPENSION, STEERING,
ALIGNMENT 11
THEN AND NOW: STEERING
Some of the early automobiles could reach surpris-
ingly high speeds. From a safety standpoint, the steering
systems used in these vehicles were very primitive. Direct
linkage from a tiller to the drag link could result in a bro-
ken arm when you hit a bump. The first domestic vehicle
equipped with a steering wheel was the 1901 Packard.
Even after the tiller evolved to the less lethal steering

© Cengage Learning 2012

wheel, automobile steering systems were not satisfactory.
Various types of steering mechanisms were designed to
reduce kickback and improve mechanical advantage.
These included a chain drive and the worm-and-sector
steering gear found on some cars still on the road today.
The best idea was the recirculating ball steering gear, which The 1901 Mercedes had a
made its debut on V-16 Cadillacs. Migrating ball bear- steering wheel instead of a
ings on the steering shaft reduced the high friction that tiller.
occurred between the internal gears of the earlier gear-
boxes. The recirculating ball steering gear also resists the
shock of running over a pothole.
There were earlier attempts at power steering, but
quality systems did not appear until after World War II.
The war effort resulted in much research on hydraulics
for aircraft servos and tank controls. In 1951, Chrysler
applied this new technology to the production of the
first automotive power steering system.
The rack-and-pinion steering gear used on many
vehicles today uses a round gear on the steering wheel

Ford Motor Company

shaft. It meshes with a long, flat gear cut into the top
of a long shaft that connects between the front wheels.
Rack-and-pinion steering is not a new idea. In fact, it was
used on huge steam tractors in the mid-19th century. The Ford Escape Hybrid has
The 1886 Daimler use a curved-rack version to control electric power steering.
its center-pivoted axle. The planetary steering used on
Ford’s Model T was based on the same principle.
Rack-and-pinion steering was abandoned on early vehicles due to severe kickback
and its limited mechanical advantage. It was not until the 1950s that European engi-
neers began to rediscover its potential and improve its design to eliminate these prob-
lems. In 1971, Ford showed its European connection by producing the Pinto, the first
high-volume domestic car to come with rack-and-pinion steering.
An electrically powered, electronically controlled rack and pinion steering gear is
found on some vehicles. They are especially found on hybrid-electric and fuel-cell elec-
tric vehicles. When a hybrid’s internal combustion engine (ICE) shuts off at idle and
low speed, the electric steering gear can still provide steering assist using battery power.
An electric motor assists the rotation of the pinion, giving fast response and eliminating
the pump and hoses. This system has not come into widespread general use in gasoline
engine vehicles due to the excessive amount of electrical energy required.

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 CHAPTER 63
Suspension
Fundamentals
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
■ Identify parts of typical suspension systems.
■ Describe the function of each suspension system component.
■ Compare the various types of suspension systems.

KEY TERMS
A-arm control arm monoleaf spring
active suspension system dive overload leaves
adaptive suspension system double-acting shock passive suspension system
aeration absorber rebound
ball joint follower ball joint rigid axle
body roll gas shock shackle
center bolt independent suspension shock absorber
chassis jounce squat
coil spring leaf spring sub-frame
composite spring load carrier ball joint suspension
compression Macpherson strut torsion bar

INTRODUCTION
The vehicle chassis includes the frame, shocks and
springs, steering parts, tires, brakes, and wheels. The sus-
pension system is part of the chassis (Figure 63.1).
There are several suspension designs in use today. Over
the years, there have been many part names associated
with these designs. The names used in this chapter are
those that have become standard. As you read the chapter,
become familiar with the names of the suspension parts.
SUSPENSION
© Cengage Learning 2012

The suspension supports the vehicle, cushioning the

ride while holding the tire and wheel correctly posi-
tioned in relation to the road. Suspension system parts
include the springs, shock absorbers, control arms, ball
joints, steering knuckle, and spindle or axle.
Figure 63.1 Suspension and steering systems.
Sprung and Unsprung Weight
Sprung weight is the weight that is supported by the ■ Sprung weight includes the powertrain, body and
car springs. Anything not supported by the springs is frame, and anything else carried by the weight of
unsprung weight. the springs.
1179

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1180 CHAPTER 63

Sprung weight Sprung weight

© Cengage Learning 2012

Unsprung weight Unsprung weight
Figure 63.2 A comparison of sprung and unsprung weight.

■ Unsprung weight includes the tires and wheels,

brakes (on most vehicles), bearings, axles, and the

© Cengage Learning 2012

differential.

Advantages to Unsprung Weight

If unsprung weight can be decreased, vehicle con-
trol improves. The tire and wheel assemblies react
to irregularities in the road surface, while the sprung Figure 63.3 A suspension with coil springs.
components are relatively insulated from those effects
(Figure 63.2). Having low unsprung weight means
that inertia has less of an effect on those parts as they Coil Spring
react to potholes and bumps in the road. This means The coil spring is the most common spring type
the springs will have less work to do. used in passenger cars (Figure 63.3). It is made from
a spring steel rod that has been wound into a coil.
FRAME AND SUSPENSION DESIGNS Springs are painted or coated with vinyl or epoxy to
Cars are designed to be as lightweight as possible to reduce noise and prevent rust or nicks, which could
improve fuel economy. Almost all older, heavier cars stress the spring and cause it to break.
had rear-wheel drive. This design is still used in many A coil spring is dependable and relatively inexpen-
luxury automobiles. A majority of new cars, however, sive. It can carry a heavy load, but it is relatively light
have front-wheel drive. in weight, especially when compared to a leaf spring.
Various frame designs are used in cars and trucks.
Front-wheel-drive cars, as well as later-model rear-
■■ SCIENCE NOTE ■■
wheel-drive cars, rarely have a frame running the
entire length of the car. The newer design, called uni- An alloy is a metal mixed with other metals. Coil springs
body, or monocoque, uses a sheet metal floor pan with are an alloy of different types of steel, usually mixed
sections of sub-frame at the front and rear. A front with silicon or chromium. Springs are tempered, which
sub-frame includes the engine, transaxle, and steer- hardens the steel alloy. Tempering is a very precise pro-
ing/suspension system (see Chapter 65). cess where the spring is heated to a specific temperature
and then cooled at a precise rate. If the spring is cooled
SPRINGS
too slowly, it will anneal, or become soft. Cooling it too
Springs support the load of the vehicle, absorbing the
up-and-down motion of the wheels that would nor- fast will make it brittle.
mally be transmitted directly to the frame and body.
A bounce is an up or down motion. When the wheel There are different ways to make variable-rate
moves up as the spring compresses, this is called com- springs (also called progressive-rate springs). One
pression or jounce. Rebound is when the wheel method uses a tapered rod. The coils at the ends of the
moves back down. spring do not work as hard as its center coils. As the
When a tire hits a bump in the road, it can absorb spring is compressed, it becomes stiffer. This provides
some of the shock. However, the tire passes over the a smoother ride when going over smaller bumps but
bump so fast that the spring needs to absorb the rest allows for heavier carrying capacity when needed.
of the shock. Four types of springs are used in vehicles: The most commonly used variable-rate spring
the coil spring, the torsion bar, the leaf spring, and the is made of steel rod of a consistent diameter. It has
air spring. unequally spaced coils with tighter spacing on one

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 Suspension Fundamentals 1181

Cross member

Torsion bar
adjuster bolt

© Cengage Learning 2012

Torsion bar

© Cengage Learning 2012

Variable-rate spring Conventional spring
Figure 63.4 The most common variable-rate coil springs
have a consistent diameter and unequally spaced coils. Lower
control arm
end than the other (Figure 63.4). At one end of the Figure 63.6 A typical torsion bar suspension.
spring, the more closely spaced coils do not function
until the spring is compressed sufficiently at the other
end and in the middle to cause them to produce force. end of the torsion bar fits into a mating surface at the
The active coils work throughout the complete range frame. The other end attaches to the movable lower
of spring compression. The transitional coils are the control arm of the vehicle’s suspension system.
ones that are more widely spaced. They progressively Almost all torsion bar installations are on the front.
bottom out, becoming inactive once they are com- Light-duty trucks and sport utility vehicles (SUVs) use
pressed to their maximum capacity. longitudinal (front-to-rear) torsion bars. Transversely
When a vehicle has leaf springs, it maintains the mounted torsion bars were used on some older cars.
position of the axle. When a coil spring is used with a Some vehicles use torsion bars because they do not
rigid rear axle, however, the axle wants to move out of require much vertical space and the front of the car
its correct position. Therefore, a coil spring is equipped can be designed to be lower. Compared to coil and leaf
with lower control arms or trailing arms to control fore springs, torsion bars can store more energy. A shorter,
and aft movement (Figure 63.5). A reinforcement thicker torsion bar can carry more load than a longer,
bar, or track bar, is sometimes used to keep the coils in thinner one.
a stable side-to-side position. One advantage to a torsion bar suspension is that
spring tension can be adjusted by turning a screw
Torsion Bar Spring against a bracket mounted at one of the ends of the
Rather than compressing, a torsion bar spring is a torsion bar. This allows the vehicle’s ride height to be
straight rod that twists. When the wheel moves up restored before a wheel alignment.
during jounce, the torsion bar twists in one direction.
When the wheel rebounds, the torsion bar unwinds. Leaf Spring
Torsion bars are made of heat-treated alloy steel with Most leaf springs are mounted at a right angle to the axle
a hex head or splines at each end (Figure 63.6). One (Figure 63.7). They resist lateral movement, so control
arms or struts are not needed. A leaf spring is made of a
long, flat strip of spring steel or composite fiber rolled at
both ends to accept a pressed-fit rubber insulating bush-
ing. The front end of the spring is attached directly to
the frame, and the rear of the spring is connected to the
frame with a spring shackle (Figure 63.8). The spring
shortens and lengthens as it compresses and rebounds;
the shackle compensates for these changes.
© Cengage Learning 2012

© Cengage Learning 2012

Lower trailing
control arms

Figure 63.5 A coil spring used in a rear suspension

has control arms or trailing arms to hold the axle in
alignment. Figure 63.7 A rear suspension with multi-leaf springs.

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1182 CHAPTER 63

No load Shackle thicker in the center and gradually tapering thinner

toward the outside ends. Making a leaf tapered gives
it a variable spring rate, providing for a better ride. A
single-leaf spring also has no problems with friction
and noise. Monoleaf springs can be mounted longitu-
dinally or transversely and can be used in front or rear
suspensions.
Some vehicles made since the early 1980s have
used composite springs, made of reinforced fiber-
glass or graphite reinforced plastic. Corvettes, for
Full load instance, use a composite leaf spring mounted trans-
versely in the rear. Weight is about 30 pounds less per
spring, and composite materials do not rust. They are

© Cengage Learning 2012

expensive, but they can be easily manufactured to a
taper across their length. Because they are a single leaf,
Shackle tilted by lengthening they have no center bolt.
of spring under load
Air Springs
Figure 63.8 Action of a leaf spring.
An air spring has a rubber air chamber attached by
tubing to an air compressor. Air springs are found on
As a leaf spring deflects it becomes progressively suspension systems that control ride height. Some sys-
stiffer. To provide a variable spring rate, extra springs tems can control spring rate as well. Some vehicles use
of varying lengths, called leaves, are added to the mas- air springs as the only springs. Others use coil springs
ter leaf. Each leaf is curved more than the one installed to support vehicle weight, while an auxiliary air spring
above. Only the master leaf is rolled at the ends. enclosed within the coil spring adjusts ride height.
A center bolt extends through a hole in the cen- Some light trucks and SUVs have used auxiliary air sus-
ter of all of the leaves to maintain their position in the pension systems as adjustable overload springs when
spring, and metal clips help to center the leaves. The used together with regular leaf springs. The different
main leaf is the strongest in the spring pack. The rest air spring designs are covered in more detail later in
of the leaves are progressively shorter as they are posi- this chapter.
tioned farther from the main leaf. Some trucks have
SUSPENSION CONSTRUCTION
one or more overload leaves that do not work until
the other leaves have deflected enough under load to There are different suspension designs and some parts
allow them to come into contact (Figure 63.9). are common to the different systems, whereas others
When a multiple-leaf spring deflects, the lengths are unique to one suspension design. The different
of its leaves change. Each leaf slides on the one next suspension designs and parts are covered here.
to it, so friction and noise can result. Spring oscilla- Independent and Solid Axle Suspensions
tions are dampened by the friction between the leaves,
but the friction also causes a rougher ride than a coil Most rear-wheel-drive (RWD) vehicles use a rigid
spring. A monoleaf spring is a single strip of steel, axle, called a straight axle or solid axle, at the rear.
A rigid axle is also used at the rear of many front-wheel-
drive (FWD) vehicles on the front suspensions of some
heavy trucks.
Overload spring A rigid axle on a truck is called an I-beam. I-beam
axles are very strong and can support a great deal of
weight. When a wheel attached to a rigid axle goes over
a bump, the wheel on the other side is affected by that
movement, too (Figure 63.10). Because the rigid axles
on I-beam front ends are heavy, they increase the vehi-
© Cengage Learning 2012

cle’s unsprung weight, which results in a rougher ride.

Independent suspensions are found on most
Multi-leaf passenger car front ends and on some rear ends. When
spring a wheel on a car with independent suspension goes
Axle over a bump, only that wheel will move up and down
Figure 63.9 An overload spring does not work until the (Figure 63.11). Independent suspension systems
other leaves have deflected enough under load to have less unsprung weight than rigid axle suspensions,
contact it. which provides improved ride quality as well.

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 Suspension Fundamentals 1183

© Cengage Learning 2012

Federal-Mogul Corporation
Rigid axle suspension
Figure 63.10 On a rigid suspension, movement of the
right wheel causes an opposite movement of the left Figure 63.12 Control arms allow the springs to deflect.
wheel.

Federal-Mogul Corporation
© Cengage Learning 2012

Frame Lower
control arm
Strut rod
Figure 63.13 The strut rod provides stability to a narrow
Independent suspension control arm.
Figure 63.11 When an independent suspension goes
over a bump, only one wheel deflects.
Outer shell

Control Arms
The control arms used with independent suspen-
sions allow the springs to deflect (move up or down).
They are called an A-arm when they are like the ones
shown in Figure 63.12. A narrow control arm style
used on lighter cars has a strut rod, or radius rod, to pro-
vide stability (Figure 63.13).

© Cengage Learning 2012

VINTAGE SUSPENSIONS Inner shell
In earlier independent suspensions, A-arms were Rubber
known as wishbones.
Figure 63.14 Rubber bushings keep suspension parts
separated.
Bushings
Rubber bushings keep suspension parts separated. A resistance to body roll comes from the resistance of the
suspension bushing has an outer and an inner metal bushings to twisting.
shell (Figure 63.14). The outside of the bushing is
pressed into the control arm and the inner part rides Ball Joints
on a pivot shaft (Figure 63.15). Ball joints (Figure 63.16) attach the control arm to
During compression or rebound, the control arm the spindle. A ball joint allows motion in two direc-
moves up or down. The rubber bushing can twist tions, moving with the same up-and-down motion as
as needed to allow parts to bend against each other the bushings on the other end of the control arm. A
without metal-to-metal contact (somewhat like a ball joint also allows the spindle to pivot for steering.
vulcanized motor mount). Some of the suspension’s Depending on the suspension design, a ball joint will

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
1184 CHAPTER 63

Bushing

Bushing

© Cengage Learning 2012

Figure 63.15 Control arm bushings. Macpherson strut

Wear occurs here

Federal-Mogul Corporation
Wear
occurs
Short/long arm
here
Tim Gilles

Figure 63.17 Two popular suspension designs.

Tension loaded Compression loaded

Figure 63.16 Two ball joint designs. A tension-loaded its arc of travel. This causes the top of the wheel and
joint pulls apart when loaded. A compression-loaded tire to tilt slightly outward. The tread width between
joint is pushed together. the front tires remains nearly constant as the spring
deflects, however. Although the short upper control
arm travels in an arc, the outer end of the longer
either be pulled apart or compressed together as it sup- lower control arm remains in relatively the same
ports its load. More information on types of ball joints plane (Figure 63.18). If the control arms were both
is found later in this chapter. the same length, the tire would slide from side to side
when going over bumps (Figure 63.19).
SUSPENSION TYPES On unibody vehicles, some SLA suspension sys-
Two of the most popular suspension designs are tems have the coil spring located above the upper
the short-and-long arm (SLA) suspension and the control arm. When a vehicle has a frame, the spring is
Macpherson strut (Figure 63.17). Rear suspensions situated below the upper control arm.
on cars are sometimes independent, but many SUVs Double wishbone suspensions are popular for sev-
have rigid axles. Some have leaf springs, but most have eral reasons:
coil springs. ■ They have improved directional stability and
steering control
Short-and-Long Arm (SLA) Suspension ■ They react to body roll more easily than any other
SLA suspensions are used on both front and rear type of independent suspension.
wheels. Because both upper and lower control arms ■ SLA suspensions maintain precise wheel position
resemble the shape of a wishbone, this suspension under all driving conditions and can have a large
system is called a “double wishbone.” An SLA double amount of vertical travel without scrub, a change in
wishbone suspension has two control arms of unequal the distance between the treads of the two front tires.
length that move in planes that are not parallel to ■ They are good at absorbing bumps; the tires
each other. The top control arm, the shorter one, maintain more surface area on the road.
slants downward toward its outer end. As the vehi- Sometimes a double wishbone suspension is not an
cle travels over a bump, the spring compresses and option because it requires more space than Macpher-
the outer end of the control arm moves upward in son struts or some multilink designs.

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 Suspension Fundamentals 1185

© Cengage Learning 2012

Curb height track width

Bump track width

Figure 63.18 SLA suspensions allow the track width to remain constant, reducing tire scrub.

© Cengage Learning 2012

Bump track width

Curb height track width

Figure 63.19 With control arms of equal length, the tire slides as it goes over a bump, scrubbing the tires and wearing
them out.

Macpherson Strut Suspensions A Macpherson strut incorporates the coil

Smaller cars often use Macpherson strut suspen- spring and shock absorber into its front suspension
sions. Although most consider the SLA suspension to (Figure  63.20), using only a single control arm on
be a better suspension, Macpherson struts provide an the bottom; it has no upper control arm and upper
advantage in weight and space savings. They are also ball joint. The spindle is attached to the strut housing.
less costly to produce. A bearing at the top of the strut allows the entire unit
to rotate when steering. Shock absorbers are covered
later in this chapter.
■■ HISTORY NOTE ■■
HIGH-PERFORMANCE SUSPENSIONS
Earl Steele MacPherson designed the Macpherson strut
Several suspension types have been used in sport and
suspension during the late 1940s. MacPherson, who
racing vehicles. The multilink and the double wish-
was born in Britain, became an engineer, first working bone have proven to be the most popular.
for Chevrolet and later with the European division of
Ford. The Macpherson strut was first used on the 1949 Multilink Suspensions
French Ford Vedette. Multilink suspensions allow the designer more options
in suspension tuning. An independent suspension

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
1186 CHAPTER 63

© Cengage Learning 2012

Ford Motor Company

Figure 63.21 A multilink suspension. This one is a five-link

suspension system.

Figure 63.20 A Macpherson strut assembly.

© Cengage Learning 2012

with more than two control arms is called a multilink.
The extra links keep the wheel in a more precise posi-
tion during cornering and on bumps. Steering control
is improved and tire wear is minimized.
Several variations of the multilink suspension
have been used on different luxury and sport vehi- Figure 63.22 When a compressed spring rebounds, it
cles beginning in the late 1980s. A multilink suspen- begins to oscillate.
sion is basically a double wishbone suspension that
has each arm of the wishbone as a separate part.
Figure 63.21 shows a complicated five-link suspen- Worn shock absorbers are known to aggravate
sion. It is a double wishbone suspension with a fifth potential SUV rollovers, especially with top-heavy
control arm. vehicles like SUVs and vans. Shock absorbers are also
important in helping to achieve better tire-to-road
SHOCK ABSORBERS contact (Figure 63.23). This affects braking, steering,
Each corner of the vehicle has a shock absorber. Shock cornering, and overall stability. Antilock brake effec-
absorbers are also called shocks or dampers. Although tiveness is also determined in part by the good tire-to-
their name implies that they absorb shock, this is not road contact provided by shock absorbers.
an accurate description of their function. Shock absorb-
ers dampen spring oscillations by converting the energy
from spring movement into heat energy. The normal
motion of springs is uncomfortable to passengers. It
causes cupped tire wear and can be unsafe.
© Cengage Learning 2012

Shock absorbers are designed to resist or damp

out excess and unwanted motion in the suspension.
When a spring is compressed, it absorbs energy. Dur-
ing spring rebound, this energy is released. The first
cycle is followed by more compression/rebound cycles,
called oscillations (Figure 63.22). Shock absorbers Figure 63.23 Under load, the tire forms a mechanical
damp out the excess motion. interlock with the road surface.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Suspension Fundamentals 1187

NOTE: Although shock absorbers are responsible for Rebounding

absorbing a good deal of road shock, the tires are a vehicle’s bumper
primary shock absorbers.
Frame
mount
VINTAGE SUSPENSIONS
Early shock absorbers were mechanical friction
devices. Friction material similar to that found on
a clutch or brake was fitted between two levers. One
of the levers was attached to the frame and the oth-
er to the spring mount or spring (Vintage Figure
63.1). They required frequent adjustment because Shock
they were prone to wear. absorber

Control

© Cengage Learning 2012

arm mount
Bounding
(jounce)
bumper
Friction Figure 63.24 One end of the shock is attached to the
Leaf control arm, and the other end is attached to the frame.
I-beam
Tim Gilles

spring shock Adjusting

absorber nut axle

Vintage Figure 63.1 An early friction shock Piston

absorber.
Orifice Valve

HYDRAULIC SHOCK ABSORBER OPERATION

In a modern hydraulic shock absorber, one end is
attached to the suspension and the other is attached
to the car body or frame (Figure 63.24). The shock
absorber is mounted on rubber bushings to allow for
slight changes to its angle of installation during com-
pression and extension.
A hydraulic shock absorber dampens spring action
by forcing oil through small passageways, controlled
by valves, like water through a squirt gun (Figure © Cengage Learning 2012

63.25). As it reduces unwanted motion, this action

generates hydraulic friction, which converts motion
energy to heat energy. Using energy in this fashion
Valve
lessens the oscillations of the springs.
Figure 63.25 Fluid is forced through an orifice to
NOTE: A shock absorber only converts unwanted motion dampen spring action.
to heat. If it were to remove all of a spring’s energy, all
motion would stop. a conventional shock absorber. A Macpherson strut
shock absorber works in the same way. Figure 63.27
Shock Absorber Fluid Movement shows a Macpherson strut cutaway.
A shock absorber has two chambers, with a piston that
forces fluid through the valves from one chamber to Shock Absorber Design
the other. The faster the piston moves, the more resis- Shock absorbers are either twin-tube or monotube
tance it encounters. Figure 63.26 shows the parts of (single-tube) (Figure 63.28). Monotube shocks are not

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
1188 CHAPTER 63

Rod Monotube Twin-Tube

Eye

Tim Gilles
Piston rod Piston rod

Cylinder Piston and valving Gas

Figure 63.26 Parts of a conventional shock absorber.
Piston Piston

Tokico [USA], Inc., Performance Division

Oil Oil
Dividing piston
Strut rod
Gas Bottom valve
Nut

Figure 63.28 Monotube and twin-tube shock absorbers.

Rebound

Compression
Strut housing

Cartridge

Piston and
valve assembly
Tim Gilles

Piston
Figure 63.27 Cutaway of a Macpherson strut shock and
absorber. valving
Tokico [USA], Inc., Performance Division

as common as twin-tube although they are still found

in many applications. As the shock is compressed, the
piston rod displaces oil. There must be a reserve space
to accept the extra oil (Figure 63.29). In twin-tube
shocks, the outer tube provides the reserve chamber.
Figure 63.29 Shock action during the compression and
A monotube shock usually has the reserve chamber rebound cycles.
in the same column as the working piston. When the
shock extends, oil returns once again to the pressure
chamber. The up-and-down suspension movements are
Front and rear shocks are not the same. They usu- called compression (or jounce) and extension (or
ally have chambers and valves of different sizes to con- rebound). Shock absorbers are called double-acting
trol the differences in weight between the front and because they control motion when moving both up
rear of the vehicle. Also, the center of gravity shifts and down. Early friction shocks had a ratio of 50–50,
when the vehicle stops or is thrown into a turn. This controlling the motion of the springs equally on com-
causes the front shocks to do more of the work. pression and rebound. Today, a typical shock provides

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Suspension Fundamentals 1189

more resistance on compression than rebound (70/30,

for instance).

COMPRESSION AND REBOUND RESISTANCE

Unlike springs, which are sensitive to loads, hydraulic
shocks are sensitive to velocity. The faster the shock
absorber piston moves through its oil, the higher the
resistance.

■■ SCIENCE NOTE ■■
A basic formula says that the resistance to flow (oil
through the piston) goes up as a square of the velocity.
Aerodynamics engineers try to reduce resistance, while

Tokico [USA], Inc., Performance Division

shock absorber engineers use it to control unwanted sus-
pension motion. Air is also a fluid. At 100 mph, four
times as much power is required to push a car through
the air as is needed at 50 mph.

Shock absorbers deal with a wide variety of suspension

motions and velocities. Resistance can be very high; a TOKICO
ORIGINAL
series of orifices and valves is necessary to manage the
flow properly. Poor tire adhesion to the road can result
from either too little or too much resistance. Too much Figure 63.30 A dampening force graph comparing two
different shocks for the rear of a pickup truck. Notice
resistance can cause a harsh ride. A defective shock will
how rebound damping increases dramatically at
have too little resistance, which will allow excess body medium and high fluid speed.
motion, poor control of unsprung weight, and wheel
bounce.
stage valve opens at a level of pressure determined by
A chart of resistances provided at various piston
the manufacturer. The final stage, or third stage, is
velocities is called a damping force curve (Figure 63.30).
called the high-speed restriction.
NOTE: Most shock absorbers compress more easily than
they extend. BUMP STOPS AND LIMITERS
■ Compression damping is used to control the Shock absorber movement follows the travel of the
relatively light unsprung weight of the tires, wheels, rest of the vehicle’s suspension. If the shocks or struts
and brakes. It works with the spring to keep the tire reach their extreme travel limit by topping or bottom-
in contact with the road surface. A car with a wheel ing, damage can result. Some vehicles use rubber bump
that hops off the pavement has a compression stops, also called snubbers, on control arms to limit
control problem with its shock absorber. excessive travel. Internal bump stops are generally
■ Rebound damping controls excess chassis motion found only in monotube struts or strut cartridges.
as the shock extends when the heavier weight Full shock absorber travel is considered to be a
of the car body is in motion. A car that floats as good thing as long as it is within the design limits of
it travels down the road has a rebound control the vehicle. Altered vehicle height, however, is a typi-
problem with its shock absorber. cal cause of reduced total travel that allows a shock to
Because piston velocities on the rebound side (body top out or bottom out. Raising or lowering a vehicle
motion) tend to be much lower than on the compres- excessively in either direction can force shocks and
sion side (hitting a chuck-hole), compression damping struts to their extreme travel points. This can result in
force is usually much lower than rebound resistance. damage to the shock as well as other suspension parts.
The movement of fluid in the shock absorber will
change, depending on whether the car hits a hole (fast Shock Absorber Fluid Aeration
fluid movement), or whether the car leans over (called Aeration, or cavitation, is when hydraulic fluid
body roll) as it goes through a turn (slow fluid move- becomes mixed with air. A shock absorber is installed
ment). Virtually all shock absorbers use three stages of in a nearly vertical position so when it extends, air
valving. The initial valve is the first damping stage. It from the outside reservoir will be drawn in to replace
is a small hole because little force is generated by low fluid. This would result in a “skip” as the shock moves
piston velocities. As the piston moves faster, a second through its range of motion.

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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1190 CHAPTER 63

Pressurizing the oil column in the shock absorber keeps

the bubbles in the solution. Compare this to what hap-
pens when a carbonated beverage is first opened. When
the top is removed, the pressure drops and the bub-
bles come out of the soft drink. Pressurizing the shock
keeps the shock oil clear and eliminates the skips that
occur in the action of a conventional shock absorber.
Some gas shocks have a pressurized gas-filled cell.
This is a plastic bag that takes the place of the free
air in a normal shock. These bags usually have low
Air pressure (10–20 psi) refrigerant gas in them. True gas
shocks have a reservoir pressurized with nitrogen gas

Tokico [USA], Inc., Performance Division

bubbles
at 100–200 psi (Figure 63.32).
Nitrogen is used for several reasons. First of all,
it is dry; there is no water vapor. It is also chemi-
cally inert at normal shock temperatures and is fairly
inexpensive.
Twin-tube gas shocks are pressurized with nitrogen
gas at 90–140 psi, depending on the manufacturer and
Figure 63.31 Air bubbles form around the shock the damping force desired. They are usually less expen-
absorber valves during bumpy rides. sive to manufacture than monotube shocks.
Monotube gas shocks have pressures between
250 and 400 psi. Because the monotube has no base

As the piston moves, pressure builds up in the

fluid in front of it. A drop in pressure happens behind
the piston, causing air bubbles and making the fluid
foamy. When driving on rough roads, fluid is rapidly
forced through the check valves. The entire area of
fluid around the piston becomes aerated, and shock Piston rod
operation suffers (Figure 63.31). During normal
operation, the air will usually work its way back to the Piston rod seal
air chamber.
There are two ways that designers avoid the ten- Check valve
dency toward aeration. One of them is to use spiral
grooves or a flat spiral ring around the outside of the Piston rod guide
reservoir tube. Another way to avoid aeration of the
shock fluid is to use gas shocks. Nitrogen gas
GAS SHOCKS
Gas shocks were invented to control aeration, cavi-
tation, and foaming of the hydraulic fluid. All oil has
some air or gas bound up in solution. Pressurizing the Piston
oil keeps the air in solution so the piston works in clear
oil and can provide consistent damping.
Pressure tube
■■ HISTORY NOTE ■■
In 1953, French physicist Christian Bourcier de Car- Oil
Tokico [USA], Inc., Performance Division

bon designed the monotube high-pressure gas shock

absorber and founded the De Carbon Company the Botton valve
same year. A short time later, a license was sold to the
German company Bilstein. The shocks became original Mounting eye
equipment on the 1957 Mercedes-Benz. The patent has
now expired, and many top companies use monotube
technology.
Figure 63.32 Parts of a pressurized gas shock.

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Suspension Fundamentals 1191

in either of these ways, however. When shocks sup-

Shock port the weight of the vehicle, the shocks and shock
absorbers mounts are prone to breakage.
Air shocks (Figure 63.35) have a rubber bladder

© Cengage Learning 2012

that, when filled with varying amounts of air, raises
the rear of the vehicle to compensate for a heavier-
than-normal load.
NOTE: A small amount of air must be kept in the bladder at
all times. If the vehicle is driven while the bladder is empty,
Figure 63.33 Shock absorbers mounted to the rear of the bladder can be folded into the shock and become torn.
the axle.
A coil spring shock (Figure 63.36) has a constant-
rate spring that works the same during both extension
and compression. Its action in preventing body roll is
Rearward similar to that of a stabilizer bar (covered later in the
shock chapter).
Forward absorber
shock
Leaf
absorber
spring
© Cengage Learning 2012

Axle Air
assembly inlet
Figure 63.34 Shock absorbers staggered on each side
of the rear axle.

or bottom valve, it needs the high pressure to support

the compression valving as well as control cavitation.
NOTE: Gas shocks are packaged with a strap to hold them Rubber

Tenneco Automotive Operating, Inc.

in the compressed position. They extend on their own when bladder
the strap is removed for installation.
Monotube gas shock absorbers, also called De Car-
bon shocks after their inventor, offer better cooling
of the shock fluid and can be mounted upside down.
They are more susceptible to physical damage than
twin-tube shocks. Figure 63.35 An air shock.
Rear Shock Mounts
To minimize vibration and improve ride quality, rear
shock absorbers on RWD vehicles are mounted in two
ways. Sometimes they are slanted inward and toward
the rear at the top (Figure 63.33). Other times one
shock is mounted in front of the axle, with the other
one mounted behind it (Figure 63.34).

AIR SHOCKS/LEVELING DEVICES

Shock absorbers are not normally designed to carry the
weight of the vehicle. If they were, the height of the
vehicle would be affected when they were removed or
© Cengage Learning 2012

when they wore out.

Some aftermarket devices use the shock absorber
as a means of correcting or adjusting the height of the
vehicle. The two common ones are air shocks and coil
springs that are mounted on the outside of the shock
body. There is a disadvantage to leveling the vehicle Figure 63.36 A coil spring shock.

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
1192 CHAPTER 63

Control arm Bracket Stabilizer

bushings and bushing bar

Shock absorber
Sway Stabilizer link
bar

Federal-Mogul Corporation
links
Sway
bar
Coil spring
bushing
insulator Stabilizer
Figure 63.37 Parts are insulated from each other with bar
rubber bushings.

© Cengage Learning 2012

OTHER FRONT END PARTS
Lower Stabilizer
Other parts are attached to the suspension to help con- control arm link
trol the ride. Parts like stabilizers and strut rods are
Figure 63.38 A stabilizer bar and links.
insulated from front suspension parts and the frame
with rubber bushings (Figure 63.37).

STABILIZER BAR
A stabilizer bar, also called a sway bar or an anti-roll
bar, is used on the front or rear of many suspensions
(Figure 63.38). It connects the lower control arms on
both sides of the vehicle together, reducing sway and

© Cengage Learning 2012

functioning as a spring when the car leans to one side.
When both tires move up or down an equal amount,
the stabilizer simply rotates in its bushings (Figure
63.39). If one of the wheels moves up, the bar twists as
it tries to move the other wheel along with it.
Stabilizer links and bushings provide some flex- Figure 63.39 Action of a stabilizer.
ibility and softness to the sway control so the suspen-
sion can still operate somewhat independently during
minor bumps. The Macpherson strut suspension system uses only
one ball joint because it has only one control arm. A
Spindle and Ball Joints pivot bearing at the top of the strut allows the strut to
The steering knuckle, also called the spindle support arm, rotate for steering (Figure 63.42). On a strut suspen-
includes the axle, or spindle that holds the wheel bear- sion, the pivot bearing carries the load and the ball
ing. Ball joints (see Figure 63.16) attach the control joint is a follower.
arm to the steering knuckle. Depending on the design,
ball joints can be located either on top of or under the SUSPENSION LEVELING SYSTEMS
control arm. Normal suspension systems are called passive sys-
On a suspension with two control arms, a ball tems. Passive systems have either a firm or soft ride.
joint is either a load carrier or a follower (Figure Their height varies according to mechanical forces
63.40). The ball joint on the control arm attached on the suspension, and they do not adjust to these
to the spring is the load carrier. A follower ball joint changes. Early leveling systems were manual, using air
aligns the parts but does not support the load. shocks and a compressor. A manual switch was used to
There are two styles of ball joints (Figure 63.41). change the height of the car body. Today’s systems are
Compression-type ball joints are compressed all the automatic, and they are called adaptive suspension
time. Tension-type ball joints are always pulling apart. systems.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Suspension Fundamentals 1193

Follower

Load carrier

Spring on lower arm

© Cengage Learning 2012

Macpherson strut Torsion bar on lower arm

Figure 63.40 The location of load carrier and follower ball joints.

Vehicle Load point Rubber cushion

weight in joint
Bearing

Jounce or
Road compression
force bumper
Tension loaded
(or bump stop)
load carrier

Vehicle Load point

weight in joint
© Cengage Learning 2012
Federal-Mogul Corporation

Road
Compression loaded force
Figure 63.42 A pivot bearing allows the strut to rotate.
load carrier
Figure 63.41 Tension and compression loaded ball capability of the shock absorbers as well. Most of the
joints. systems have air or conventional springs.

Electronically controlled suspension systems are Automatic Suspension Leveling

used by many manufacturers on some of their luxury There are two-wheel and four-wheel automatic lev-
vehicles. They keep the vehicle at the same height eling systems. The simplest leveling systems use air
when weight is added to different parts of the car. shocks or air springs filled by air from a compressor
Some of the advanced systems can vary the damping (Figure 63.43). An air dryer is attached to the pump
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
1194 CHAPTER 63

Compressor
Relay
B+

Height Control
sensor

Compressor
Manual
switch
Relay

Air shock

© Cengage Learning 2012

Height
sensor
Figure 63.43 An automatic leveling system that uses air shocks.

to condition the air before it enters the shocks. A height

sensor connected to the frame and axle housing is used
for vehicle height input (Figure 63.44). It can turn on Chassis
the compressor or bleed air to correct changes in height.
With electronically controlled systems, a computer Height
reacts to signals from sensors at all four wheels to sensor
change the amount of air in air springs at each wheel
(Figure 63.45). The aim is to keep the vehicle level to
the road from side to side and front to rear.
Several sensors are found with different systems.

© Cengage Learning 2012

Some of them and their functions are listed here.
■ Three or four height sensors are located at the
wheels. They are often rotary Hall-effect sensors.
When there are three sensors, one is for the solid Lower
rear axle. Height sensors electronically measure control arm
the distance between the control arm or axle and Figure 63.44 Height sensors are connected to the body
the frame. The computer can also use the height and a suspension member. It sends a signal to the con-
signals to prevent the vehicle from bottoming trol module if a height change occurs.
out when going over major variations in the road
surface, like railroad tracks. ■ A G-sensor on some cars helps the system
■ Signals from brake and door sensors help the accommodate severe maneuvers with a change in
computer to decide to disable automatic height spring rate.
adjustment when the car is stopping or when ■ To sense the rate of acceleration, an acceleration
passengers are getting in or out. sensor uses the throttle position sensor or mercury
■ Speed sensors are used in some systems to lower switches.
the vehicle in the front or both front and rear for A mode switch is installed in the dash of some cars. It
high-speed aerodynamics. In some systems, spring lets the driver select the degree of ride harshness desired.
rate is increased in response to higher speed, too. Some light trucks and SUVs have air suspension
■ A photo diode and shutter located in the systems used in conjunction with the regular leaf
steering columns of some advanced systems springs. An air spring, which is positioned between the
cause the spring rate to change when the vehicle truck frame and the leaf spring, acts as an adjustable
is turning. and overload spring (Figure 63.46).
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Suspension Fundamentals 1195

Check suspension
ECC module signal (message Actuator System
acceleration center) diagnostic
sensor relay pigtail
Dual System
damping on/off
actuator switch
Air Ignition
compressor

Brake
Speed sensor sensor
(pressure)
Steering
sensor Rear height Suspension
sensor control
module
Air spring Door open

Ford Motor Company

sensor

Front height sensor Air spring solenoid

Figure 63.45 A computer system controls the air springs at each wheel.

Electronically Controlled Shock Absorbers 0.010 second (10 milliseconds). These devices can be
Electronically controlled shock absorbers have variable found on shocks and struts.
valving. The amount of shock damping changes as the Some electronically controlled shocks use a vari-
size of a metered orifice within the shock is manipu- able orifice controlled by gas or air. Normal shock
lated by the computer. An actuating motor on the top absorber valves are used.
of the shock (Figure 63.47) turns a control rod that Shock absorbers deflect in one direction to control
changes the size of the orifice (Figure 63.48). fluid flow:
The newest adaptive systems use solenoid actu- ■ At lower speeds, they operate normally (the valve
ated shock valves, which allow almost instantaneous is fully open). This is the comfort mode, and fluid
changes in the size of a shock’s damping orifice. The flows unhampered through the orifice. The valves
suspension can react to changes in body height in work as normal.

Air spring

Shock
absorber

Rear
© Cengage Learning 2012

leaf
Ride
spring
height
sensor
Tim Gilles

Figure 63.46 An air spring used with a conventional Figure 63.47 An electronically controlled shock
spring. absorber.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
1196 CHAPTER 63

Hollow It uses a fluid that rapidly changes its viscosity in

piston rod response to computer-controlled signals. The fluid is a
synthetic oil with iron particles in suspension. The iron
Actuator is dispersed throughout the fluid, allowing the shock to
motor operate as a normal shock under ordinary driving con-
ditions. Each shock has an electrical winding that can
be energized by the control module in response to a sig-
nal from a wheel position sensor when a large bump in
COMFORT the road is encountered. This causes the iron particles
in the shock fluid to align themselves (Figure 63.50),
Selector turning the fluid into a very viscous gooey mass. The
variable current is supplied up to 1,000 times per second so it
orifice

© Cengage Learning 2012

can very quickly vary the damping characteristics of the
Fluid shock from firm to normal. You can find demonstration
movement videos of magneto-rheological fluid on the Internet.

Piston FIRM Active Suspensions

Figure 63.48 The control rod changes the size of the
Active suspension systems were first developed by
orifice. Lotus in England. Today, a few luxury cars have active
suspensions. During hard braking, a vehicle wants to
■ The orifice is partly restricted between 40 and 60 dive. The front of the car is pushed down and the rear
mph. Fluid flow is balanced between the small of the car slides up. During hard acceleration the front of
orifice and the normal shock valve. This provides a the vehicle lifts and the rear lowers. This is called squat.
medium degree of control. Advanced active suspensions help control some of the
■ At speeds above 60 mph, or during acceleration or forces normally encountered in driving. They can reduce
braking, the orifice shifts to a firm ride position. Flow pitch and body roll as well as helping to control squat
through the orifice is restricted to increase effort during acceleration and dive during braking. An active
required to move oil through the shock absorber. suspension system works with sensors, a computer, and
activators to solve these problems.
Magneto-Rheological Fluid Shock Absorbers An active suspension does not require conventional
An electronically controlled shock absorber that does shock absorbers or springs. Each wheel has a double-
not use electromechanical solenoids or valves is the mag- acting hydraulic cylinder (high-speed actuator) to keep
neto-rheological, or MR, shock absorber (Figure 63.49). the car body level during all driving conditions. Shock

Electrical
input

Coil off Coil on

Iron Iron
particles particles
© Cengage Learning 2012

Comfort mode Sports mode

(soft ride) (stiff ride)

Figure 63.49 The viscosity of the magnetic fluid in this MR shock absorber changes very quickly in response to
computer commands.

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 Suspension Fundamentals 1197

Nonenergized Energized
winding winding

© Cengage Learning 2012

Iron Iron
particles particles
Figure 63.50 The magneto-rheological fluid changes its viscosity, resulting in a firm shock absorber.

absorbers and springs are not needed, because the The computer uses signals received from sensors
actuators replace them (Figure 63.51). They provide a to track the position of each actuator. It can sense
smooth ride and yet give the handling characteristics of whether a wheel is in jounce or rebound. It also senses
a vehicle with a stiff suspension. The suspension can be how heavily each wheel is loaded and whether the
programmed by the driver as to the type of ride desired. wheel is turning or pointing straight ahead. The com-
The active suspension is powered by a hydraulic puter sees a bump and immediately releases pressure
pump driven by the engine. It requires about the from a control valve. It can release pressure instantly
same amount of power as a typical power steering or relatively slowly, depending on what the computer
pump during a turn (3–5 horsepower). The high- program specifies. After the suspension absorbs the
speed actuators can raise or lower the vehicle in 0.003 shock, pressure is forced back into the actuator to keep
second (3 milliseconds). As soon as a bump has been the tire contacting the road and maintain ride height.
absorbed by an actuator, pressure is reestablished to
NOTE: In case of a flat tire, the system can be told to raise
keep the wheel in contact with the road and main-
the tire so a jack is not needed.
tain ride height. During hard stops, active suspension
reduces the tendency for the vehicle to dive or lean. Sensors provide the computer with necessary
Power consumed by the system is least when the information regarding extension and compression of
vehicle is riding flat. each actuator and how heavily the vehicle is loaded.

Lateral
acceleration
sensor Yaw
angle
sensor
Valve block
Control unit and accumulator

ABC pump

Longitudinal
acceleration
sensor Level sensors
© Cengage Learning 2012

ABC spring struts

Valve block
and accumulator
Figure 63.51 An active suspension system has an actuator at each wheel instead of a conventional spring and shock
absorber.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
1198 CHAPTER 63

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Which kind of spring is adjustable? 6. What is the term that describes the softness or
2. What is the name of the suspension type that harshness of the ride?
uses two different length control arms? 7. What kind of shock can be mounted upside down?
3. What is the name of the part that is used to 8. If a small amount of air is not kept in an air
control spring oscillations? shock, what can happen?
4. Hydraulic shock absorbers are sensitive to 9. What is the name of the kind of front
velocity/load (circle one). suspension that has a built-in shock absorber
5. Which shock absorber motion controls the and only one ball joint?
least amount of weight, compression or 10. What is the name of the ball joint design that is
rebound? always trying to pull apart?

ASE-STYLE REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. When one wheel of a vehicle goes into a 6. Technician A says that the Macpherson strut
pothole and the wheel on the other side of the provides a better ride and handling than the
vehicle moves too, the suspension system is: SLA suspension. Technician B says that a
a. A rigid axle suspension Macpherson strut suspension is often called a
double wishbone suspension. Who is right?
b. An independent suspension
a. Technician A c. Both A and B
c. Both A and B
b. Technician B d. Neither A nor B
d. Neither A nor B
7. Technician A says that some types of ball joints
2. Which of the following is/are true about
carry a load and others do not. Technician B
Macpherson strut suspensions?
says that a load-carrying ball joint on an SLA
a. The ball joint is a follower. suspension is on the control arm that has the
b. It typically has only one control arm. spring attached to it. Who is right?
c. Both A and B a. Technician A c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B b. Technician B d. Neither A nor B
3. A typical shock absorber will: 8. All of the following are true about unsprung
a. Compress easier than it extends weight except:
b. Extend easier than it compresses a. Lower unsprung weight is desirable for
better handling.
c. Only restrict movement as it is compressed
b. Tires are unsprung weight.
d. Have extension and compression that are
equal c. The engine is unsprung weight.
4. Two technicians are discussing gas shocks. d. Independent suspension systems have less
Technician A says that gas under pressure unsprung weight than rigid axle suspensions.
prevents oil from foaming. Technician B says 9. Independent suspensions with more than two
that gas under pressure prevents cavitation control arms are called multilink suspensions.
within the fluid. Who is right? True or False
a. Technician A c. Both A and B 10. “Dive” is when the front of the vehicle lifts and
b. Technician B d. Neither A nor B the rear lowers during hard acceleration.
5. Technician A says that shock absorbers are True or False
designed to carry the weight of the vehicle.
Technician B says that shock absorbers dampen
spring oscillations. Who is right?
a. Technician A c. Both A and B
b. Technician B d. Neither A nor B

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.