RES EEE-SVIT

(15EE536)

Module -1

CAUSES OF ENERGY SCARCITY

The world is facing energy scarcity. Several countries including India are facing various
associated difficulties for its techno-socio-economic development because of energy shortage.
The development is affect due to the energy dependence on the other countries. Energy use
scenario of the present indicates that social and economical equality cannot be achieved, when
30% population is utilizing70% of energy and 70% population is forced to live with the 30% of
the remaining energy.
Following points may be considered as the principal causes of energy scarcity

1. Increasing Population

Worldwide population is increasing at an alarming rate. It is expected that by the turn of 21st
century, population will increase manifold. These populations are unevenly distributed
worldwide. Africa shares the largest population growth rate, followed by South Asia and then by
Europe.

2 Increasing Energy Usage or Consumption

The civilization from early man to the present technological man was totallybased on energy
usage. Energy is constantly used at home, at work, and for leisure period ofenjoyment. Energy
maintains techno-socio-economic development. Energy provides the society electricity daily and
motivates power to industry, transportation and modern way of life. Consumption includes

1. In homes, for lighting and cooking, domestic appliances, televisions, computers, etc.

2. In industry to power manufacturing of the products.

3. In transport system to power cars, trucks, ships, for transporting peoples and goods.

An increase in the world population and consequent increase in energy consumption increases
energy demands manifolds. World Energy Council has provided the most reliable prediction as
that indicates that by 2050, the world population will nearly be doubledfrom the present level
and will rise to about 10 billion. Likewise, energy demand is projected tobe at least double than
the present level.

3. Uneven Distribution of Energy Resources

It is well known that very few wealthy countries have access to and actually use the largest
partof the world's energy and material resources. The generation of environmental and social
instabilityin several area of globe can be related to the existence of disparity, uneven distribution
of energy and resource trade among countries is of great importance to environmental and
political stability.
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For example, Middle East countries are full of crude oil reserves, butthey are forced to involve in
conflicts and wars and their energy reserves are forcefully used bywealthy countries.
Geographical distribution is the main consideration for an unevenly distributionof fossil fuels
(coal, oil, gas, and nuclear). Renewable energy flows are also spread out unevenly.
Cloudiness in equatorial regions reduces solar radiation. Whole stretches of the continent have
insufficient wind. There are very few sites with the best potential for geothermal, tides, or ocean
thermal. In fact, a few densely populated region or area have no significant locally available
energy sources at all.

[Link] of Technical Knowledge

Several countries or regions are having energy in abundance but they are not
able to fully utilize them due to the lack of knowledge of conversion, transmission, distribution,
the lack of technical knowledge. Resources are mined and processed in resource enriched
countries and then refined and used in developed countries. The price of
exported resources is normally inadequate to compensate for the depletion of energy reserves
and the environmental burden generated by resource extraction and primary processing
in energy enriched countries. However, resources significantly contribute for economic benefits
in techno-economically developed countries.

SOLUTION TO ENERGY CRISIS OR SCARCITY

Owing to the growing importance of energy needs, efforts should be systematically diverted
in the following directions to tackle energy scarcity problems

l. Minimizing population growth exploitation and harnessing the large utilization of known
and unknown energy reservoirs.

2. Development of energy conversion techniques to convert basic energy available from

energy reservoirs (primary energy resources) to usable form of energy (secondary
resources). Usable energy form should be such that it is easy to generate, control, transport
and utilize. Electrical energy being the only usable form of energy to meetall
these at present.

3. Keep the new energy system pollution free as far as possible, thereby environmentally
acceptable to human beings

4. The development of cheap and reliable energy storage systems. Maintaining new energy

development program that is independent of foreign impact to the extent is possible.

5. Energy management

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FACTORS AFFECTING ENERGY RESOURCEDEVELOPMENT

Examination of certain basic principles of energy availability studies reveals the following five
factors that make energy resource development more difficult are

1. Energy or Fuel Substitution or Scale of Shift

Today, there is no readily available energy resources that is large enough to substitute for
fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas, and nuclear) at requisite scale. Undoubtedly, solar energy is sev
eral orders of magnitude larger than any conceivable global energy demand.
Practical conversion to electricity using photovoltaic or large scale industrial heat are quite
negligible.

2. Energy Density

The amount of energy contained in a unit of material object (energy resource) is termed as
energy density. Air-dry crop residue (mostly straw and agricultural waste) contain only 12-
15MJ/kg
For example, the energy density of good quality coal is twice as high (i.e. 25-30 MJ
ude oil (i.e., 42-45 MJ/kg). In order to obtain an equivalent output, replacement
of a unit of fossil fuels with approximately 2 kg of phytomass will be needed to substitute solid
biofuel. The ratio would be about 1.5 times when substituting plant-derived ethanol for petrol
These realities would be reflected in the reserve capacity, cost, and operation of the required
infrastructure.

3. Power Density

Power density refers to the rate of energy production per unit of earth’s area and usually
expressed in watts per square meters. Owing to lengthy period of formation (from biomass to
coal and then from coal to hydrocarbons), fossil fuel deposits are an extraordinarily concentrated
source of high quality energy.

In contrast, biomass energy production has densities of 1 watt per meter square.
while density of electricity produced by water and wind is below 10 w/m2. Only photovoltaic
electricity generation can deliver larger than 20 w/[Link] the cost and performance are the
constraints.
4. Intermittency

Growing demand for fuels, energy, and electricity fluctuates daily and seasonally in modern
civilization. Further, the base load, which is defined as the minimum energy required meeting
the demand of the day, has been increasing. Easily storable high-energy density fossil fuels and
thermal electricity generating stations that are capable of operating with high load factors meet
these needs.

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On the other hand, wind and direct solar radiation are intermittent and far from practicable.
They can never deliver such high load factors. Photovoltaic electric generation is still so negli-
gible to offer any meaningful average with relatively large capacities are 20-25%. Unfortunately,
we still lack the means for storing wind or solar-generated electricity on a large scale.

5. Geographical Energy Distribution

'As already mentioned, there are uneven distributions of fossil fuels and the non-fossil fuels
Cloudiness in the equatorial zone reduce direct solar radiation. Whole stretches of
continent has insufficient wind. There are very few sites with the best potential for geothermal,
tidal, or ocean energy conversions.

ENERGY RESOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION

The following sections deals with the classification of promising energy resources of immediate
interests
1. Primary and Secondary Energy Resources

1. Primary energy resources are derived directly from natural reserve. Examples are chemical
solar, wind, geothermal, nuclear hydropower, etc. They are used cither in basic raw
energy form or by converting them to usable form (secondary energy)
Secondary energy resources are usable forms of energy generated by means of suitable
plants to convert the primary energy. Examples are electrical energy, steam power, hot water
power,hydrogenenergy
Usable form of energy is cost effective, highly efficient with improved performance, environ
mentally acceptable and system acceptability index approaching to unity is achievable during
conversion, transportation, distribution, and end use. From the abovementioned viewpoints,
Electrical energy will continue to be dominant.

Primary energy resources may be further sub-classified as follows

1. Conventional and non-conventional energy resources: (a) Conventional energy resources
and their technical knowledge are known to mankind to a great extent. They are the energy
stored within the earth and the sea. They include both fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) and
clear energy (uranium and thorium) and required human intervention to release the energy
from them. These sources have formed over hundreds of millions of years ago and when
they are used, there will be no more for future generations. They are also known as finite
energy resources. (b) Non-conventional energy resources are also known as infinite energy
resources. Their technical knowledge is little known and they need full exploitation and
improved technical understanding. However, it may be mentioned that owing to the cost factor
and overall performance, one may think of utilizing all these energy resources only when all the
conventional energy resources have been fully exploited and utilized. They are
obtained from the energy flowing through the natural environment. It is necessary to note
that the energy is passing through the environment as a current or as a flow and whether there
is an artificial device there to intercept and harness the power or not. Further, it is important
to know the rate at which useful energy can be obtained from these sources.
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2. Renewable and non-renewable energy resources: (a) Renewable energy resources are
continuously restored by nature. Examples are solar, water, wind, etc. (b) Non-renewable energy
resources are the reserve that is once accumulated in nature has practically ceased to form under
new geological conditions. They are also known as expendable energy. Examples are
gas, nuclear, etc.
2. Oil

Oil companies estimate that the world's proven oil reserves are about 1,050 thousand million
barrels (BP 2002). This is equivalent to about 6.4 x 1,021 J or 6,400 exajoules. Estimates of
reserves are always subject to uncertainty and change. There is a very uneven distribution of oil
reserves across the world, with some 71% of proven oil reserves being in the Middle East. The
ultimately recoverable and unconventional reserves are very much more difficult to specify. The
estimates of additional reserves that will be found and the growth to existing fields will vary
widely. However, there is general agreement that crude oil is a finite resource that will run short
and may sometime become very expensive in the first half of this century

3. Natural Gas

The proven reserves of natural gas are presently some 152 trillion cubic meters (about 5.9 x
1.021 Joules or 5,900 exajoules). This is about the same as the reserves of oil. However, because
gas is more difficult to transport and trade, there has not been as much effort is put into finding
gas when compared with that of finding oil. There are some prospective regions of the world that
have not been fully explored. Technologies for extracting gas constantly improve, thus making it
difficult to estimate the sizes of the gas fields. The 2001 world gas consumption rate of 2.5tril-
lion cubic meters per annum (The World Fact book) has doubled over the last 30 years, while oil
consumption has only increased some 30%.

[Link]
In 1999, the proved recoverable reserves of coal is around one million tonnes [The World Energy
Council estimates]. There is much more coal than any other fossil fuel. This is equivalent to a
3 x 10 J or 30,000 exajoules; this is enough to sustain present production for more than
years. The world's consumption of coal is still rising (at less than 1% a year), but industrial
countries over recent decades have decreased their dependence on coal. The use of coal is limited
More by environmental considerations than by the size of the resource.
modern techniques for burning coal using liquefaction and gasification processes can greatly
reduce some of the pollutants from coal. However, coal always produces a great deal of carbon
dioxide (greenhousegas). There had been no cost-effective way developed for capturing and
sequestering this carbon dioxide, but extensive research programs are underway

[Link]
The economically accessible reserves of natural uranium were estimated by the World Energy
Council in 1999 at three million tonnes. In the 1970s, this was expected to last no more than a
few decades, but due to the slower grown than the expected growth in the nuclear industry and
increased availability of uranium and the decommissioning of nuclear weapons, this time frame

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has been extended. There are public reservations about the cost and the safety of nuclear power
plants, but they produce almost no CO2 and the technology is mature

[Link] power

At present, hydroelectricity provides the second biggest renewable energy contribution to world
energy supply, with an annual output of 2,600TWh. Information received from energy sources
indicates that the world's total technically feasible hydro potential is about 14,400TWh/yr, out of
which just over 8,000TWh/yr is currently considered to be economically feasible for
development.
Hydropower is dependent on rainfall, and climate change could affect this potential. There is
considerable opposition to the building of large dams for social and environmental reasons.

RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy is the energy that comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain,
tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). The availability of the
renewable energy resources is discussed in the following sections

1. Worldwide Renewable Energy Availability

Of global final energy consumption comes from renewable

with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from
hydroelectricity.

[Link] power excluding hydro

[Link]

[Link]

[Link] photovoltaic

5. Geothermal

New renewable energy (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuel)
accounted for another 3% and were growing very rapidly. The share of renewable energy in elec
tricity generation is around 19%, with 16% of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity,
and3% from new renewable energy.

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Module -2

SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

1. "Drying is an excellent way to preserve food and solar food dryers are an appropriate
food preservat ion techno logy for a sustainable world." Actually, so lar food drying is one
of the oldest agricultural techniques related to food preservat ion,
2. Drying of crops can change this trend and is useful in most areas of the world, especially
those without a high humidit y during the harvesting season. If drying of produce were
widely implemented, significant savings to farmers would be achieved. These savings
could help strengthen the economic situat ion of numerous developing governments as
well as change the nutrit ional condit io n in these same countries. Unfortunately many o f
the areas that could benefit fro m so lar drying techno logy lack adequate informat ion
related to how to emplo y this techno logy and which techno logy to use under specific
condit ions. Many o f the latest developments in so lar drying technology, as well as
significant achievements through applying this body of knowledge are not available in
libraries or the Universit ies of developing countries. However, modern science has
provided a new resource that helps bridge this informat ion void. The World Wide Web,
commo nly know as the INTERNET can provide the solut ion to rapidly spreading new
informat ion and applicat ions of known informat ion into areas of greatest need.
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ysical principles of the conversion of solar radiation into heat:

1. Green houses are useful for growing and propagating plants because they both allo w
sunlight to enter and prevent heat from escaping.
2. The transparent covering of the greenhouse allo ws visible light to enter unhindered,
where it warms the interior as it is absorbed by the material wit hin. The transparent
covering also prevents the heat fro m leaving by reflect ing the energy back into the
interior and prevent ing outside winds fro m carrying it away.
3. Like the greenhouse covering, our atmosphere also serves to retain heat at the surface of
the earth. Much o f the sun's energy reaches earth as visible light. Of the visible light that
enters the atmosphere, about 30% is reflected back out into space by clouds, snow and
ice-covered land, sea surfaces, and at mospheric dust. The rest is absorbed by the liquids,
solids, and gases that constitute our planet.
4. The energy absorbed is eventually reemitted, but not as visible light (only very hot
objects such as the sun can emit visible light). Instead, it's emitted as longer-wavelength
light called infrared radiat ion. This is also called "heat" radiat ion, because alt hough we
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cannot see in infrared, we can feel its presence as heat. This is what you feel when you
put your hand near the surface of a hot skillet.

5. Certain gases in our atmosphere (known as "trace" gases because they make up only a
tiny fract ion of the atmosphere) can absorb this outgoing infrared radiat ion, in effect
trapping the heat energy. This trapped heat energy makes the earth warmer than it would
be wit hout these trace gases.
6. The abilit y of certain trace gases to be relatively transparent to inco ming visible light
fro m the sun yet opaque to the energy radiated from earth is one of the best -understood
processes in at mospheric science. This pheno menon has been called the "greenhouse
effect" because the trace gases trap heat similar to the way that a greenhouse's transparent
covering traps heat. Wit hout our atmospheric greenhouse effect, earth's surface
temperature would be far below freezing. On the other hand, an increase in atmospheric
trace gases could result in increased trapped heat and rising global temperatures.

Flat plate Collectors:

1. Made of rectangular panels (1.7 to 2.9 Sq.m)

2. Simple to construct and erect.
3. Can collect and absorb both direct and diffuse radiat ions
4. Flat plate solar collectors classified into two types based on the t ype of heat transfer fluid
1. Liquid heat ing co llectors are used for heat ing water and nonfreezing aqueous
solut ions ( rarely Non aqueous solut ions)
2. Air or gas heat ing co llectors are emplo yed as solar air heaters.

Basic Components of Flat plate collectors:

1. A transparent cover which may be one or more sheets of glass or radiat ion transmitt ing
plast ic film or sheets.
2. Tubes, fins, passages or channels are integrate with the collector absorber plate or
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connected to it, which carry the water, air or other fluids.

3. The absorber plate, normally metallic or with a black surface alt hough a wide variet y of
other materials can be used wit h air heaters.

4. Insulat ion, Which should be provided at the back and sides to minimize the heat losses.
(fiber glass or styro-foam)
5. The casing or container which enclose the other components and protects them fro m the
weather.

Collectors

Solar Thermal
Systems
Cush
Typical liquid collector: ion
Solar radiation Supp
orts
Trans seats
paren for
Cover t
glass

Collector

Flat plate & tube type Absorber

collector Insulation
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Advantages of Flat plate collector:

1. Of using both beam and diffuse so lar radiat ions

2. They do not require orientation towards the sun
3. They require litt le maintenance.
4. Mechanically simpler than the concentrating reflectors, absorbing surfaces and orientation
devices of focusing collectors

Drawbacks of using water as fluid:

1. Freezing in the co llector tubes in the cold climates during cold nights. (ethyline glycol is
added to prevent)
2. Corrosion of the metal tubes

Air collector or solar air heaters

Applications:

1. Heating buildings
2. Drying agricultural produce and lumber.
3. Heating green houses
4. Air condit ioning (refrigerat ion process)
5. Heat sources for a heat engine

Concentrating Collector:

1. Focusing Co llector is a device to collect solar energy wit h high intensit y of so lar
radiat ion on the energy absorbing surface. Opt ical system in the form of reflectors or
refractors are used.
2. A focusing collector is a special form of flat plate collector modified by introducing a
reflect ing surface between the solar radiators and absorber.
3. Radiat ion increases fro m low value of 1.5-2 to high values of the order of 10,000.
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4. Radiat ion falling on a relat ively large area, is focused on to a receiver (or absorber) of
considerably smaller area.

5. Fluid can be heated to temperature of 5000C or more.

Types of Concentrating Collectors:

1. Depending on concentrating, collectors may classified as

1. Line focusing and
2. Point focusing

As per the no. of concentrating collector geometries, the main t ypes of concentrating co llector
are

1. Parabolic through collector

2. Mirror strip reflector
3. Fresnel lens co llector
4. Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors
5. Compound parabo lic concentrator (C.P.C)
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Line focusing collectors (Parabolic through reflector)

1. Solar radiat ion coming fro m the part icular direct ion is colleted over the area of the
reflect ing surface and is concentrated at the focus of the parabo la, if the reflector is in the
form of a through with parabo lic cross-section, the solar radiat ion is focused along a line.
2. Mostly cylindrical parabo lic concentrators are used, in which absorber is placed along
focus axis.
Parabo lic through reflectors have been made of highly po lished aluminum, of silvered glass or of
a thin film of aluminized plast ic on firm base

Mirror strip Reflector:

1. Slight ly curved mirror strips are mounted on a flat base.

2. The angles of the individual mirrors are such that they reflect solar radiat ion fro m a
specific direct ion on to the same focal line.

3. Angles of the mirrors must be adjusted to allow for changes in the sun’s elevat ion, while
the focal line remains in a fixed posit ion.

Pointed Focusing collector (Paraboloidal type)

1. Absorber located at the focus is a cavit y made of zirconium-copper allo y with black
chro me select ive coating.
2. The heat transport fluid flows into and out of the absorber cavit y through pipe bonded to
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the interior.

Advantages and Disadvantages of concentrating collectors over flat Plate type collectors:

Advantages:

1. Reflect ing surfaces require less material and are structurally simpler than flat plate
collectors. (less cost )
2. The absorber area of a concentrating system is smaller than that of a flat plate system for
same so lar energy collect ion.
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3. Loss of energy after collect ing is less than FPC, because of large absorber area in FPC,
working fluid can attain higher temperature.
4. Owing to the small area of absorber per unit of solar energy collect ing area, select ive
surface treatment and/or vacuum insulat ion to reduce heat losses and improve co llector
efficiency are economically feasible.
5. Can be used for electricit y power generation.
6. Heat storage costs are less
7. Little or no anti freeze is required to protect the absorber.
8. It is possible to get higher efficiencies.

Disadvantages:

1. Only beam co mponent is collected.

2. Costly oriented systems
3. Addit ional requirements of maintenance is required.
4. Non uniform flux on the absorber.
5. Addit ional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the intercept loss, so they introduce
addit ional factors in energy balances.
6. High Init ial cost.

Solar furnace cookers:

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Solar Thermal Systems

Solar cooking:
Basically there are three designs of solar cooker 1. Flat plate box
type
2. Multi reflector type solar oven and
3. Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker

Multi reflector type

Flat plate box type concentrator type

Solar Thermal Systems

Box type Cooker:

Sun rays

Rubber Packing
Glass cover

Insulation Cooking Utensils metaltray

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ooker:

1. The so lar rays penetrate through the glass covers and absorbed by a blackened metal tray
kept inside the so lar box.
2. The solar radiat ion entering the box are of short wave length.
3. The higher wave length radiat ion is not able to pass through the glass cover i.e reradiat ion
fro m absorber plate to outside the box is minimized to gain minimize the heat loss.
4. Rubber strips are used to reduce the loss.
5. Insulat ion material like glass wool, paddy husk, saw dust are used.
6. A solar box cooks because the interior of the box is heated by the energy of the sun.
7. Sunlight, both direct and reflected, enters the solar box through the glass or plast ic top. It
turns to heat energy when it is absorbed by the dark absorber plate and cooking pots. This
heat input causes the temperature inside of the solar box cooker to rise unt il the heat lo ss
of the cooker is equal to the solar heat gain.
8. Temperatures sufficient for cooking food and pasteurizing water are easily achieved.
Merits of Solar cooker:

1. No attention is needed during cooking

2. No fuel is required.
3. Negligible maintenance cost
4. No pollut ion
5. Vitamins of the food are not destroyed
6. No problem of charring of food and no over flowing
Limitations:

1. One has to cook according to the sun shine, menu has to be preplanned.
2. One cannot cook at short notice and food cannot be cooked in the night or during cloudy
days.
3. It takes comparatively more time.
4. Chapaties are not cooked because high temperature is required and also needs
manipulat ion at the time of baking
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SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS

Solar Still:

1. The basic principles of solar water dist illat ion are simple yet effect ive, as dist illat io n
replicates the way nature makes rain.
2. The sun's energy heats water to the point of evaporation. As the water evaporates, water
vapor rises, condensing on the glass surface for collect ion.
3. This process removes impurit ies such as salt s and heavy metals as well as eliminates
microbio logical organisms. The end result is water cleaner than the purest rainwater.
4. The So lAqua st ill is a passive so lar dist iller that only needs sunshine to operate. There are
no moving parts to wear out.
5. Solar st ills use natural evaporation and condensation, which is the rainwater process.
This allows for natural pH buffering that produces excellent taste as compared to steam
dist illat ion.
6. Solar stills can easily provide enough water for family drinking and cooking needs.
7. Solar dist illers can be used to effect ively remove many impurit ies ranging fro m salts to
microorganisms and are even used to make drinking water from seawater.
8. SolAqua st ills have been well received by many users, bot h rural and urban, from around
the globe. SolAqua solar dist illers can be successfully used anywhere the sun shines.
9. The So lAqua so lar st ills are simple and have no moving parts. They are made of qualit y
materials designed to stand-up to the harsh condit ions produced by water and sunlight.
10. Operation is simple: water should be added (either manually or automat ically) once a day
through the still's supply fill port. Excess water will drain out of the overflow port and
this will keep salts from building up in the basin.
11. Purified drinking water is collected fro m the output collect ion port.
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Solar Thermal Systems

Solar Distillation: (solar still)

SOLAR DRYING

Drying preserves foods by removing enough mo isture from food to prevent decay and
spoilage. Water content of properly dried food varies from 5 to 25 percent depending on
the food. Successful drying depends on:

• enough heat to draw out mo isture, without cooking the food;

• dry air to absorb the released mo isture; and

• adequate air circulat ion to carry off the mo isture.

When drying foods, the key is to remove moisture as quickly as possible at a

temperature that does not seriously affect the flavor, texture and color of the food. If the
temperature is too low in the beginning, microorganisms may grow before the food is
adequately dried. If the temperature is too high and the humidit y too low, the food may
harden on the surface. This makes it more difficult for mo isture to escape and the food
does not dry properly. Alt hough drying is a relat ively simple method of food
preservat ion, the procedure is not exact.
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lar Driers:

1. In many countries of the world, the use of solar thermal systems in the agricultural area to
conserve vegetables, fruits, coffee and other crops has shown to be practical, econo mical
and the responsible approach environmentally.
2. Solar heat ing systems to dry food and other crops can improve the qualit y of the product,
while reducing wasted produce and tradit ional fuels - thus improving the qualit y of life,
however the availabilit y of good informat ion is lacking in many of the countries where
solar food processing systems are most needed.

Solar green houses

Greenhouses are used extensively by botanists, commercial plant growers, and dedicated
gardeners. Particularly in cool climates, greenhouses are useful for growing and propagating
plants because they both allow sunlight to enter and prevent heat from escaping. The transparent
covering of the greenhouse allo ws visible light to enter unhindered, where it warms the interior
as it is absorbed by the material wit hin. The transparent covering also prevents the heat fro m
leaving by reflect ing the energy back into the interior and prevent ing outside winds fro m
carrying it away.

Like the greenhouse covering, our atmosphere also serves to retain heat at the surface of
the earth. Much of the sun's energy reaches earth as visible light. Of the visible light that enters
the atmosphere, about 30% is reflected back out into space by clouds, snow and ice-covered
land, sea surfaces, and at mospheric dust. The rest is abso rbed by the liquids, solids, and gases
that constitute our planet. The energy absorbed is eventually reemitted, but not as visible light
(only very hot objects such as the sun can emit visible light). Instead, it's emitted as longer -
wavelength light called infrared radiat ion. This is also called "heat" radiat ion, because alt hough
we cannot see in infrared, we can feel its presence as heat. This is what you feel when you put
your hand near the surface of a hot skillet. Certain gases in our atmosphere (known as "trace"
gases because they make up only a t iny fract ion of the at mosphere) can absorb this outgoing
 RES EEE,SVIT

infrared radiat ion, in effect trapping the heat energy. This trapped heat energy makes the earth
warmer than it would be without these trace gases.

The abilit y of certain trace gases to be relat ively transparent to inco ming visible light
fro m the sun yet opaque to the energy radiated from earth is one of the best -understood processes
in at mospheric science. This pheno menon has been called the "greenhouse effect" because the
trace gases trap heat similar to the way that a greenhouse's transparent covering traps heat.
Wit hout our atmospheric greenhouse effect, earth's surface temperature would be far belo w
freezing. On the other hand, an increase in at mospher ic trace gases could result in increased
trapped heat and rising global temperatures.

Solar Photovoltaic:

Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generat ing electrical power by converting so lar

radiat ion into direct current electricit y using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic power generat ion emplo ys so lar panels co mposed of a number of solar cells
containing a photovoltaic material. Materials present ly used for photovoltaics include
mo nocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and
copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide. Due to the growing demand for renewable energ y
sources, the manufacturing of so lar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in
recent years.

Solar photovoltaics have lo ng been argued to be a sustainable energy source.[1] By the

end o f 2011, a total of 67.4 GW had been installed, sufficient to generate 85 TWh/year.[2] Solar
photovoltaics is now, after hydro and wind power, the third most important renewable e nerg y
source in terms of globally installed capacit y. More than 100 countries use so lar PV. Installat ions
may be ground-mounted (and so met imes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the
roof or walls of a building (eit her building-integrated photovoltaics or simply rooftop).

Solar cells:
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Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generat ing electric power by using solar cells to
convert energy fro m the sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of
light excit ing electrons into a higher state of energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for
an electric current. The photovoltaic effect was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquere l
in 1839.[7][8] The term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in

which current through the device is ent irely due to the transduced light energy. Virtually all
photovoltaic devices are so me type o f photodiode.

Solar cells produce direct current electricit y from sun light, which can be used to power
equipment or to recharge a battery. The first practical applicat ion of photovoltaics was to power
orbit ing satellites and other spacecraft, but today the majorit y of photovoltaic modules are used
for grid connected power generation. In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC.
There is a smaller market for off-grid power for remote dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles,
electric cars, roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of
pipelines.

Photovoltaic power generat ion emplo ys so lar panels co mposed of a number of so lar cells
containing a photovoltaic material. Materials present ly used for photovoltaics include
mo nocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and
copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide.[9] Due to the growing demand for renewable energ y
sources, the manufacturing of so lar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in
recent year. ells require protection fro m the environment and are usually packaged t ight ly behind
a glass sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically
connected together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to
power an emergency telephone, but for a house or a power plant the modules must be arranged in
mult iples as arrays

ells require protection fro m the environment and are usually packaged t ight ly behind a glass
sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected
together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an
emergency telephone, but mult iples as arrays
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for a house or a power

plant the modules must
be arranged in
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Classification of solar cell:

The sun in one year can produce 3.8 × 1023-kilowatt solar energy, is now equivalent to the ent ire
mankind on earth, the total energy used in the 6 × 105 billion t imes. Of these, about 1 / 22 billio n
to the solar radiat ion on Earth, the Earth is now equivalent to the total energy used by 30,000
times. So lar cells is a human use of solar energy devices, it is the use of so lar photovoltaic effect
should be direct ly converted into electrical energy, and only when the sunlight power generation
only, therefore, must have a battery to store electricit y. At present, the photo pool used for a
silicon cell, the photoelectric conversio n efficiency up to 11% to 14%. In addit ion, there are CdS
battery, battery gallium arsenide, cadmium telluride, such as batteries. The use of so lar
equipment is also increasing, such as electronic calculators, watches, telephones, radios, tape
recorders and so on, the price of commercial so lar cells has dropped to below 4 U.S. dollars per
watt. Solar cells more and more applicat ions, more and more promising prospects. Solar cars,
solar power, solar spacecraft, space solar power station, such as the use of solar energy research
by the world's attention in general, are a number of countries in the field of energy in the future
the focus of development. Some experts predict that solar cells will beco me the 21st century, one
of the major sources of electricit y.

Monocrystalline silicon solar cells:

Series silicon so lar cells, silicon cells can convert Dayang the most efficient, most mature
techno logy. High-performance single crystal silicon cell is built on high-qualit y single crystal
silicon and related materials into the thermal processing techno logy based on. Now the power to
single crystal silicon techno logy has matured in recent in battery production, is generally used on
the surface texture, firing passive zone, area, such as doping techno logy, the development of
batteries are flat silicon cells and groove Monocrystalline silicon gate electrode buried in the
battery. To improve the efficiency of conversio n depends mainly on the surface of silicon micro-
structure to deal wit h doping and zoning process. In this respect, Germany Fu Langhuo fee falaj
Fort Solar System Research Inst itute maintains a leading posit ion in the world. The technique
photo-lit hography techno logy to cell surface texture, made of inverted pyramid structure. And on
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the surface of a 13nm. Thickness o f the oxide layer passivat ion and two-reflect ion coating by the

combinat ion. By improving the process of electroplat ing the gate to increase the rat io of width
and height: more than a battery system conversio n efficiency over 23%, the largest value of up to
23.3 percent. Kyocera Corporation prepared a large area (225cm2) single-crystal so lar cell power
conversio n efficiency of 19.44 percent for domestic Beijing Solar Energy Research Inst itute is
also active high-performance crystalline silicon so lar cell research and development, the
development of high-performance single crystal silicon flat battery (2cm X 2cm) reached 19.79
percent conversion efficiency, the groove gate electrode buried in crystalline silicon cells (5cm X
5cm) up 8.6 percent conversio n efficiency.

Monocrystalline silicon so lar cell conversion efficiency is the highest in the large-scale
applicat ion and industrial production is st ill do minant, but because of the single crystal silicon
material prices and the cumberso me process of the batteries affected, result ing in high cost single
crystal silicon At least, to a significant reduction in the cost is very difficult. In order to save
high-qualit y materials, single crystal silicon cells to find alternat ive products, the development of
the thin film so lar cells, polysilicon thin film so lar cells and thin film amorphous silicon so lar
cells is a t ypical representative.

Polysilicon thin film solar cells:

The normally crystal silicon so lar cells in the 350-450μm thickness of high-qualit y silicon made
on this silicon or pulling fro m the cast ing o f silicon ingots from the Juge. Therefore, the actual
consumpt ion of silicon material more. In order to save materials, fro m the mid-70 began in the
low-cost polysilicon thin film deposited on the substrate, but because of the growth of silicon
film grain size, not made of valuable so lar cells. In order to obtain large-size grain of the film,
people have never stopped, and a lot of ways. At present, preparation of polycrystalline silicon
thin film batteries use chemical vapor deposit ion, including the low-pressure chemical vapor
deposit ion (LPCVD) and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposit ion (PECVD) process. In
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addit ion, the liquid phase epitaxy (LPPE) and the sputtering deposit ion could be made available
for preparation of polycrystalline silicon thin film batteries.

Chemical vapor deposit ion is the main SiH2Cl2, SiHCl3, Sicl4 or SiH4, as the react ion gas, a
certain degree of protection in an at mosphere of silicon atoms to form and deposited on the
substrate heating, the cho ice o f substrate materials in general Si, SiO2, Si3N4, and so on. But the
study found that in non-silicon substrates is difficult to form a larger grain, and easily form a gap
between grain. To solve this problem is first in LPCVD substrate Shen Chi-thin layer o f
amorphous silicon layer, and then this layer of amorphous silicon layer annealing, the greater the
grain, and then in this layer on the seed Thick polysilicon thin film deposit ion, recrystallizat ion
techno logy is a very important aspect of the current techno logy are solid-phase crystallizat ion of
the law and the Central re-melt crystallizat ion. In addit ion to the polysilicon thin film batteries
using the re-crystallizat ion process, also used almost all of the preparat ion of single crystal
silicon so lar cell techno logy, such a system, the conversion efficiency of so lar cells has increased
remarkably. Germany falaj Fort Hall area using solar energy research inst itute recrystallizat ion
techno logy in the FZ Si substrate on a silicon-cell conversio n efficiency o f 19%, Japan's
Mitsubishi wit h the preparation of the battery, the effect ive rate was 16.42 percent.

Liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) is a principle of law by mo lten silicon in it s mother's body, the lower
the temperature of precipitation silicon membrane. Astropower U.S. companies LPE Preparation
of the battery efficiency o f 12.2%. China photovoltaic techno logy development center Chen
Zheliang LPE method used in the metallurgical grade silicon on a silicon crystal growth, and a
design similar to the crystalline silicon thin film solar cells a new t ype o f so lar cells, known as
the "silicon tablets of" solar energy Battery, but the performance has not yet seen the report.

As the polysilicon thin film batteries used in the silicon single crystal silicon than the less
efficient and no recession, and there may be low-cost substrate material on the preparation, the
cost much lower than the single crystal silicon cells, and more efficient than amorphous Silico n
thin film battery, polysilicon thin film so lar cells will soon be in power to dominate the market.
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Amorphous silicon thin film solar cells:

The development of so lar cells on two key issues: the conversion to increase efficiency and
reduce costs. As the amorphous silicon thin film so lar cells, low cost, ease of large-scale
production, generally people's attention and rapid development, in fact, as early as in the early
1970s, Carlson, and so began the development of amorphous silicon cells, during the past few In
its development has been rapid development of the world's been many companies in the
production of this t ype of battery products.

Alt hough the material as amorphous silicon solar battery is a good material, but because of its
optical band gap is 1.7eV, making their own materials on the long-wave so lar radiat ion spectrum
of the regio n is not sensit ive, so restrict ions on the amorphous silicon so lar cells The conversio n
efficiency. In addit ion, the efficiency of the photoelectric light as an extensio n of t ime and decay,
the so-called photo-induced recessio n of the S-W effect, making the battery performance of
instabilit y. To address these issues in this track is prepared laminated solar cells, so lar cells are
stacked in the preparat ion of p, i, n single-junct ion so lar cell layer and then deposited on one or
more sub-Pin of a battery system. Tandem so lar cells increase the conversio n efficiency o f
single-junct ion cells do not resolve the key to the stabilit y of the problem is:

①it to a different band gap of Materials group with Taiwan, in response to the increased scope of
the spectrum;

②top of the i-thin battery , The light produced by small changes in the electric field strength to
ensure that i layer of photo-induced carriers out;

③generated at the end of the battery carrier is about one-half of the battery, reducing the effect
of photo-induced recession;

④tandem solar cells each child Battery is a series together.

Amorphous silicon thin film so lar cells have a lot of preparation, response, including sputtering,
PECVD method, LPCVD law, the response of raw materials for gas H2 diluted SiH4, and the
glass substrate for the main piece of stainless steel, made of amorphous silicon Thin film battery
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techno logy through a different process can be a single-node tandem so lar cells and batteries. At
present, amorphous silicon so lar cells made major progress in the study: First, the laminated
structure of the three amorphous silicon solar cell conversio n efficiency of 13%, setting a new
record; in the second. Laminated three annual production capacit y o f so lar cells up to 5MW.
United So lar Energy Co mpany (VSSC) obtained the highest single-junct ion so lar cell conversio n
efficiency of 9.3 percent for the third band gap cell stack three highest conversio n efficiency of
13%.Above the highest conversio n efficiency in a small area (0.25cm2) to get the battery. Had
reported single-node amorphous silicon so lar cell conversio n efficiency of more than 12.5%,
Academia Sinica, Japan adopted a series of new measures, a system o f amorphous silicon cells
for the conversio n efficiency o f 13.2 percent. Wit h regard to domest ic battery in part icular,
amorphous silicon thin film tandem so lar cell research, Xinhua Geng's Nankai Universit y, and
other industrial materials used to back Al electrode prepared for the area 20X20cm2, to 8.28
percent conversion efficiency of a - Si / a-Si tandem so lar [Link] the amorphous silicon solar
cells wit h high conversio n efficiency and low cost and light weight, and other features, has a
great potential. At the same t ime, but because of its stabilit y is not high, a direct impact on its
practical applicat ion. If you can so lve problems and improve the stabilit y of the conversio n rate,
then the sun can be amorphous silicon cell is the main development of solar products. Solar
photovoltaic cells (referred to as photovoltaic cells) used to direct the sun's light energy into
electrical energy. At present, a large number of terrestrial photovoltaic system is based on the use
of the silicon substrate for silicon so lar cells can be divided into single crystal silico n,
polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon so lar cells. In the energy conversio n efficiency and
performance, and other aspects of life, better than the single crystal silicon and amorphous
silicon cell battery. Po lysilicon conversio n efficiency is slight ly lower than silicon, but the
cheaper price.

In accordance with applicat ion requirements, solar cells go through a combinat ion of up to the
required output power and the rated output voltage of a group of photovoltaic cells, called
photovoltaic components. According to the size and scale photovoltaic power plant, photovoltaic
components can be co mposed of a variet y of different size of the array.

The advent of the first single crystal silicon so lar cells are so lar cells. Silicon is the Earth is a
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great deal of elements of a nearly everywhere silicon have a presence could be said to be

inexhaust ible. Used to manufacture silicon solar cells, has no shortage of raw mat erials.
However, refining it is not easy, so people in the production of single crystal silicon solar cells at
the same t ime, the polysilicon so lar cell research and amorphous silicon so lar cells, since
commercial-scale production of so lar cells, not yet out of a series of silicon. In fact, for the
manufacture of so lar cells, many semiconductor materials, with the materials industry, the so lar
cell will be more and more species. Has been At present, research & development of solar cells,
with the exception of silicon series, there are CdS, gallium arsenide, copper indium selenium and
many other types of list goes on, this elect ion only a few of the more commo n so lar cells for
presentation.

Monocrystalline silicon solar cell:

Monocrystalline silicon so lar cell is the fastest development of a solar cell, its structure and
production techno logy have stereotypes, the products have been widely used in space and on the
ground. This high purit y of the single crystal silicon so lar cells to stick to raw materials, the
purit y of 99.999 percent requirement. In order to reduce production costs, ground applicat ions
such as so lar cells using so lar-grade silicon rods, materials performance has been relaxed. Some
also use semiconductor materials and processing of waste at the beginning and end silicon
materials, rehabilitat ion and Lat in America through the exclusive use of single crystal silicon
solar cells made of st icks.

The single crystal silicon so lar cell Tablets monomers made after a rando m test, according to
the specificat ions required for assembly into a solar cell co mponents (solar panels), serial and
parallel wit h the method in some parts of the output voltage and current.

Polycrystalline silicon solar cells:

At present, the use of po lysilicon so lar cell materials, most of the part icles contain a large
number of single-crystal aggregates, or waste time silicon materials and metallurgical grade
silicon material fro m melt ing cast ing, and then into the graphite mo ld, to be gradually cooling
solidificat ion , That is, a polycrystalline silicon ingots. This can make a cube of silicon ingots, in
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order to slice processed into a square film solar cells, improve material ut ilizat ion and to
facilitate assembly. Po lycrystalline silicon so lar cell production process and almost single crystal
silicon so lar cell, its photoelectric conversio n efficiency of about 12%, slight ly lower than the

single crystal silicon so lar cells, but the material is simple, to save power consumpt ion, with a
total production costs than Low, it has been a large number of development.\

Amorphous silicon solar cell:

Amorphous silicon solar cells in 1976 is the emergence of a new t ype of thin film so lar cell
type, wit h single crystal silicon and po lycrystalline silicon so lar cell production method is
completely different, very litt le silicon material consumpt ion, lower power consumpt ion, is ver y
attractive.

Amorphous silicon so lar cells have different structures, of which there is a better structure
called PiN battery, which is in the first substrate layer deposit ion of N-P-doped amorphous
silicon and then a layer of sediment is not doped i Layer, and then deposited a layer of boron-
doped amorphous silicon-based P, with the final electron beam evaporation by a layer o f
reflect ive film, and electrode silver evaporation. Such production process, a series o f deposit ion
chamber can be used in the production process const itutes a row in order to achieve high-vo lume
production. At the same time, thin amorphous silico n solar cells can be made of laminated type,
or integrated circuits produced in a plane, wit h the appropriate mask techno logy, the production
of a number of batteries in series to achieve a higher vo ltage . Japan is now in series production
of amorphous silicon so lar cells up to 2.4 volts. Amorphous silicon so lar cell problems in
photoelectric conversio n rate is low and unstable, so a lot yet to be used for large-scale so lar
power, for most, such as pocket-sized electronic calculators, electronic watches and clocks, and
copiers, and so on.

Multi-compound solar cells:

Mult iple compounds refers to the solar cell is not a single element semiconductor materials
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made of solar cells. Now a wide variet y o f national studies, though not yet the majorit y of
industrial production, but indicates that the photoelectric conversio n Spring garden. There are
CdS solar cells, gallium arsenide so lar cells, solar cells are several copper indium selenium.

Solar cells Condenser:

So lar concentrator solar cells is to reduce the use of a measure of the total cost. By
condenser result of larger-sun together in a small, to form the "focal" or "focal zone" and will put
solar cells "focal" or "focal zone" in order to Increase in light intensit y, so lar radiat ion to
overcome the shortcomings of low densit y and thus more power output. Concentrator is usually
greater than the rate of a few dozen of its structure may or lens-reflex. Condenser's optical
tracking wit h automat ic tracking in general. Can be a way o f cooling water or air, water heater
and so me co mbinat ion of both access to electricit y, hot water to be.

For condenser of mono mer so lar cells, so lar cells and ordinary slight ly different, because to
be resistant to high-rate of solar radiat ion, particularly in the higher temperature of photovoltaic
conversio n performance to be assured that it is in the cho ice of semiconductor materials,
batteries And the structure of the grid lines have to design so me special considerat ion. The best
material is gallium arsenide, fo llowed by single crystal silicon material. In the cell structure, the
general structure of the plane to make more use of solar cells, solar cells and condenser regular
vert ical structure in order to reduce the series resistance. At the same t ime, the condenser battery
grid lines are more dense, t ypical of the condenser battery grid lines account for about 10% of
the cell area to meet the high current densit y.

So lar cells have the t ype o f single-crystal silicon and amorphous silicon, mult i-crystalline
silicon three categories, and most of the applications current ly on the market for single-crystal
silicon and amorphous silicon.

1. Single-crystal silicon solar cell

The most common single-crystal silicon cells are used for power plants, charging systems,
light ing and traffic signals, and so on, the electricity vo ltage and a wide range of high-efficiency,
lo ng service life, the world's leading manufacturers, such as Siemens of Germany, United
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Kingdo m Oil and Japan's Sharp are the production of such single-crystal silicon-based so lar
cells, as the market share of about five, single-crystal silicon cell efficiency from 11% to 24% of
the space level (-evaporation) chip fro m 16% to 24% efficiency, of course, the higher t he price o f
its more expensive.

2. Multi-crystalline silicon solar cell:

Po lysilicon cell efficiency than the low-single-crystal silicon, but the process step is
relat ively simple, low-cost, single-crystal silicon cell less than 20%, so some of the power of
low-power applicat ions using po lysilicon so lar cells

Solar characteristic:

In so lar cell applicat ions this characterist ic is usually drawn inverted about the vo ltage axis, as
shown below. The cell generates no power in short-circuit (when current Isc is produced) or
open-circuit (when cell generates vo ltage Voc). The cell delivers maximum power Pmax when
operating at a point on the characterist ic where the product IV is maximum. This is shown
graphically below where the posit ion of the maximum power point represents the largest area of
the rectangle shown.

The efficiency (n) of a solar cell is defined as the power Pmax supplied by the cell at the
maximum power point under standard test condit ions, divided by the power of the radiat ion
incident upon it. Most frequent condit ions are: irradiance 100 mW/cm2 , standard reference
spectrum, and temperature 25 0 C. The use of this standard irradiance value is part icularly
convenient since the cell efficiency in percent is then numerically equal to the power output fro m
the cell in mW/cm2.
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solar panel, module and array :

Assemblies of photovoltaic cells are used to make solar modules which generate electrical power
fro m sunlight. Mult iple cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane, const itute a solar
photovoltaic panel or "solar photovoltaic module," as dist inguished fro m a "so lar therma l
module" or "solar hot water panel." The electrical energy generated fro m so lar modules, referred
to as solar power, is an example o f solar energy. A group of connected solar modules (such as
prior to installat ion on a pole-mounted tracker system) is called an "array."

Solar panel Solar module and array

Solar Photovoltaic Systems:

Solar Photovoltaic System uses so lar cells to convert light into electricit y. A PV system consists
of PV modules and balance of systems (BOS). Balance of systems includes module support
structure, storage, wiring, power electronics, etc.
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DC (direct current) electricit y is generated when solar radiat ion strikes the PV module. Power
can be used in any DC load direct ly during this generat ion. But the generat ion exists during
dayt ime. So, some storage device is needed to run the system at night or in low sunshine hour.
Again this power cannot be used to run any AC (alternate current) load. Inverter has to be used
to convert D

Solar PV systems are categories into

Stand-alone PV systems (also called off-grid systems)

Grid connected PV systems (also called on-grid systems)

Hybrid systems

Stand-alone PV systems

Stand-alone systems are not connected with ut ilit y power lines and these are self su fficient
systems. These systems could eit her be used to charge the batteries that serve as an energ y
storage device or could work direct ly using the solar energy available in the dayt imes. These
systems consist of the following:

Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces. Photovoltaic modules produce direct current
(DC) electrical power.

Batteries to store DC energy generated by the solar panels.

Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.

Inverter to convert electricit y produced by the system from DC to AC power.

The fo llowing diagram shows PV system powering AC loads wit h battery bank. DC loads can
also be connected direct ly to the battery bank. It is also possible to power the AC load wit hout
battery, but in that case it would be confined only to dayt ime when so lar radiation is sufficient to
generate required electricit y.
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Grid connected PV systems

A grid connected photovoltaic system will be interacted with ut ilit y grid. The main advantage of
this system is that power can be drawn from the utilit y grid and when power is not available fro m
grid, PV system can supplement that power. These grid connected systems are designed wit h
battery or without battery storage. These systems consist of the following:

Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces. Photovoltaic modules produce direct current
(DC) electrical power.

Batteries to store DC energy generated by the solar panels.

Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.

Specially designed inverter to transform the PV generat ed DC electricit y to the grid electricit y
(which is of AC) at the grid vo ltage.

The fo llowing diagram shows PV system powering AC loads. This system is connected to utilit y
power supply and having battery storage for backup
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Applications :

Solar Lighting

A So lar lantern is a simple applicat ion of so lar photovoltaic techno logy, which has found good
acceptance in rural regio ns where the power supply is irregular and scarce. Even in the urban
areas people prefer a so lar lantern as an alternative during power cuts because of its simple
mechanism. Home light ing System is powered by solar energy using so lar cells that convert solar
energy (sunlight) direct ly to electricit y. The electricit y is stored in batteries and used for the
purpose of light ing whenever required. These systems are useful in non-electrified rural areas
and as reliable emergency light ing system for important domest ic, co mmercial and industrial
applicat ions. The SPV systems have found important applicat ion in the dairy industry for
light ing milk co llect ion/ chilling centers mostly located in rural areas.

Solar Street Light system is designed for outdoor applicat ion in un-electrified remote rural areas.
This system is an ideal applicat ion for campus and village street light ing. The system is
provided wit h battery storage backup sufficient to operate the light for 10-11 hours daily. The
system is provided wit h automat ic ON/OFF time switch for dusk to down operation and
overcharge / deep discharge prevent ion cut-off wit h LED indicators.
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Energy Storage

Introduction:

A t ype of thermodynamically force that is used to derive the system equally to do work is
called as energy. There are different forms of in energy in different field of science such as
physics and chemistry both have different forms of energy in their relevant fields which
are used to derive their pheno mena’s separately. As we know that there are different
Laws which explain that energy is neit her created nor destroyed. As it is cleared that it
is difficult to create energy fo r different appliances independent ly so, a method was used
to reduce such condit ion of created the energy again that is called as energy storage.

Types of Energy Storage:

There are lots of t ypes which are used to store energy but there are three main t ypes
which are used to store energy for the long term use, theses types are as fo llows

Hydrogen cells

Batteries Fuel

tanks Hydrogen

Cells:

An energy storing t ype that is used to store the energy in the form of hydrogen io ns
and then generate the power that is really free of environmental hazards to derive the
working of different applicat ions is called as hydrogen cell. This t ype can do the work
more affect ively as co mpared to other energy storing devices.

Batteries:

A second t ype of energy storing device is called as battery, it is that type of device
which can generate the power with the help different cells arrangement in a specific
manner is called as battery. The cells which are arranged in the battery for working are
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of two types that is primary cells and secondary cells.

Fuel Tanks:

A special t ype of energy storing device that stores energy in the form of liquid, it is look
like box that is filled wit h the flammable liquid i.e. most ly gasoline that is used by the
engine to generate the energy and start the working, such device is called as fuel tank.

Methods of Energy Storage:

There are many methods or ways to store energy, these methods really help us to store
energy which is useful in our future to run different kind o f systems. Energy storage
methods are different in different fields of science such as chemistry, bio or physics etc.
we can store energy by different types of methods which are chemically in nature
such as energy storage by hydrogen, nitrogen in the liquid form etc. Energy can also
store through the different kinds o f mechanical methods such as hydraulic accumulator,
fly wheel energy storage etc. somet imes energy storage can also done thermally such as
ice storage, mo lten salt s, hot bricks etc.

Importance of Energy Storage:

There are lots of aspects which made the energy storage valuable or important for the
mankind. Some of them are as fo llows

It plays an important part in power leveling.

It can increase the efficiency o f the engine and increase the output.

It can change the low duty cycles into important ones.

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Module-3

WIND ENERGY

Introduction:

Winds are essent ially created by the so lar heat ing of the atmosphere. Several attempts have been
made since 1940 to use wind to generate electric energy and development is st ill going on.
However, techno-economic feasibilit y has yet to be sat isfactorily established. Wind as a power
source is attractive because it is plent iful, inexhaustible and non-po llut ing. Further, it does not
impose extra heat burden on the environment. Unfortunately, it is non-steady and undependable.
Control equipment has been devised to start the wind power plant whenever the wind speed
reaches 30km/h. Methods have also been found to generate constant frequency power wit h
varying wind speeds and consequent ly varying speeds of wind mill propellers. Wind power may
prove practical for small power needs in iso lated sites. But for maximum flexibilit y, it should be
used in conjunct ion with other methods of power generat ion to ensure cont inuit y. For a rotor of
17m diameter and a velocit y of 48 km/h the theoretical power is 265kW and the practical would
be roughly half of this value.

There are some dist inct ive energy end-use features of wind power systems:

Most wind power sites are in remote rural, island or marine [Link] grid systems are likely to
be ‘weak’ in these areas, since they carry relat ively low vo ltage supplies (e.g.33kV).
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Wind energy:

Can be econo mically used for the generat ion of electrical energy.

Winds are caused due to Heating and cooling of the main at mosphere which generates
convect ion currents. The rotation of the earth wit h respect to atmosphere, and its mot ion around
the sun. The potential of wind energy is abundant. 1.6X107 MW. (Same order of present energy
consumpt ion) Wind mill is drives generator to produce electricit y.

Water pumping for irrigat ion and drinking water Required Wind speed range is 8 to 36Km per
hour In India, coastal areas of Saurashtra, western Rajasthan and so me parts of central India.

Wind Direction:

A weather vane, or wind vane, is used to show the direct ion of the wind. A wind vane po ints
toward the source of the wind. Wind direct ion is reported as the direct ion from which the wind
blows, not the direct ion toward which the wind moves. A north wind blows fro m the north
toward the south.
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Wind Speed:

It is important in many cases to know how fast the wind is blowing. Wind speed can be
measured using a wind gauge or anemo meter. One t ype of anemo meter is a device wit h three
arms that spin on top of a shaft. Each arm has a cup on its end. The cups catch the wind and spin
the shaft. The harder the wind blows, the faster the shaft spins. A device inside counts the
number of rotations per minute and converts that figure into miles per hour. A display on the
anemo meter shows the speed of the wind.

History of Wind Machines:

Since ancient times, people have harnessed the wind’s energy. Over 5,000 years ago, the ancient
Egypt ians used the wind to sail ships on the Nile River. Later, people built windmills to grind
wheat and other grains. The early windmills lo oked like paddle wheels. Centuries later, the
people in Ho lland improved the windmill. They gave it propellert ype blades, still made wit h
sails. Ho lland is famous for its windmills. In this country, the colonists used windmills to grind
wheat and corn, to pump water, and to cut wood at sawmills. Today, people occasionally use
windmills to grind grain and pump water, but they also use modern wind turbines to make
electricit y.
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Today’s Wind Turbines:

Like o ld-fashio ned windmills, today’s wind turbines use blades to capture the wind’s
kinet ic energy. Wind turbines work because they slow down the speed of the wind. When
the wind blows, it pushes against the blades of the wind turbine, making them spin. They
power a generator to produce electricit y. Most wind turbines have the same basic parts:
blades, shafts, gears, a generator, and a cable. (Some turbines do not have gearboxes.)

These parts work together to convert the wind’s energy into electricit y.

1. The wind blows and pushes against the blades on top of the tower, making them spin.

2. The turbine blades are connected to a low-speed drive shaft. When the blades spin, the
shaft turns. The shaft is connected to a gearbox. The gears in the gearbox increase the
speed of the spinning mot ion on a high-speed drive shaft.

3. The high-speed drive shaft is connected to a generator. As the shaft turns inside the
generator, it produces electricit y.

4. The electricit y is sent through a cable down the turbine tower to a transmissio n line.

The amount of electricit y that a turbine produces depends on its size and the speed of the
wind. Wind turbines co me in many different sizes. A small turbine may power one ho me.
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Large wind turbines can produce enough electricity to power up to 1,000 homes. Large

turbines are somet imes grouped together to provide power to the electricit y grid. The grid
is the network of power lines connected together across the ent ire country

Wind Power Plants:

Wind power plants, or wind farms, are clusters of wind turbines used to produce
electricit y. A wind farm usually has dozens of wind turbines scattered over a large area.
Choosing the location of a wind farm is known as sit ing a wind farm. The wind speed and
direct ion must be studied to determine where to put the turbines. As a rule, wind speed
increases wit h height, as well as over open areas wit h no windbreaks.

Turbines are usually built in rows facing into the prevailing wind. Placing turbines too far apart wastes
space. If turbines are too close together, they block each other’s [Link] site must have strong, steady
winds. Scient ists measure the winds in an area for several years before choosing a site. The best sites
for wind farms are on hilltops, on the open plains, through mountain passes, and near the coasts of
oceans or large [Link] wind blows stronger and steadier over water than over [Link] are no
obstacles on the water to block the wind. There is a lot of wind energy available [Link] wind
farms are built in the shallow waters off the coast of major lakes and oceans. Offshore turbines produce
more electricit y than turbines on land, but they cost more to build and operate. The first offshore wind
farm in the United States, off the coast of Massachusetts, was approved in April 2011. Construction is
expected to begin in 2013.
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Wind Production

Every year, wind produces only a small amount of the electricit y this country uses, but
the amount is growing every year. One reason wind farms don’t produce more electricit y
is that they can only run when the wind is blowing at certain speeds. On Midwestern
wind farms, the wind is optimum for producing electricit y between 65 and 90 percent of
the time.

Environmental Impacts

In so me areas, people worry about the birds and bats that may be injured by wind
turbines. Some people believe wind turbines produce a lot of sound, and so me think
turbines affect their view of the landscape. On the other hand, wind is a clean, renewable
energy source that produces no air po llut ion. And wind is free to use. Wind power is not
the perfect answer to our electricit y needs, but it is a valuable part of the solut ion.
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Power in a wind stream

A wind stream has tota l power given by Pt = m. ( K.E.w) = [Link] 1

Where, m = mass flow rate of air, kgls
Vi = incoming wind velocity, m/s
Air mass flow rate is given by
m = pA Yt
Where, p= Density of incoming wind, kg/m2 = 1.226 kg/m1at l atm, I 5°C
A =Cross-sectional area of wind stream, m 2

Substituting the above and accounting for the constants, we arrive at the following:
Pw= [Link]:R3Vw3CP(J..., p)

Where,
Pw = extracted power from the wind,
p= air density. (approximately 1.2 kg/m3 at 20c Cat sea le el)
R = blade radius (i n m). (it varies bet\ een 40-60 m)
V= wind velocity (n s) (velocity can be controlled between 3 to 30 m/s)

Cp = the power coefficient which i a function of both tip peed ratio (A.), and blade pitch angle,
((3) (deg.)

Power coefficient (Cp) is defi ned as the ratio of the output power produced to the power
available in the wind.
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Betz Limit

Betz limit is the theoretical limit assigned to efficiency of a wind turbine. It states that no
turbinecan convert more than 59.3 % of wind kinet ic energy into shaft mechanica l
energy. Thus thevalue of C is limited to Betz limit. For a well designed turbine the
efficiency lies in the range of35-45 %.

Wind Turbines

A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the wind kinet ic energy into
mechanicalenergy. If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricit y, the machine
is called a windgenerator, wind [Link] turbines can be separated into two types
based by the axis in which the turbine rotates asHorizontal Axis Wind Turbines and
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines. The former are more commo nly used due to several
inherent advantages, the latter being used in small scale.

Wind Turbine Generator units

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Turbine subsystems include:

• Rotors which convert wind energy into mechanical energy of the shaft ;

• Nacelle (enclosure) which contains all the conversio n equipment, generator ,gear shaft

etc.

• Tower, to increase the height of the turbine systems so that higher wind speeds are

captured.

• Control equipment, Cables and other Civil works.

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Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs)

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) get their name fro m the fact that their axis of
rotation ishorizontal. They have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of
a tower, and arepointed into the wind. The variabilit y of wind distribut ion and speed
brings up the requirement ofa gear system connected to the rotor and the generator. The
gear system enables a constant speedof rotation to the generator thus enabling constant
frequency generat ion. Turbine blades are madestiff in order to prevent the blades fro m
being pushed into the tower by high winds. Downwindmachines have also been built, as
they no longer require a yaw mechanism to keep them facingthe wind, and also because
in high winds the blades can turn out of the wind thereby increasing drag and co ming to a
stop. Most of the HAWTs’ are upwind as downwind systems cause regular turbulence
which may lead to fat igue.

HAWT advantages

• Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack.

Changing the angle of attack provides greater control over power generated and enables

maximum efficiency.

• As wind energy increases wit h height, the tall tower in the HAWT gives access to
higher windspeed. In some cases increase of even 10m height leads to increase in wind
speed by 20 %

•In HAWTs’ the blades move horizontally that is perpendicular to the wind and hence
haveminimum drag and they receive power throughout the rotation.
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HAWT disadvantages

•Due to inherent large structures, construction costs are very high and so are
transportation costs.

•Civil construction is costly due to erection of large towers.

•Wind turbine operation often leads to production of electronic no ise which affects radar
sites.

• In case of downwind HAWTs’ the regular turbulence produced leads to structural

failure.

• HAWTs require an addit ional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the
wind.

Types of HAWTs:

Mono-Blade Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

Features:

1. They have lighter rotor and are cheaper.

2. Blade are 15-25 m lo ng and are made up of metal, glass reinforced plast ics, laminated
wood,composite carbon fiber/ fiberglass etc.

3. Power generation is within the range 15 kW to 50 kW and service life of plant is 30

years.

Advantages:

1. Simple and lighter construction.

2. Favorable price
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3. Easy to install and maintain.

Disadvantages:

1. Tethering control necessary for higher loads.

2. Not suitable for higher power ratings.

Applications:

1. Field irrigat ion

2. Sea-Water desalinat ion Plants

3. Electric power supply for farms and remote loads.

Twin-Blade HAWT

1. They have large sizes and power output in range of 1 MW, 2 MW and 3MW.

2. These high power units feed direct ly to the distribut ion network.

Blade HAWT

1. 3 blade propeller type wind turbines have been installed in India as well as abroad.

2. The rotor has three blades assembled on a hub. The blade t ips have a pitch control of 0
30 for controlling shaft speed.

3. The shaft is mounted on bearings.

4. The gear chain changes the speed fro m turbine shaft to generator [Link] axis
Wind Turbines Vert ical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft
arranged vertically as theplane of rotation is vertical. Blades are also vert ical in this
arrangement. The biggest advantageof VAWTs is they don’t require a yaw control
mechanism to be pointed into the wind.
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Thusthese are useful in sites where wind direct ion is random or there is presence of large
obstacleslike trees, houses etc. Also VAWTs’ don’t require a tower structure and can be
placed nearby aground enabling access to electrical components. Some drawbacks are the
low efficiency of windproduction and the fact that large drag is created for rotating the
blades in a vert ical axis.

VAWT advantages

• A massive tower structure is not required, as VAWTs’ are mounted closer to the ground

• They don’t require yaw mechanisms.

• These are located closer to the ground and hence easier to maintain.

• These have lower startup speeds than their horizontal counterpart s. These can start at
speeds aslow as 10Kmph.

• These have a lower no ise signature.

VAWT disadvantages

•VAWTs’ have lower efficiency as co mpared to HAWTs’ because of the addit ional drag

produced due to rotation of blades.

• Even though VAWTs’ are located closer to the ground, the equipment now resides at
thebottom of the turbines structure thus making it inaccessible.
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•Because of their alt itudes.

low height they cannot capture the wind energy stored in higher

Types of VAWTs

Persian Windmill:

1. The Persian windmill was the earliest windmill installed. (7th Century A.D. – 13th
Century A.D. in Persia, Afghanistan, and China)

2. It is a vert ical axis windmill.. This windmill was used to grind grains and make flour.

Savonius Rotor VAWT:

1. Patented by S.J. Savonius in 1929.

2. It is used to measure wind current.

3. Efficiency is 31%.

4. It is Omni-direct ional and is therefore useful for places where wind changes
direct ionfrequent ly.

Darrieus Rotor VAWT:

1. It consists of 2 or 3 convex blades with airfo il cross-section.

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2. The blades are mounted symmetrically on a vertical shaft.

3. To control speed of rotation mechanical brakes are incorporated. Those brakes consist
of steel discs and spring applied air released calipers for each disc.

High Mechanical Efficiency Centrifugally Stable Darrieus Turbine

Internal Components of a Wind Turbine

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Internal Components of a Wind Turbine

Anemometer: This device is used for measurement of speed. The wind speed is also fed
to thecontroller as it is one of the variables for controlling pitch angle and yaw

Blades: These are aerodynamically designed structures such that when wind flows o ver
themthey are lifted as in airplane wings. The blades are also slight ly turned for greater
aerodynamicefficiency

Brake: This is eit her a mechanical, electrical or hydraulic brake used for stopping the
turbine inhigh wind condit io ns

Controller: This is the most important part of the turbine as it controls everything fro m
poweroutput to pitch angle. The controller senses wind speed, wind direct ion, shaft speed
and torque at one or more

Gear box: This steps-up or steps down the speed of turbine and wit h suitable coupling
transmitsrotating mechanical energy at a suitable speed to the generator. Typ ically a gear
box system steps up rotation speed fro m 50 to 60 rpm to 1200 to 1500 rpm

Generator: This can be a synchronous or asynchronous Ac machine producing power at

50Hz High-speed shaft: Its funct ion is to drive the generator. Low-speed shaft: The rotor

turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute.

Nacelle: The nacelle is the housing structure for high speed shaft, low speed shaft, gear
box, generator, converter equipment etc. It is located atop the tower structure mostly in
the shadow of the blades

Pitch: This is basically the angle the blades make with the wind. Changing the pitch
anglechanges weather the blades turn in or turn out of the wind stream.

Rotor: The hub and the blades together compose the rotor.

Tower: Towers are basically made up of tubular steel or steel lattice. Taller the towers
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greater is the amount of power generated as the wind speed generally goes on increasing

with height. oints. Also the temp of generator and power output produced is sensed

Wind direction: Generally erratic in nature, hence the rotor is made to face into thewind
by means of control systems.

Wind vane: Basically the jo b of a wind sensor, measuring the wind speed and

communicat ing the same to the yaw drive, so as to turn the turbine into the wind flow

direct ion.

Yaw drive: This drive controls the orientation of the blades towards the wind. In case the

turbine is out of the wind, then the yaw drive rotates the turbine in the wind direct ion

Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.

DESIGN OF THE WIND TURBINE ROTOR

There are several parameters invo lved in the design of an efficient yet economical wind
[Link] and efficient design of the blade is known to maximize the lift and
minimize the dragon the blade. Now, minimizat ion of the drag means that the aerofo il
should face the relat ive windin such a way that minimum possible area is exposed to the
drag force of the wind. Furthermorethe angle of this relat ive wind to the blades is
determined by the relat ive magnitudes of the windspeed and the blade velocit y. The thing
to note here is that the wind velocit y basically staysconstant throughout the swept area
but the blade velocit y increases fro m the inner edge to the [Link] means the relat ive
angle of the wind wit h respect to the blade is ever-changing. Now the various parameters
which determine the design of the wind turbine are noted below:
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Diameter of the Rotor:

Since the power generated is direct ly proportional to the square of the diameter of the
rotor, itbecomes a valuable parameter. It’s basically determined by the relat ion between
the optimumpower required to be generated and the mean wind speed of the area.

Choice of the number of blades:

The cho ice of the number of blades of a wind rotor is crit ical to its construction as well as

operation. Greater number of blades is known to create turbulence in the system, and a
lessernumber wouldn’t be capable enough to capture the optimum amount of wind
energy. Hence thenumber of blades should be determined by both these constraints and
after proper study of its dependence on the TSR. Now, let be the time taken by one blade
to move into the posit ionpreviously occupied by the previous blade, so for an n-bladed
rotor rotating at an angular velocit y, ω we have the fo llowing relat ion:Again let tbe the
time taken by the disturbed wind, generated by the interference of the blades to move
away and normal air to be reestablished. Now this will basically depend on the wind
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speed, on how fast or how slow the wind flow is. Hence it depends on the wind speed V
& the length of the strongly perturbed wind stream, say d Here we have:

Power Speed Characteristics

The mechanical power that can be extracted from the wind depends heavily on the win d
speed,and for each wind speed there is always an optimum turbine speed at which the wind
powerextracted at the shaft of the turbine is maximum, at any other speed apart from this
optimumspeed we get sub-standard operation of the system. So our chief goal would be to find
out theoptimum turbine speed over the operational range of the wind stream speeds. This
thing isbasically area specific, because the wind speeds would vary fro m place to place. Now
themechanical power transmitted at the shaft is:

As we know Cp is a function of the TSR & the pitch angle. For a wind turbine wit h radius
R, theabove formula can be written as,
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Indian Wind Energy Potential

Indian Scenar

India has a vast supply of renewable energy resources. India has one of the world’s
[Link] for deplo yment of renewable energy products and systems, with wind
energy being one of the highest with 11087MW installed.

The Indian wind energy scene is upbeat, with a large number of forays being made
bymult inat ionals like vestas, gamesa, GE power etc. and with suzlon making brisk pace in
theinternat ional market, the nat ions wind potent ial is right ly being tapped. Here we analyze thewind
potential of four dist inct spots on the subcont inent.
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Advantages of Wind Power

The wind blows day and night, which allows windmills to produce electricit y throughout
the day. (Faster during the day) Energy output from a wind turbine will vary as the wind
varies, alt hough the most rapid variat ions will to some extent be compensated for by the
inert ia of the wind turbine rotor. Wind energy is a domest ic, renewable source of energy
that generates no pollut ion and has litt le environmental impact. Up to 95 percent of land
used for wind farms can also be used for other profitable act ivit ies including ranching,
farming and forestry.
The decreasing cost of wind power and the growing interest in renewable energy sources
should ensure that wind power will beco me a viable energy source in the United States
and worldwide.

isadvantages of wind power

Intermittent output of wind energy

Low energy densit y of wind energy
Wildlife
Aesthetics

National Securit y

1. Wind energy available is dilute and fluctuating in nature.

2. Noisy in operation
3. Large area is required
4. Wind velocit y in India are relat ively low (5 km/hr to 20 km/hr)

SITE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS:

This is a list of things to consider when select ing sites for installing wind mo nitoring
devices and wind generators. Site select ion will depend on a number of factors including
the general terrain and wind flow characterist ics of an area and the proximit y to the
locat ion of intended [Link] more detailed information, check the references listed below.
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Considerations:

Wind Characterist ics: Ideal sites are generally located in areas wit h good exposure
to the prevailing wind, away from structures, terrain or vegetation that might alter
the wind or introduce excessive turbulence. For wind measurement, sites that
represent a wide area are ideal in order to estimate the wind resource over as
wide an area as possible. Vegetation will often show signs of "flagging" if wind is
present in sufficient amounts.

Proximity to End Use: The costs associated wit h wind energy grow with
increased distance to where the energy might be used. A windy site close to
transmissio n lines or close to a pumping locat ion might be most appropriate.

Terrain and Land Use: Consider the amount of land available, how this
land is current ly used, it?s proximit y to other uses such as roads, houses, towns or
parks. Avo id potential problems by considering your neighbors and the public in
this process.

Site Accessibility: To install a monitoring tower or a wind turbine and to provide

routine maintenance it will be necessary to get equipment to the site.
Accessibilit y may be important. It may also be useful to have cell phone coverage
at the site to obtain help wit h maintenance issues that might arise.

The fo llowing characterist ics are important in considering a wind turbine site,
and are examined in this

A. Predicted Wind Resource

B. Noise

C. Environmental Issues and Permitt ing

D. Proximit y to Airports
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E. Wind Turbine Component Transportation & Access

F. Distance to Transmissio n/Distribut ion Lines for Power Distribut ion

G. Net-metering

H. Production Est imates for Selected Turbines

Some wind mills located in India

1. Cazri wind mills at jodhapur

2. WP-2 water pumping wind mill by NAL,
Bangalore 3. Madurai wind mill
4. Jayabji wind mill in rajastan etc.
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Module -4

BIOMASS ENERGY

Bio mass is bio logical material fro m living, or recent ly living organisms, most often referring to
plants or plant-derived materials. As a renewable energy source, bio mass can either be used
direct ly, or indirect ly -- once or converted into another type of energy product such as bio fuel.
Bio mass can be converted to energy in three ways: thermal conversio n, chemical conversio n, and
biochemical conversion.
Historically, humans have harnessed bio mass derived energy products since the time when
people began burning wood to make fire. In modern t imes, the term can be referred to in two
meanings. In the first sense, bio mass is plant matter used either to generate electricit y (via steam
turbines or gasifiers), or to produce heat (via direct combust ion). Wood remains the largest
bio mass energy source today; examples include forest residues (such as dead trees, branches and
tree stumps), yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal so lid waste. In the second sense,
bio mass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial
chemicals, including bio fuels. Industrial bio mass can be grown fro m numerous types of plants,
including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo,and
a variet y of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm o il).
The adoption of bio mass-based energy plants has been a slow but steady process. Over the past
decade, the production of these plants has increased 14%. In the United States, alternative
electricit y-production sources on the who le generate about 13% of power; of this fract ion,
bio mass contributes approximately 11% of the alternat ive production. According to a study
conducted in early 2012, of the 107 operating bio mass plants in the United States, 85 have been
cited by federal or state regulators for the vio lat ion of clean air or water standards laws over the
past 5 years. This data also includes minor infract ions.
Bio mass mass derived energy also ho lds the promise of reducing carbon dio xide emissio ns, a
significant contributor to global warming, carbon dioxide acts as a “greenhouse” gas by trapping
heat absorbed by the earth fro m the sun. Alt hough the burning of bio mass energy releases as
much carbon dio xide as fossil fuels, bio mass burning does not release “new carbon” into the
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atmosphere while burning fossil fuels does.

This is because carbon dio xide released fro m fossil
fuels was carbon that was fixated via photosynthesis millio ns of years ago that had been locked
in the hydrocarbons of fossil fuels.
Industry professio nals claim that a range of issues can affect a plant’s abilit y to comply wit h
emissio ns standards. So me of these challenges, unique to bio mass plants, include inconsistent
fuel supplies and age. The t ype and amount of the fuel supp ly is co mpletely reliant factors; the
fuel can be in the form of building debris or agricultural waste (such as deforestation of invasive
species or orchard trimmings). Furthermore, many of the bio mass plants are old, use outdated
techno logy and were not built to comply wit h today’s stringent standards. In fact, many are
based on techno logies developed during the term of President Jimmy Carter, who created the
Department of Energy in 1977.
The Energy Informat ion Administration projected that by 2017, bio mass is expected to be about
twice as expensive as natural gas, slight ly more expensive than nuclear power, and much less
expensive than so lar panels. In another EIA study released, concerning the government’s plan to
implement a 25% renewable energy standard by 2025, the agency assumed that 598 millio n tons
of bio mass would be available, accounting for 12% of the renewable energy in the plan

PRINCIPLES FOR PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS:

Organic substances exist in wide variet y from living beings to dead organisms . Organic matters
are composed of Carbon (C), combined wit h elements such as Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O),
Nitrogen (N), Sulphur (S) to form variet y of organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins
& lipids. In nature MOs (microorganisms), through digest ion process breaks the complex carbon
into smaller substances.

There are 2 types of digestion process :

Aerobic digest ion.

Anaerobic digest ion.15
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The digest ion process occurring in presence of Oxygen is called Aerobic digest ion and produces
mixtures of gases having carbon dioxide (CO2), one of the main “green houses” responsible for
global warming.
The digest ion process occurring wit hout (absence) oxygen is called Anaerobic digest ion which
generates mixtures of gases. The gas produced which is mainly methane produces 5200-5800
KJ/m3 which when burned at normal room temperature and presents a viable environmentally
friendly energy source to replace fossil fuels (non-renewable

OBJECTIVES:

Optimizat ion of gas production

Comparison wit h convent ional plants

Effect of different parameters viz.

* Temperature
* PH
* Total & vo lat ile so lid concentration
* Alkalinit y
* C:N Ratio

To increase the production by using * Addit ives

* Nutrients
* Nitrogen source

Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis is the process of convert ing light energy to chemical energy and storing it in the
bonds of sugar. This process occurs in plants and some algae (Kingdo m Protista). Plants need
only light energy, CO2, and H2O to make sugar. The process of photosynthesis takes place in t he
chloroplasts, specifically using chlorophyll, the green pigment invo lved in photosynthesis.
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Photosynthesis takes place primarily in plant leaves, and litt le to none occurs in stems, etc. The
parts of a typical leaf include the upper and lower epidermis, the mesophyll, the vascular
bundle(s) (veins), and the stomates. The upper and lower epidermal cells do not have
chloroplasts, thus photosynthesis does not occur there. They serve primarily as protection for the
rest of the leaf. The stomates are holes which occur primarily in the lower epidermis and are for
air exchange: they let CO2 in and O2 out. The vascular bundles or veins in a leaf are part of the
plant's transportation system, moving water and nutrients around the plant as needed. The
mesophyll cells have chloroplasts and this is where photosynthesis occurs.
As you hopefully recall, the parts of a chloroplast include the outer and inner membranes,
intermembrane space, stroma, and thylako ids stacked in grana. The chlorophyll is built into the
membranes of the thylakoids.
Chlorophyll looks green because it absorbs red and blue light, making these co lors unavailable to
be seen by our eyes. It is the green light which is NOT absorbed that finally reaches our eyes,
making chlorophyll appear green. However, it is the energy fro m the red and blue light that are
absorbed that is, thereby, able to be used to do photosynthesis. The green light we can see is
not/cannot be absorbed by the plant, and thus cannot be used to do photosynthesis.
The overall chemical react ion invo lved in photosynthesis is: 6CO2 + 6H2O (+ light energy)
C6H12O6 + 6O2. This is the source of the O2 we breathe, and thus, a significant factor in the
concerns about deforestation.

Stages of Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis is a two stage process. The first process is the Light Dependent Process (Light
Reactions), requires the direct energy of light to make energy carrier mo lecules that are used in
the second process. The Light Independent Process (or Dark Reactions) occurs when the
products of the Light Reaction are used to form C-C covalent bonds of carbohydrates. The Dark
Reactions can usually occur in the dark, if the energy carriers fro m the light process are present.
Recent evidence suggests that a major enzyme of the Dark Reaction is indirect ly st imulated by
light, thus the term Dark React ion is so mewhat of a misno mer. The Light Reactions occur in the
grana and the Dark Reactions take place in the stroma of the chloroplasts.
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Biofuel:

A bio fuel is a t ype of fuel whose energy is derived fro m bio logical carbon fixat ion. Bio fuels
include fuels derived fro m bio mass conversio n, as well as so lid bio mass, liquid fuels and various
biogases. Bio fuels are gaining increased public and scient ific attention, driven by factors such as
oil price hikes and the need for increased energy securit y. However, according to the European
Environment Agency, biofuels do not address global warming concerns.

Bioethano l is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly fro m carbohydrates produced in sugar or

starch crops such as corn or sugarcane. Cellulo sic bio mass, derived fro m non-food sources, such
as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethano l production. Ethanol can
be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gaso line addit ive to
increase octane and improve vehicle emissio ns. Bioethano l is widely used in the USA and in
Brazil. Current plant design does not provide for convert ing the lignin portion o f plant raw
materials to fuel co mponents by fermentation.

Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils and animal fats. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for
vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel addit ive to reduce levels of part iculates,
carbon mo noxide, and hydrocarbons fro m diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from
oils or fats using transesterificat ion and is the most commo n bio fuel in Europe.

In 2010, worldwide bio fuel production reached 105 billio n liters (28 billio n gallo ns US), up 17%
fro m 2009,and bio fuels provided 2.7% of the world's fuels for road transport, a contribut ion
largely made up of ethanol and biodiesel.[citatio n needed] Glo bal ethano l fuel production
reached 86 billio n liters (23 billio n gallo ns US) in 2010, with the United States and Brazil as the
world's top producers, accounting together for 90% of global production. The world's largest
biodiesel producer is the European Union, account ing for 53% of all biodiesel production in
2010.[3] As of 2011, mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the nat ional level
and in 29 states or provinces. According to the Internat ional Energy Agency, biofuels have the
potential to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050.
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Bioalcohols:

Bio logically produced alcoho ls, most commo nly ethano l, and less commo nly propanol and
butano l, are produced by the act ion o f microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation o f
sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulo se (which is more difficult). Biobutanol (also called
biogaso line) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline, because it can be used
direct ly in a gaso line engine (in a similar way to biodiesel in diesel engines).

Ethano l fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly in Brazil. Alcoho l fuels are
produced by fermentation of sugars derived fro m wheat, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses
and any sugar or starch fro m which alcoho lic beverages can be made (such as potato and fruit
waste, etc.). The ethano l production methods used are enzyme digest ion (to release sugars fro m
stored starches), fermentation of the sugars, distillat ion and drying. The dist illat ion process
requires significant energy input for heat (often unsustainable natural gas fossil fuel, but
cellulo sic bio mass such as bagasse, the waste left after sugar cane is pressed to extract its juice,
can also be used more sustainably).

Ethano l can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed wit h
gaso line to any percentage. Most exist ing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15%
bioethano l wit h petroleum/gaso line. Ethanol has a smaller energy densit y than that of gaso line;
this means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work. An
advantage of ethano l (CH3CH2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than et hano l-free
gaso line available at roadside gas stations, which allows an increase of an engine's compressio n
ratio for increased thermal efficiency. In high-alt it ude (thin air) locations, so me states mandate a
mix of gaso line and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric po llut ion emissions.

Ethano l is also used to fuel bioethanol fireplaces. As they do not require a chimney and are
"flueless", bioethano l fires are extremely useful for newly built ho mes and apart ments without a
flue. The downside to these fireplaces is their heat output is slight ly less than electric heat or gas
fires.

In the current corn-to-ethanol production model in the United States, considering the total energy
consumed by farm equipment, cult ivat ion, plant ing, fert ilizers, pest icides, herbicides, and
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fungicides made fro m petroleum, irrigat ion systems, harvest ing, transport of feedstock to

processing plants, fermentation, dist illat ion, drying, transport to fuel terminals and retail pumps,
and lower ethano l fuel energy content, the net energy content value added and delivered to
consumers is very small. And, the net benefit (all things considered) does litt le to reduce
imported oil and fossil fuels required to produce the ethano l.

Alt hough corn-to-ethanol and other food stocks have implicat ions both in terms of world food
prices and limited, yet posit ive, energy yield (in terms of energy delivered to customer/fossil
fuels used), the techno logy has led to the development of cellulo sic ethano l. According to a jo int
research agenda conducted through the US Department of Energy,[8] the fossil energy rat ios
(FER) for cellulo sic ethanol, corn ethano l, and gasoline are 10.3, 1.36, and 0.81, respectively.

Even dry ethano l has roughly one-third lower energy content per unit of vo lume compared to
gaso line, so larger (therefore heavier) fuel tanks are required to travel the same distance, or more
fuel stops are required. Wit h large current unsustainable, unscalable subsidies, ethano l fuel st ill
costs much more per distance traveled than current high gaso line prices in the United States.

Methano l is current ly produced fro m natural gas, a nonrenewable fossil fuel. It can also be
produced from bio mass as bio methano l. The methano l econo my is an alternat ive to the hydrogen
economy, compared to today's hydrogen production fro m natural gas.

Butanol (C4H9OH) is formed by ABE fermentation (acetone, butanol, ethanol) and experimental
modificat ions of the process show potentially high net energy gains wit h butano l as the only
liquid product. Butanol will produce more energy and allegedly can be burned "straight" in
exist ing gaso line engines (wit hout modificat ion to the engine or car), and is less corrosive and
less water-soluble than ethanol, and could be distributed via exist ing infrastructures. DuPont and
BP are working together to help develop butanol. E. coli strains have also been successfully
engineered to produce butanol by hijacking their amino acid metabo lism.

Biogas:

Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digest ion of organic material by
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anaerobes. It can be produced either fro m biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy
crops fed into anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The so lid byproduct, digestate, can
be used as a bio fuel or a fert ilizer.
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Biogas can be recovered fro m mechanical bio logical treatment waste processing systems.

Note:Landfill gas, a less clean form of biogas, is produced in landfills through naturally
occurring anaerobic digest ion. If it escapes into the atmosphere, it is a potential greenhouse gas.

Farmers can produce biogas fro m manure from their cattle by using anaerobic digesters

Factors affecting Biogas production:

1. Substrate temperature

2. pH level

3. Mixing Rat io

4. Loading Rate

5. Hydraulic Retent ion t ime

6. Nitrogen inhibit ion

7. C/N ratio

8. Agitation

9. Toxicit y

10. Solid concentration

11. Seeding

12. Metal Cations

13. Particle size

14. Addit ives

15. BOD
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16. COD
17. Heating

BENEFITS OF BIOGAS TECHNOLOGY :

Production of energy.

Transformat ion of organic wastes to very high qualit y fertilizer.

Improvement of hygienic condit ions through reduction of pathogens.

Environmental advantages through protection of soil, water, air etc. Micro-economical benefit s
by energy and fert ilizer subst itutes. Macro-economical benefit s through decentralizes energ y
generat ion and environmental protection.

Main types of simple biogas plants :

- balloon plants,

- fixed-dome plants,

- floating-drum [Link] types

Balloon Plants:

A balloon plant consists of a plast ic or rubber digester bag, in the upper part of which the gas is
stored. The inlet and outlet are attached direct to the skin of the balloon. When the gas space is
full,the plant works like a fixed-do me plant - i.e., the balloon is not inflated; it is not very
elast [Link] fermentation slurry is agitated slight ly by the mo vement of the balloon skin. This is
favourableto the digest ion process. Even difficult feed materials, such as water hyacint hs, can be
used in aballoon plant. The balloon material must be UV-resistant. Materials which have been
usedsuccessfully include RMP (red mud plast ic), Trevira and but yl.
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Advantages:

Low cost, ease of transportation, low construction (important if the water table is high), high
digester temperatures, uncomplicated cleaning, emptying and maintenance.

Disadvantages:

Short life (about five years), easily damaged, does not create emplo yment locally, litt le scope
forself-help.

Balloon plants can be reco mmended wherever the balloon skin is not likely to be damaged
andwhere the temperature is even and high. One variant of the balloon plant is the channel-t ype
digester with fo lia and sunshade.

Fixed-Dome Plants:

A fixed-do me plant consists of an enclosed digester with a fixed, non-mo vable gas space. The
gas is stored in the upper part of the digester. When gas production commences, the slurry is
displaced into the compensat ing tank. Gas pressure increases wit h the vo lume of gas stored;
therefore the volume o f the digester should not exceed 20 m³. If there is litt le gas in the ho lder,
the gas pressure is low.
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Floating-Drum Plants:

Float ing-drum plants consist of a digester and a moving gasho lder. The gasholder floats
either direct on the fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its own. The gas collects in the gas
drum, which thereby rises. If gas is drawn off, it falls again. The gas drum is prevented from
tilt ingby a guide frame.

Advantages:
Simple, easily understood operation, constant gas pressure, volume of stored gas visible direct ly,
few mistakes in construction.

Disadvantages:

High construct ion cost of float ing-drum, many steel parts liable to corrosion, result ing in short
life (up to 15 years; in tropical coastal regions about five years for the drum), regular
maintenance costsdue to paint ing.
In spite of these disadvantages, float ing-drum plants are always to be recommended in cases of
doubt. Water-jacket plants are universally applicable and especially easy to maintain. The drum
won't stick, even if the substrate has a high so lids content.
Float ing-drums made of glass-fibre reinforced plast ic and highdensit y po lyethylene have been
used successfully, but the construction cost is higher than wit h steel. Float ing-drums made of
wire-mesh-reinforced concrete are liable to hairline cracking and are intrinsically porous.
Theyrequire a gaslight, elast ic internal coating. PVC drums are unsuitable because not resistant
to UV.
The float ing gas drum can be replaced by a balloon above the digester. This reduces construction
costs (channel t ype digester with folia), but in pract ice problems always arise wit h the
attachment of the balloon at the edge. Such plants are st ill being tested under practical
condit ions.
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Energy from biomass:

1. Alternat ive source of energy

2. We have plent y of agricultural and forests for production of bio mass.
3. Produced through photosynthesis achieved by solar energy conversion
4. Bio mass means organic matter (Carbohydrate)
5. H20 + CO2 -------------------> CH2 O + O2
6. CH2O + O2 ---------------> CO2 + H2 O+112 Kcal/mo le
7. Algae has lots of carbohydrates, could be harvested, dried and burned for production of
heat [Link] be converted into electricit y.
9. Can be converted into liquid and gaseous fuels.

Advantage and applications:

• In big cit ies, sewage source is the main source for production of biogas.
• The sewage biogas is found to contain 84% methane, could be economically used to run
engines to drive electric generator.
• In the rural sector, cooking and light ing mechanical power for generation of small
electricit y.
• The gas can be used wit h advantage to improve sanitary condit ions and also to check
environmental pollut ions.
• 12 lakhs families in india are installed bio gas plants.
• Maradnagar (U.P.), Rishikesh (U.P.), Sanganer (Raj), Sihar (Raj) Pondicheri, bhopal etc.,

ENERGY FROM THE OCEANS

Tide energy can furnish a significant portion of all such energies which are renewable in
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nature. It has been est imated that about a billio n kW of t idal power is dissipated by frict ion and
eddies alo ne. This is slight ly less than the economically explo itable power potential of all the
rivers of the World. It is only indicat ion of the magnitude of t idal power available; all of it is not
economically feasible also. The first attempt to utilize energy o f the ocean was in the form of
tidal “mills “in the eleventh century in Great Britain and latter in France and Spain.
The large scale up and down mo vement of sea water represents an unlimited source of energy. If
some part of this vast energy can be converted into electrical energy it would be an important
source of hydro-power. The main feature of the tidal cycle is the difference in water surface
elevat ions at the high tide and at the low tide. If this different ial head could be ut ilized in
operating a hydraulic turbine, the t idal energy could be converted into electrical energy by means
of an attached generator.

In principle, this is not very difficult as water, at the time of high t ide, is at a high level
and can be let into a basin to be stored at a high level. The same water can be let back into the
sea during the low tide through the turbines, thus producing power.

Since the basin water level is high and sea water is lo w, there is a different ial head
comparable to the tidal range that can be utilized for the running of the turbines. Basically it
appears to be a simp le proposit ion, the problems invo lved in it, are many.
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The Tides, as we see, alt hough free, were inconvenient because they come at varying
times fro m day to day, have varying ranges (heads) and, for large outputs required large capital
expenditures.

Their early use declined and eventually came to a half with the coming of the age of
steam and cheap coal. Wit h the beginning of the energy crisis in the 1970s, the tidal energy, like
other renewable energy sources, received renewed attention.

The first tidal power plant was commissioned by General DeGaulle at La Rance in 1966
which marked a breakthrough. The average t idal range is 8.4 m (± 4.2 m), and the maximum is
13.5 m.

[Link] OF TIDAL POWER GENERATION.

Effect ive basin surface is 22 km2 ; basin vo lume is 184,000,000 m3. There are no special
problems wit h this site, and it was a very sensible cho ice for the world’s first tidal power station.

It has used a single basin and submerged reversible propeller t ype turbine generators that
could generate power with the water flowing in eit her direct ion through the turbine runner.

Bulb turbines have been provided in this pro ject, they are operating sat isfactorily for the
last 25 years.

The dam contains a small lock for commercial vessels, six mo vable sluice gates, and 24
turbo generators units of 10 MW each. The movable gates are used to accelerate filling and
empt ying of the storage basin at small different ial water levels.
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Installed capacit y of 240 MW, but of course the average power generat ing capacit y is less,
because power can be generated only intermittent ly.

Maximum electric energy production capacit y is 544,000 MW h/yr., which gives a plant capacit y
factor, without any allo wance for maintenance or down time, of 0.26.

Maximum ut ilizat ion of the stored hydraulic potential energy is 18 per cent, which may be
increased to 24% in future by addit ional of 80 MW more generat ing capacit y.

There are present ly two tidal power stations operating, one in France and one in the
USSR. The one in France is a full co mmercial statio n. The one in the USSR is more in the nature
of a pilot plant engineering experiment, and is rather small in size.

The French pro ject at Rance near St. Malo in Brittany, uses a dam that goes straight across the
estuary of the Rance river. The dam is not too long—750 m, shore to shore. The depth is never
more than 12 m below mean sea level, there is an above surface rock part way across, the climate
is moderate, Kisolo yaGuba, on the Barents sea, 70km north of Murmansk.

It is small and was intended as a pilot project. It has one generator of 400 MW rat ing and
delivers 700 to 800 MWh/yr, to the local electrical grid operation began in 1968.

Nearly for 17 years there was a dull period in the tidal power development due to the problems
invo lved in it. The main disadvantage of tidal power plant is that the production of power from
tidal station occurs at times and in magnitudes which are dependent on the relat ive posit ions of
earth, moon and sun to one another and not on the electrical demand of consumers.
The success of La Rance st imulated interest in Canada where on the eastern coast, in the Bay o f
Fundy, the largest tidal ranges in the World occur—being as high as 16 rn—on spring t ides. The
pioneering pro ject in Nova Scotia, Canada at Annapo lis Ro yal was co mmissio ned in 1983. For
the first time convent ional bulb turbines were replaced by large rim generator units of straflo
turbines wit h runner diameter of 7.6 m and capacit y of 10 MW.

Though this t ype of turbine has been in use for many years in Europe, its runner diameter was
limited to about 2 m by sealing problems at the runner periphery.
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If these prove successful, it will provide an attractive alternat ive to the bulb unit, since the straflo
unit has much higher inertia, thus enhancing system stabilit y, and access to the generator is
easier, thus facilitat ing maintenance.

In India, there are possible t idal pro jects in the Gulf of Kutch and Cambay, and on a smaller
scale, in the Sunderbans regions of the Bay of Bengal.

In Korea, there have been a series of studies by Canadian and French firms, the latest one being
of Garo lim Bay. A comparative statist ics of some recent ly proposed tidal schemes are given in
the table.

Table : Comparative Statistics of some Recently Proposed Schemes

Installed Actual
No. of 7.6 m diameter range
Country Site capacit y energy
turbines (m)
(MW) (GW h)

7200 13000 230 9.3

UK Seven Estuary
525 1090 21 6.7

Mersy Estuary 210 530 30 3.1

Strangford Lough Eire

318 715 30 3.8
Shannon Estuary
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India Gulf of Kutch: Kandla 600 1600 43 5.2

Korea Garolim Bay 1200 32 4.6

480

30 55 2 4.1
Brazil Bacanga

U.S.A. Kno ik Arm 2220 5500 80 7.8

Canada Cumber land basin 1147 3420 37 10.5

Cobequid Bay 12600 106 12.4

Annapo lis Ro yal 20 50 1 6.7

China Liangxia 3 11 6(2.5 m) .- 6

USSR Lumbousky 400 — — -6

Mezenskaya 10000 — — —9

BASIC PRINCIPAL OF TIDAL POWER

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Tides are produced mainly by the gravitat ional attraction of the moon and the sun on the
water of solid earth and the oceans. About 70 per cent of the t ide producing force is due to the
moon and 30 per cent to the sun. The moon is thus the major factor in the tide format ion.

Surface water is pulled away fro m the earth on the side facing the moon, and at the same
time the so lid earth is pulled away fro m the water on the opposite side. Thus high tides occur in
these two areas with low t ides at intermediate points. As the earth rotates, the posit ion of a given
area relat ive to the moon changes, and so also do the t ides.

There is thus a periodic successio n of high and low t ides.

Alt hough there are except ions, two tidal cycles (i.e. two high tides and two low tides) occur
during a lunar day of 24 hours and 50 minutes (The lunar day is the apparent time of revo lut ion
of the moon about the earth).
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That is to say, the t ime between high t ides and low tide at any given locat ion is a litt le
over 6 hours. A high tide will be experienced at a point which is direct ly under the moon. At the
same t ime, a diametrically opposite point on the earth’s surface also experiences a high t ide due
to dynamic balancing.

Thus a full moon as well as a no moon produce a high t ide. In a period of 24 hrs 50
minutes, there are therefore, two high tides and two low tides. Fig. These are called se mi-diurnal
tides. The rise and fall of the water level fo llows a sinuso idal curve, shown wit h po int A
indicat ing the high t ide po int and point B indicat ing the low t ide po int. The average t ime for the
water level to fall from A to B and then rise to C is approximately 6 hours 12.5 mm.
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The difference between high and low water levels is called the range of the tide. The tidal range
R is defmed as:

R = water elevat ion at high t ide—water elevat ion at low tide.

Because of the changing posit io ns of the moon and sun relat ive to the earth, the range
varies cont inuously. There are however, some characterist ic features of this variat ion.

At times near full or new moon, when sun, moon and earth are approximately in a line,
the gravitat ional forces of sun and moon enhance each other. The tidal range is then
except ionally large, the high t ides are higher and low tides are lower than the average. These
high t ides are called spring tides, on the other hand, near the first and third quarters of the moon,
when the sun and moon are at right angles wit h respect to the earth, neap tides occur. The tidal
range is then except ionally small; the high t ides are lower and the low tides higher than the
average. Hence the range is not constant.

It varies during the 29.5 day lunar mo nth (Fig.) being maximum at the time of new and
full moons, called the spring t ides, and minimum at the time of the first and third quarter moons,
called the neap t ides. The spring-neap t idal cycle lasts one-half of a lunar month. A typical mean
range is roughly one third of the spring range. The actual variat ions in range are so me what
complicated by seasonal variat ions caused by the ellipt icit y o f the earth’s orbit around the sun.

The variat ions in the periodicit y and mo nthly and seasonal ranges must, of course, by
taken into account in the design and operation of tidal power plants. The t ides, however, are
usually predictable, and fairly accurate tide tables are usually available.
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Spring Neap Spring Neap Spring

tide tide tide tide tide

Fig. Relative high and low tides showing variation in range during lunar month.

Tidal ranges vary from one earth locat ion to another. They are influenced by such
condit ions as the profile of the local shoreline and water depth. When these are favourable, a
resonance like effect causes very large t idal ranges. Ranges have to be very large to just ify the
huge costs of building dams and associated hydroelectric power plants. Such tides occur only in
a few locat ions in the world.

Following points have to be specially noted in connection with the tidal phenomenon.

(1) The t ides are a periodical pheno menon but no two tides in any cycle are alike. Since the
relat ive posit ions of sun and moon and their distances fro m earth are cont inuously changing, the
tides are also influenced accordingly.
Of the two high tides in a single day, one t ide is higher than the other. In any mo nth, the
tides on the full moon and no moon days are particularly higher than the rest, as on these days
sun’s and moon’s attraction acts in a direct ly addit ive manner. These are termed as the spring
tides.
In any year, the t ides that occur at the t ime of versnal and autumnal equino xes will we
even higher due to the relat ive locat ion of the sun and earth. Thus the t idal range R shown in the
figure varies fro m time to time. Generally, a lo ng time mean value’ of R is designated as mean
tidal range at any part icular place.

(2) The mean tidal range varies fro m place to place. The shape of the t idal cycle depends upon
the interaction of the sea wit h the coast-line. Where the coast-line offers a resonat ing influence,
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the tidal range gets accentuated, at the other places, the land may produce a dampening effect on
the tidal phenomenon. For instance, in land locked seas, the t idal pheno menon is always much
subdued. Because of this interact ing effect, the tidal range (as well as the tidal period) varies
fro m place to place. For example; the mean t idal range on the west coast of India is as high as 7
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to 8 meters near the gulf of Kutch, whereas it is only one meter or so near Kerala, down south.
Bay of Fundy (Canada) has one of the greatest tidal ranges in the world i.e. of 20 m, whereas the
Adiat icsea at the Zara has virtually static water wit h the range being only of a few cm. Thus the
tidal pheno menon is a unique feature of every coast line.

(3) In spite of their complexit y, the t ides are amenable to mathemat ical analysis. As a result the
exact time and the water level for a high tide as low tide can be forecast with great accuracy.

COMPONENTS OF TIDAL POWER PLANTS

There are three main components of a tidal power plant i.e.

(i) The power house

(ii) The dam or barrage (low wall) to form pool or basin.

(iii) Sluice-ways from the basins to the sea and vice versa
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The turbine, electric generators and other auxiliary equipments are the main equipments of a
power house. The funct ion of dam to form a barrier between the sea and the basin or between
one basin and the other in case of mult iple basins.

The sluice ways are used eit her to fill the basin during the high t ide or empt y the basin during the
low t ide, as per operational requirement. These are gate controlled devices.
It is generally convenient to have the power house as well as the juice-ways in alignment wit h
the dam. The design cycle may also provide for pumping between the basin and the sea in eit her
direct ion. If reversible pump turbines are provided, the pumping operation can be taken over at
any t ime by the same machine.
The modern tubular turbines are so versat ile that they can be used eit her as turbines or as pumps
in eit her direct ion of flow. In addit ion, the tubular passages can also be used as sluice-ways by
locking the machine to a stand still.
As co mpared to convent ional plants, this, however, imposes a great number of operations in t idal
power plants. For instance, the periodic opening and closing of the sluice-ways of a t idal plant
are about 730 times in a year.

Dam (Barrage). Dam and barrage are syno nymous terms. Barrage has been suggested as a more
accurate term for t idal power schemes, because it has only to withstand heads a fract ion of the
structure’s height, and stabilit y problems are far more modest.
However, the literature does not always make the dist inct ion, even though heads are small wit h
tidal power cut offs.
Tidal power barrages have to resist waves whose shock can be severe and where pressure
changes sides cont inuously.
Since barrage length adds also to the price tag of the plant, short barrages are preferred even if
basin size may have to be smaller as a result of sit e choice. Up to a height of 20 m, cost remains
proportional to length as it is not changed by the need to build a darn wall to withstand high
hydrostatic pressure.
When, the elevat ion exceeds the 20 m limit, costs increase faster with length. Most tidal power
plants do not have heads exceeding 20 m.
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The barrage needs to provide channels for the turbines in prestressed or reinforced concrete. To
build these channels a temporary cofferdam is necessary, but it is now possible to built them on
land, float them to the site, and sink them into place.

Flatness is required for the sea bottom; sandy bottom usually necessitates piling. There, where
sand or rock can bear the weight of the structure to be implanted, the bottom can be prepared, the
structure placed on it and then anchored. Prefabricated concrete blocks can be used as the core
for large barrages and voids filled wit h rocks or concrete remaining ho les with sand, and the
ent ire construction then asphalted.

Construction of a barrage usually will influence the t idal amplitude. Indeed, such a construction
modifies the effect ive length of the embayment or basin and its shape as well, part icularly if the
scheme invo lves supplementary spur dams, or brings about relocation or disappearance o f
natural obstruction as is foreseen for the severn plant and has occurred in the Rance estuary.

The construction influence the resonance of the bay, and most bays are less than the resonant
length of the t idal wave. If resonance is reduced, the range will decrease; if measures are taken to
augment the resonance, tidal amplitude may be increased.

Tidal barrages require sites where there is a sufficient ly high t idal range to glue a good head of
water—the minimum useful range is around three meters. The, best sites are bays and estuaries,
but water can also be impounded behind bunded reservo irs built between two points o n the same
shore line.

The precise design of barrage and its mode of operation depend crit ically on the requirements for
power and on a careful analysis of the economics. The simplest and cheapest schemes would
normally invo lve —a-single barrage designed to trap water in a basin at high t ide and to generate
on the ebb. More complex schemes could invo lve generat ion on both the ebb and flood tides, or
the construction of a secondary basin which would permit water to be stored and discharged
whenever desired. This would provide more firm power on a flexible basis.
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The expert ise necessary to design and build such structures is available.
The locat ion of the barrage is important, because the energy available is related to the size o f the
trapped basin and to the square of the tidal range. The nearer it is built to the mouth of an estuary
or bay, the larger the basin, but the smaller the tidal range. A balance must also be struck
between increased output and increased material requirements and construction cost s.
Gates and Locks.

Tidal power basins have to be filled and empt ied. Gates are opened regularly and frequent ly but
heads very in height and on the side where they occur, which is not the case wit h convent ional
river projects. The gates must be opened and closed rapidly and this operation should use a
minimum of power. Leakage, is tolerable for gates and barrage. Since we are dealing wit h sea
water, corrosion problems are actute, they have been very successfully so lved by the cathodic
protection and where not possible by paint. Gate structures can be floated as modular unit s into
place.
Though, in exist ing plants, vert ical lift gates have been used, technology is about ready to
subst itute a series o f flaps that operate by water pressure. Flap gates are gates that are posit ioned
so as to allow water into the ho lding basin and require no mechanical means of operation. If used
they, are posit ioned, in the case of modular construction, in the caissons.
A caisson is then floated into place. They have to be built so that they will be adequate for the
maximum t idal amplitude. Top hung on a gate-hoist ing beam, a gate would transfer its hydraulic
load to the concrete structure. If operation is to be rapid and efficient, gates must open under the
maximum different ial head; this favours as flat as possible the t idal basin face of the sluice.
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The flap gates allow only in the direct ion of the sea to basin. Hence, the basin level rises well
above to sea level as ebb flow area is far less than flood flow area.
Power House. Because small heads only are available, large size turbines are needed; hence, the
power house is also a large structure. Both the French and Soviet operating plants use the bulb
type of turbine.

Of the propeller t ype, wit h reversible blades, bulbs have horizontal shafts coupled to a single
generator. The cost per installed kilowatt drops with turbine size, and perhaps larger turbines
might be installed in a future major tidal power plant.
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The Bulb Group (Rance Example). A bulb t ype turbine is an axial flow turbine the bulb set,
resembling in appearance a small submarine, is made up of an ogive shaped steel shell
containing an alternator and a Kaplan turbine. It is placed in a horizontal hydraulic duct and
ent irely surrounded by water; a shaft provides communicat ion wit h the engine room of the power
plant.

The set funct ion as a turbine and as a pump, and regulates the flow in both direct ions of flow,
tide to reservo ir (basin) and reservo ir to tide. –

The alternator is direct ly coupled to the turbine and turns it at some pressure. The turbine is a
kaplan wheel with four mobile blades and guide vanes. The group, funct ioning as a turbine in the
direct sense basin to sea, and furnishing power in reverse, sea to basin direct ion, funct ioning as a
pump in direct sense.(Fig.).

Rim Type Turbines. Different types of turbines are under study; usually ment ioned are included
shaft turbines, rim t ype turbines, or straight flow turbines, where the generator is attached
peripherally on the turbine blades, an arrangement that couples two turbines of convent ional t ype
to one generator, and a hydraulic system in which upto six turbines are coupled to hydrostatic
pumps and to drive a pelton-wheel, which, in turn, drives a high speed generator.

The main problem in rim t ype turbine, in which the rotor surrounds the turbine runner as a rim
carried by the runner blades, is the seals between the stationary parts and the rotating rim.
Engineers who favour straight flow generators against the bulb turbine generators point out the
lower inert ia characterist ic of the bulb t ype, claiming this could lead to problems during power
system disturbances.

The designers of a new type of straight flow units put forth savings in civil works and in
generator and auxiliary electrical equipment because large unit capacit ies than wit h the bulb t ype
unit, for the same head, would be possible.
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PERATION METHODS OF UTILIZATION OF TIDAL ENERGY

The generat ion of electricit y from water power requires that there should be a difference
in levels (or heads) between which water flows. A number of concepts have been proposed for
generat ing electricit y by ut ilizing the head that can be produced by the rise and fall of the tides to
operate a hydraulic turbine.

The power generat ion fro m t ides invo lves flow between an art ificially developed basin
and the sea. However in order to have a more or less cont inuous generation, this
basic scheme can be elaborated by having two or more basins.

Accordingly we can dist inguish the fo llowing t ypes of arrangements:

(1) Single basin arrangement,

(2) Double basin arrangement.

Single-basin schemes can generate power only intermittent ly, but a double basin scheme can
provide power cont inuously, or - on demand, which is a tremendous advantage. The drawback is
that the C. civil works beco me more extensive. In the simplest double-basin scheme
there must be a dam between each basin and the sea, and also a dam between the basins,
containing the power house. One basin is main tame always at a lower level than the other.

The lower reservo ir [Link] ies at low tide, and the upper reservoir is replenished at high t ide.
If the generat ing capacit y is to be large, the reservo irs must be large, which usually means that
the dams will be lo ng.(1) Single Basin Arrangement The simp lest wa’ to generate tidal power is
to use a single basin wit h a retaining dam in the following manner: In a single basin arrangement
there is only one basin interact ing wit h the sea. The two are separated by a dam (or barrage) and
the flow between them is through sluice ways located convenient ly alo ng the dam. Potential head
is provided by rise and fall o f t idal water levels, this is usually accomplished by blocking the
mouth of a long narrow estuary with a dam across it, thereby creat ing a reservo ir. The darn or
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barrage embodies a number of sluice gates and lo w head turbine sets. The generation of power
can be achieved in a single basin arrangement either as a

(a) Single ebb-cycle system, or

(b) Single t ide-cycle system, or
(c) Double cycle system.

(a) SINGLE EBB CYCLE SYSTEM. When the flood tide (high tide) comes in, the sluice
gates are opened to permit sea-water to enter the basin or reservo ir, while the turbine sets are
shut. The reservo ir thus starts filling while its level rises, till the maximum t ide level is reached.
At the beginning of the ebb t ide the sluice gates are closed. Then the generat ion of power takes
place when the sea is ebbing (flowing back of tide) and the water from the basin flows over the
turbines into the lower level sea water. After two or three hours when there is sufficient
difference between the full reservo ir level and the falling tide level, to run the turbines, they are
started and keep working unt il the rising level of the next flood tide and the falling reservo ir
level together reduce the effective head on the turbines to the extent where it can no longer work
safely and efficient ly. The turbines are then closed and the sluice gates opened again; to repeat
the cycle of operations. Since in an estuary, the ebb t ide has a long duration than the flood tide,
the ebb operation provides an increased period of actual work.
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[Link] Page 135

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Renewable Energy sources 06EE843

(b) Sluice gates open, Turbine shut off (Sect ion).

(c) Sluice gates shut, Turbine operation (Sect ion)

FIG. TIDAL POWER PLANT (SINGLE BASIN OPERATION).

(B) SINGLE TIDE CYCLE SYSTEM. In single tide cycle system, the generat ion is affected
when the sea is at flood tide. The water of the sea is admitted into the basin over the turbines. As
the flood tide period is over and the sea level starts falling again, the generat ion is stopped. The
basin is drained into the sea through the sluice ways.

Flood operation scheme needs larger size plant, operating, for shorter period and hence
less efficient as compared to ebb tide operation. The ebb operation plant will be of smaller size,
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but will operate over a large period. The aim and effort should be to obtain as long a period of
operation as possible at the beginning and finishing the work at the minimum operating head.
Adjustable blade bulb turbines area specially suited for such operations under low and variable
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heads. All these turbines may be reversible which can work as pumps after the high t ide, to
increase the amount of water in the storage lake, unt il the generat ion can start. This way the
turbine operation period may be pro longed to ten or more hours, out of the twelve hours-twent y
five minutes of the tidal cycle.

The t ide-cycle requires a deeper reservo ir so as to locate the sills of the sluice gates deeper
and, thus, requires greater construction costs. It has been est imated that the energy produced by
an ebb cycle system can be as much as 1.5 times that by a t ide cycle system.
The main disadvantage in both the ebb-cycle as well as the t ide cycle systems is the intermittent
nature of their operation. However, since the int ermissio ns occur at regular intervals, there is
possibilit y o f connect ing another supplementary system, so as to balance the discont inuit y. Such
possibilit ies can regulate the output. The system can be so geared as to generate power, both
during the ebb and flood tides wit h the help of single basin only. This system is known as the
double-cycle
system.

(C) DOUBLE CYCLE SYSTEM. As stated above in double cycle system, the power
generat ion is affected during the ebb as well as in flood tides. The direct ion of flow through the
turbines during the ebb and flood tides alternates, but the machine acts as a turbine for either
direct ion of flow. In this method, the generat ion of power is accomplished both during empt ying
end filling cycles. Both filling and empt ying processes take place during short periods of t ime,
the filling when the ocean is at high t ide while the water in the basin is at low tide level, the
empt ying when the ocean is at low tide and the basin at high-t ide level.
The flow of water in both direct ions is used to drive a number of reversible water turbines, each
driving an electrical generator. Electric power would thus be generated during two short period
during each tidal period of 12 h, 25 mm. or once every Gh, 12.5 mm.
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High Tide
Low Tide

Fig. Double Cycle System

Though the double cycle system has only short duration interrupt ions in the turbine
operation, yet a continuous generat ion of power is st ill not possible. Furthermore the periods of
power generation co incide only occasionally wit h periods of peak demand. These problems are
solved to some extent in the two-basin scheme described below. However, a fundamental
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drawback to all methods for generat ing t idal power is the variabilit y in output caused by the
variat ions in the tidal range.

(2) Double Basin Arrangement

It requires two separate but adjacent basins. In one basin called “upper basin” (or high
pool), the water level is maintained above that in the other, the low basin (or low pool). Because
there is always a head between upper and lower basins, electricit y can be generated continuously,
although at a variable rate.

Fig. Tidal power plant Double Basin Operation.

In this system the turbines are located in between the two adjacent basins, while the sluice
gates are as usual embodied in the dam across the mouths of the two estuaries. At the beginning
of the flood tide, the turbines are shut down, the gates of upper basin A are opened and those o f
the lower basin B are closed. The basin A is thus filled up while the basin B remains empt y. As
soon as the rising water level in A provides sufficient difference of head between the two basins,
the turbines are started. The water flows fro m A to B through the turbines, generat ing power.
The power generation thus cont inues simultaneously wit h the filling up the basin A. At the end
of the flood tide when A is full and the water level in it is the maximum, it s sluice gates are
closed. When the ebb t ide level gets lower than the water level in B, its sluice gates are opened
whereby the water level in B, which was arising and reducing the operating head, starts falling
with the ebb. This cont inues unt il the head and water level in A is sufficient to run the turbines.
Wit h the next flood tide the cycle repeats itself. Wit h this twin basin system, a longer and more
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continuous period of generat ion per day is possible. The small gaps in the operation of such
stations can be filled up by thermal power.

The operation of the two basin scheme can be controlled so that there is a cont inuous water
flow from upper to lower basin. However since the water head between the basins varies during
each tidal cycle, as well as fro m day to day, so also does the power generated. As in the case
with single basin scheme, the peak power generation does not often correspond in t ime wit h the
peak demand. One way o f improving the situat ion is to use off-peak power, from the tidal power
generators or fro m an alternat ive system, to pump wat er from the low basin to the high basin. An
increased head would then be available for tidal power generation at times of peak demand. This
is very similar to pumped storage system in hydro-electric power stations.

Estimate of Energy and Power in Simple Single Basin Tidal System

The expressio n of maximum energy that can be generated during one generat ion period
can be derived wit h the help of Fig. which shows the case of the basin beginning at high-t ide
level, empt ying through the turbine to the ocean, which is at low t ide. (The ident ical energy will
be generated in reverse process).

During the empt ying process, the different ial work done by the water is equal to its
potential energy at the t ime. Considering a t idal range R, and intermediate head, at a given tune,
the amount of work is calculated, considering a small head dh, for a intermediate head h, as
shown in figure.
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We can write
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dw= dm. g. h
but dm=—[Link]
so that dw=—[Link]
where W = workdone by water, kcal/kg or Joule.
g gravitat ional constant
m = mass flowing through turbine, kg
h = headm
p = water densit y, kg/rn3

The total theoretical work during a full empt ying (or filling) period is obtained by integrat ing the
expression i.e.

w= -g pA

= gρAR2

The work is proportional to square of the tidal range. The power is the rate of doing work.

The power is generated during empt ying (or filling) and no power is generated during rest of the
time. The average theoretical power delivered by the water is W divided by the total t ime it
takes each period to repeat itself. Durat ion is 6 h, 12.5 minutes as shown in Fig. (6h, 12.5
minutes = 22,350 seconds).

Assuming an average sea water densit y = 1025 kg/rn3, the average power per unit basin area is
given by
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= 0.225 R2 watts/rn2 (MW/kin2)

The actual power generated by a real t idal system would be less than the average
theoretical power obtained by the above expressio ns due to frict ional losses and conversio n
efficiencies o f turbine and electric generators. The actual power generated may be about 25 to 30
per cent of the theoretic power.

SITE REQUIREMENTS

The ut ilizat ion of t idal energy requires constructio n of a barrier (or barriers) across a
narrow inlet to an estuary or bay, thus forming an enclosure (or basin) in which ocean water can
be impounded. Electricit y can be generated by allowing water to flow through a turbine fro m the
basin filled at high tide to the open ocean during falling t ides and also as the basin is being filled
fro m the ocean during rising t ides.

In each case, the maximum amount of electrical energy that can be generated depends on
the product of the tidal range (R) and the mass (or volume) of water flowing through the turbine.
The vo lume is equal to the range mult iplied by the area of the impounded water. Hence, the
electrical energy is proportional to the square of the range and the area of the enclosed basin. A
favorable site for a tidal power plant should then have a large tidal range, and the geographic
features should permit enclosure of large areas with reasonably short dams or other barrages.
Sluice gates in the dams permit water to pass to or from the enclosed basin (or basins).

Storage: Storage is necessary when alternat ive electricit y production schemes are not, or can not
be, connected with the electrical grid. Tidal power plants are not an except ion to this rule; there
is a strong case for associat ing them wit h storage to provide for the varying needs of the
consumer, also taking into account the eventual presence close-by of other plants. The tidal
power plant has, by it s very nature, many of the components required of a pumped storage
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scheme. It has also the advantage that, with such a scheme, added tidal power beco mes a fin day
time source of power.

This is important because the principal saving provided by t idal energy is that of fuel, and
probably also of pollut ion abatement costs. The fuel saved depends on the t ype of plant whose
load factor is reduced and how such plants perform wit h the addit ion of t idal power or without it.
Evident ly, this argument applies only to highly developed countries where there are numerous
other plants, and for less to developing countries.

The alternate to storage, when energy is available (but power is not needed because of
timing), is not to generate, but the potential thus left untapped is not recoverable at a later time. It
is pretty much a case of “store it or you will never have it when needed and no potential is
available”. Hence the extra capital invest ment may well be just ified.

For tidal power being produced in ‘mechanical form’ only batteries, compressed air, and
hydraulic storage can be considered. Flywheel could be used, but its techno logy is not yet ready.

Flywheel Storage: By connect ing a flywheel to a motor/generator, it is spinned up to high speed

and absorbs energy. This energy can be returned to the motor—generator by decreasing the
flywheel’s speed. However only small quant it ies can be stored, and they are limited to short
periods of time.

Batteries Storage: Perhaps most flexible and practical are electro-chemical batteries. These
batteries are the most commo n, but researches being conducted with less expensive and lighter
types. Also present ly available are aqueous so lut ion nickel and nickel cadmium t ypes, but they
are much more costly. Again, this t ype of storage is suited to small plants, particularly self
contained ones.

Hydraulic Storage: Hydraulic (or pumped—water) storage is most frequent ly ment ioned in
connect ion wit h tidal power plants. Two reservoirs, at different elevat ions, are linked by pumps
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and turbines and their motors and generators. They const itute the accumulator (a reversible
pump-turbine, connected to motor-generator achieves the same result). Off-peak energy, which
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could be used, is put to work to pump water from the lower into the upper reservoir, which can
be run through the turbine and generator and provide energy when needed at a later time.
Power can be provided immediately on demand; storage stabilizes an otherwise intermittent
source and constitutes an efficiency improvement, Reservo irs must be found or built, of course,
and a certain amount of energy is lo st, to activate and work the pump.
Compressed Air Storage. Air is compressed during off-peak periods and thus stored
underground. It can then be called upon to work gas turbines and provide electricit y. Tidal
energy can be used direct ly to drive air turbo compressors.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF TIDAL POWER GENERATION

Advantages:

(1) The biggest advantage of the tidal power is besides being inexhaust ible it is co mpletely
independent of the precipitat ion (rain) and its uncertaint y. Even a cont inuous dry spell of any
number of years can have no effect whatsoever on the tidal power generation.

(2) Tidal power generat ion is free fro m pollut ion, as it does not use any fuel and also does not
produce any unhealthy waste like gases, ash, atomic refuse.

(3) These power plants do not demand large area of valuable land because they are on the bays
(sea shore).

(4) Peak power demand can be effect ively met when it works in co mbinat ion wit h thermal or
hydroelectric system.

Limitations:

There are a number of reasons, why the t idal power generat ion is st ill a novelt y, rather than a
normal source of energy. The reasons can be enumerated as below:

(1) The fundamental drawback to all methods of generat ing t idal power is the variabilit y in
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output caused by the variat ions in the tidal range.

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(2) The t idal ranges are highly variable and thus the turbines have to work on a wide
range o f head variat ion. This affects the efficiency of the plant.

(3) Since the tidal power generat ion depends upon the level difference in the sea and an
inland
basin, it has to be an intermittent operation, feasible only at a certain stage of the tidal
cycle. This intermittent pattern could be improved to some extent by using mult iple
basins and a double cycle system.

(4) The t idal range is limited to a few meters. Thus the bulb turbine technology was not
well
developed, use of convent ional kaplan runners was the only alternat ive. This was found
to be unsuitable. Now with the development of reversible flow bulb turbines, this
difficulty is overcome.

(5) The duration of power cycle may be reasonably constant but its t ime of occurrence
keeps in changing, introducing difficult ies in the planning of the load sharing every day
in a grid. This handicap can be removed now with the help of computerized programming.

(6) Sea water is corrosive and it was feared that the machinery may get
corroded. Stainless steel with high chro mium content and a small amount of
mo lybednum and the aluminium bronzes proved to be good corrosion resistant at La
Rance pro ject. The vinyl paint exhibited good results.

(7) Construction in sea or in estuaries is found difficult.

(8) Cost is not favourable co mpared to the other sources of energy.

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(9) It is feared that the tidal power plant would hamper the other natural uses of estuaries such
as
fishing, or navigat ion.

PROSPECTS OF TIDAL ENERGY IN INDIA

The possible sites for tidal power generat ion in India are obviously those where high
t idal
ranges occur e.g. Gulf of Cambay (Bhavnagar Sonrai), Gulf o f Kutch (Kandla, Navalakhi)
and of Houghly river. The maximum t idal range in the Gulf of Cambay (10.8 m) and is
attractive for a tidal plant.
There are two possible sites on the western bank namely, Sonrai creek and
Bhavnagar creek which have the essent ial requirements for locating probable plants.
However, the silt change of the Gulf of Cambay is about 5000 ppm which is thought to
be high and needs a closer study for future development. Gulf o f Kutch has a maximum
spring t ide range of 7.5 m. The silt change here (near Navalakhi in the Gulf o f
Kutch) is much lower (nearly 1000 ppm). The tidal ranges and power potential
of these sites are indicated in the table below.

There is at present no indicat ion regarding the cost of generat ion fro m tidal
power. Preliminary studies already carried out by the CPWD and for tidal station in the
Gulf of Cambay indicated higher cost of generat ion from conventional sources.
However, the cost of coal and other allied materials is increasing which may open up
the possibilit y of explo itation of this source of power. Adequate data will have to be
collected for any realist ic assessment of tidal power potential and possible impact on
the environment, current patterns, tidal reflect ions, sedimentation, erosion etc.
Detailed feasibilit y reports based on full technology assessment are called for before
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venturing into this field.

Table: Tidal Power Plant in India.

Two basins
Spring Single
Tidal
Tidal Assumed Basin
Sites Maximum Cooperating
Alternatively
range in area in Sq. Potential Cycle
MW108
kms operating
metres Energy kWh/yr.
MW 108 MW108

kW/yr. kWh/yr.

Gulf of
Kutch 7.5 10 1110 43 376 48 419 16.4 143
Navalakhi

Gulf of
10.8 10 2300 89.4 784 100 880 34.2 300
Cambay

Sagar 4.85 10 464 18 157 20.1 176 6.9 60

Diamo nd
3.9 10 686 26.6 233 29.7 262 10.15 89
Harbour
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Module-5

INTRODUCTION

Broadly the ocean sources of energy are Ocean Thermal Energy Conversio n (OTEC) and the
Tidal energy, Wave energy and fourth form of the energy that emanates fro m the sun-ocean
system stems fro m the mechanism of surface water evaporation by so lar heat ing i.e.
hydro logical cycle.

These energy sources (except tidal) are the result of the absorption by the seas and oceans of
solar radiat ion, which causes, like the wind, ocean currents and moderate temperature
gradients from the water surface downward, especially in tropical waters. The oceans and
seas const itute some 70 per cent of the earth’s surface area, so they represent a rather large
storage reservoir of the solar input.

The conversion of so lar energy stored as heat in the ocean into electrical energy by making
use of the temperature difference between the warm surface water and the colder deep water.
The facilit ies proposed for achieving this conversion are co mmonly referred to as OTEC
plants or somet imes as so lar sea power plants (SSPP).

Since the ocean waters are heated by the sun, they const itute a virtually in- exhaust ible
source of energy. However, unlike direct solar energy, the ocean energy is available
continuously rather than only in the dayt ime.

The operation of the OTEC plant is based on a well-established physical (thermodynamic)

principle. If a heat source, is available at a higher temperature and a heat sink at a lower
temperature, it is possible in principle, to utilize the temperature difference in a machine or
prime mo ver (e.g. a turbine) that can convert part of the heat taken up fro m the source into
mechanical energy and hence into electrical energy. The residual heat is discharged to the
sink at the lower temperature.
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In the OTEC system, the warm ocean surface water is the heat source and the deep co lder
water provides the sink.

The temperature gradient can be ut ilized in a heat engine to generate power. This is called
ocean thermal energy conversio n (OTEC).

Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion (OTEC)

The ocean thermal energy concept was proposed as early as 1881 by the French physicist
Jacques d’ Arsonval. In this indirect form of so lar energy at sea, collect ion and storage are
free. The surface of the water acts as the co llector for solar heat while the upper layer of the
sea const itutes infinite heat storage reservoir.

Thus heat contained in the oceans, which is so lar in origin could be converted into electricit y
by ut ilizing the fact that the temperature difference between the warm surface water of the
tropical oceans and the co lder waters in the depths is about 20-25°K.

Warm surface water could be used to heat some low bo iling organic fluid, the vapour of
which would run a heat engine. The exit vapour would condensed by pumping co ld water
fro m the deeper regions. The amount of energy available for ocean thermal power generat ion
is enormous, and is replenished continuously.

Solar energy absorption by the water takes place according to Lambert’s law of absorption,
which states that each layer of equal thickness absorbs the same fract ion of light that passes
through it.

Where Ioand I(x) are the intensit ies of radiat ion at the surface (x = 0) and at a distance x below
 RES EEE,SVIT

the surface. K is an ext inct ion coefficient (or absorption coefficient) that has the unit k has

values of 0.05 for very clear fresh water, 0.27 for turbid fresh water and 0.50 for very
salt y water.
Thus the intensit y decreases exponent ially wit h depth and, depending upon K, almost all of the
absorption occurs very close to the surface of deep waters.
Because of heat and mass transfer at the surface itself, the maximum temperatures occurjust
below the surface.
Considering deep water in general, the high temperatures are at the surface, whereas deed water
remains cool. In the tropics, the ocean surface temperature often exceeds 25°C, while 1 km
below, the temperature is usually not higher than 10°C. Water densit y decreases wit h an increase
in temperature (above 4°C where pure water’s densit y is maximum, decreasing again below this
temperature, the reason ice floats).
Thus there will be no thermal convect ion currents between the warmer, lighter water at the top
and deep cooler, heavier water. Thermal conduct ion heat transfer between them across the large
depths, is too low to after this picture, and thus mixing the retarded, so the warm water stays at
the top and the cool water stays at the bottom. It is said, therefore, that in tropical waters there
are two essent ially infinite heat reservoirs, a heat source at the surface at about 27°C and a heat
sink, so me 1 km direct ly below, at about 4°C; both reservo irs are maintained annually by so lar
incidence. The concept of ocean thermal energy conversio n (OTEC) is based on the utilizat ion of
this temperature difference in a heat engine to generate power.
The surface temperatures (and temperature differences) vary both with lat itude and season, both
being maximum in tropical, subtropical, and equatorial waters i.e., between the two tropics,
making these waters the most suitable for OTEC systems. Several such plants are built in France
after World War II (the largest of which has a capacit y of 7.5 MW).
Wit h a 22°K temperature difference between surface and depths, such as exists in warmer ocean
areas than in north sea, the Carnot efficiency is around 7%. This is obviously very low, and
comparable to that expected from a flat plate collector.
In fact, by the time the overall efficiency has been reduced by using a practical engine (operating
on a Rankine cycle say) together with heat exchangers, the proposit ions might seem hopeless.
One major difference between these two heat sources is that solar energy arrives with a 10W
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power densit y, and requires a large acreage of flat -plate collector.

Whereas on ocean thermal gradient source can operate with a small area co llector by pumping
sufficient water through the heat collector. Indeed the attraction of the so lar sea power plant lies
in it s present day engineering feasibilit y and possible co mpet it ive cost with fossil fuel power
stations.
As stated the idea of ocean thermal energy conversio n with a suitable working fluid was
originated by d’ Arsonval, but the technical feasibilit y o f the open cycle system was
demonstrated by Claude with an installat ion on the south coast of Cuba in 1929.
It was a remarkable achievement at the time. The electric power generated was 22 kilo watts with
an overall efficiency more than 1 per cent. The hot and cold water were conducted through the
lo ng pipes to the machinery ashore. With the limit ed techno logy and cheap fuel at that time,
there was then litt le prospects for economic feasibilit y.
A larger installat ion wit h two units totalling 7 megawatts was constructed on the Ivory coast by
the French in 1956, but encountered troubles and was abandoned.
The process of OTEC, requires that the warm surface water and cold water from depth (about
1000-1500 m), be brought into proximit y so they act as the heat source and the heat sink,
respectively for a heat engine.
In other words, solar energy co llected and stored as heat by the world’s major oceans, can be
converted into electricit y through a generat ion process similar to that of convent ional power
plants, except that in the case of OTEC, no depletable fuel is required.
Furthermore, although there is some seasonal variation in the ocean thermal resource at a given
OTEC power plant location, there is litt le diurnal variat ion.
Accordingly OTEC power plants are analogous to solar hydropower plants in that they smooth
out the diurnal intermittence of the solar radiat ion, in contrast to other electric power options.
OTEC power plants provide a potentially substantial renewable source of base load electricit y,
.albeit located mainly at sea.
Alt hough it is possible to find good land sites where OTEC power plants can be located, by
bringing the warm and cold water onto shore via aqueducts (artificial cannal/conduit), it is clear
that such opportunit ies will be much limited on a glo bal basis than the ample opportunit ies for
generat ing substant ial amounts of OTEC electricit y abroad float ing OTEC plat forms. This is
both because of the special technical requirements for on shore OTEC plants and because of the
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limited market potential (atleast in the near term) for OTEC electricit y at such sites.(n shore

OTEC power plants will be viable mainly at locations where three requirements are all
simultaneously sat isfied with sat isfactory economics:

(i) Coastal zone land must be available,

(ii) Sea floor must descend sufficient ly rapidly from the shore based plant locat ion; and

(iii) The seasonal availabilit y of warm and cold water without undue gradation by the warm and
cold water effluents fro m the OTEC plant must meet certain criteria. In any event, it is probable
that available and attractive on shore and near shore OTEC power plant location will be
populated early in the development and implementation of the OTEC concept, both as
convenient locations for pilot and demonstration plants and because they will const itute
attractive intermediate markets for OTEC electricit y and by products.
OTEC power generation system gives less efficiency, as stated above. However, because of the
OTEC requirement for paas1tic power (such as for pumping up the cold water supply) and other
losses, the achievable net conversio n efficiency is only about 2.5 percent (Carnot efficiency 7’).
This co mpares a net efficiencies of 30 to 40% associated with conventional power
Some engineers quest ion whether such as an extremely low net efficiency will ever allow OTEC
to become econo mically viable. However, it is important to consider the matter in more
sophist icated terms than net efficiency;since in the case of OTEC there is no fuel cost, only the
requirement to pay for circulat ing much more warm and co ld water, than is normally associated
with power generation. This means that extensive areas heat exchangers will be required for
“clo sed cycle” OTEC plants (which would emplo y a working fluid such as ammo nia) or
thatdegasifiers (to remove gases disso lved in the sea water) and tremendous turbines would be
required for “open cycle” OTEC plants that would operate by the flash evaporation of sea water.
Thus, although the net efficiency o f the JEC plant must certainly be posit ive and as high as is
readily attainable,the key econo mics question is t he result ing cost of OTEC electrical energy, not
the actual value of the net efficiency.
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METHODS OF OCEAN THERMAL ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION:

There are two rather different methods for harnessing ocean thermal differences. One is the open
cycle, also known as the Claude cycle, and other is the closed cycle system, also known as the
Anderson cycle.
In the closed cycle system, a liquid working fluid, such as ammo nia or propane, is vaporized in
an evaporator (or boiler); the heat required for vaporizat ion is transferred fro m the warm ocean
surface to the liquid by means of a heat exchanger’)
The high-pressure vapour leaving the evaporator drives an expansio n turbine, similar to a steam
turbine that it is designed to operate at a lower inlet pressure. The turbine is connected to an
electric generator in the usual manner.
The low pressure exhaust from the turbine is cooled and converted back into liquid in the
condenser. The cooling is achieved by passing cold, deep ocean water, from a depth of 700 to
90O or more, through a heat exchanger. T
The liquid working fluid is then pumped back as high pressure liquid to the evaporator, thus
closing the
In the open-cycle turbine system, water is the working fluid. The warm surface water is caused to
bo il by lowering the pressure, without supplying any addit ional heather low-pressure steam
produced then drives a turbine, and the exhaust steam is condensed by the deep co lder water and
is discarded.
A heat exchanger is not required in the evaporator and direct-contact between the exhaust steam
and a cold- water spray makes a heat exchanger as necessary in the condenser.
On the other hand, because of the low energy content of the low pressure steam, very large
turbines or several smaller units operating in parallel would be required to achieve a useful
electric power output.

The Claude cycle or open cycle which is older one, utilizes the vapour pressure of sea
water itself as the working medium and has been demonstrated to be practicable.
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steam is passed through a turbine, which

The other method, a closed cycle known extracts energy from it, and then the spent
as the Rankine cycle, uses a working fluid vapour is cooled in a condenser.
wit h higher vapour pressure (such as This cycle drives the name ‘open’ from the
ammo nia, hydrocarbon or halocarbon) at fact that the condensate need not be returned
the temperature available. to the evaporator, as in the case of the ‘closed
This cycle is favoured for the future cycle’.
development in expectation of higher Instead, the condensate, can be ut ilized as
efficiency. The first published work on desalinated water if a surface condenser is
OTEC by d’. Arsonvo l in 1881, suggs used, or if a spray (direct-contact) condenser
a closed cycle, and that article proposed is used, the condensate is mixed wit h the
sulfer di-oxide (SO2) as the working fluid. cooling water and the mixture is discharged
However, the first OTEC experiments by back into the ocean. &schemat ic diagram
Claude in the 1920s ut ilized on open of the open cycle system is shown in Fig.
cycle where sea water was evaporated
under a partial vacuum.

OPEN CYCLE OTEC SYSTEM (CLAUDE

CYCLE)

‘Open cycle’ refers to the

‘utilizat ion of sea water as the working
fluid, wherein sea water is flash evaporated
under a partial vacuum. The low pressure

Its corresponding T-S diagram is also Fig. Schemat ic of the OTEC open cycle.
shown in the Fig. In the cycle shown warm surface water at say 27°C is admit ted into an
evaporator in which the pressure is maintained at a value slight ly below the saturation pressure
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At the new pressure, water which is entering the evaporator gets ‘super heated’. As shown in Fig.
the warm water which is at 27°C, has a saturation pressure of 0.03619 kg/cm2 (0.0356 bar)
(point 1).

The evaporator pressure is 0.03213 (0.0317 bar), which corresponds to 25°C saturation
temperature. This temporarily superheated water undergoes volume boiling (as opposed to pool
bo iling which takes place in convent ional bo ilers due to an immersed heat ing surface), causing
that water to partially flash to steam to an equilibrium two phase condit ion at the new pressure
and temperature of 0.032 13 kg/km2 and 25°C (point 2). Process 1-2 is a throttling and hence
constant enthalpy process.

The low pressure in the evaporator is maintained by a vacuum pump that also removes the
disso lved non-condensable gases fro m the evaporator.

At point 2, the evaporator contains a mixture of water and steam of very lo w qualit y. The steam
is separated from the water as saturated vapour at 3.

The remaining water is saturated at 4 and is discharged as brine back to the ocean. The steam at
3, has a very low pressure and high specific vo lume (0.03213 kg/cm2,43.40 m3/kg), as compared
to convent ional fossil power plant, which has about 160 kg/cm2 pressure and 0.021 m3/kg
specific vo lume.

The steam expands in a specially designed turbine that can handle such condit io ns to 5. The
condenser pressure and temperature at point 5 are of the order of 0.01729 kg/cm2 (0.0 17 bar)
and 15°C. A direct contact condenser is used as the turbine exhaust steam will be discharged
back to the ocean in the open cycle system. In the condenser, the exhaust steam is mixed wit h
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cold water fro m the deep cold water pipe at 6, which results in near saturated water at 7. This
water is allowed to discharged to the ocean.

The cooling water from the deep ocean which is at about 11°C, on reaching the condenser, its
temperature rises to about 15°C, due to heat transfer between the progressively warmer outside
water and cooling water inside the pipe, as it ascends towards the top.
It can be seen that very large ocean water mass and volume flow rates are used in open OTEC
systems and that the turbine is a very low pressure unt il that receives steam wit h specific
vo lumes more than 2000 times that in a modern fossil power plant.

Thus the turbine resembles the few lost exhaust stages of a convent ional turbine and is thus
physically [Link] of the need in the open cycle to harness the energy in low pressure
steam, extremely large turbines (co mpared to wind turbines) must be ut ilized. Further-more
degasifiers (deaerators) must be used to remove the gases disso lved in the sea water unless one is
willing to accept large losses in efficiency.

On the other hand, since there are no heat transfer problems in the evaporator, the problem o f
bio-fouling control is minimized. The cost of an open-cycle system for providing substant ial
number of megawatts is present ly regarded by most OTEC workers as being significant ly greater
than for closed cycle system. The turbine cost constituted almost half the cost of the power
system, but may be amenable to reductions that could result fro m design innovat ions.

The Closed or Anderson, OTEC Cycle

A schemat ic of a closed-cycle OTEC power plant is shown in Fig. Heat exchanger known as
evaporators and condensers are a key ingredient, since extensive areas of material are needed to
transfer significant amounts of low qualit y heat of the lo w temperature differences being
explo ited.
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Fig. Schematic of an OTEC closed cycle system.

In other words, large vo lumes of water must be circulated through the OTEC power plant,
requiring commensurately large heat exchangers. The actual components emplo yed in an OTEC
closed cycle system would appear more like the hardware illustrated in Fig.2another closed cycle
schemat ic. This cycle requires a separate working fluid that receives and rejects heat to the
source and sinkvia heat exchangers (bo iler or evaporator and surface condenser). The working
fluid may be ammo nia, propane, or a Freon.

The operatingof such fluids at the boiler and condenser temperatures are much higher
than those of water, being roughly10 kg/cm2 ( 10 bar) at the bo iler, and their specific vo lumes
are much lower, being co mparable to those of steam in convent ional power plants.

Such pressures and specific volumes result in turbines that are much smaller and hence
less costly than those that use the low pressure steam of the open cycle. The closed cycle also
avo ids the problems of the evaporator. It however, requires the use of very large heat exchangers
(bo iler and condenser) because, for an efficiency of about 2 percent, the amounts of heat added
and rejected are about 50 times the output of the plant. In addit ion, the temperature differences in
the bo iler and condenser must be kept as low as possible to allow for the maximum possible
temperature difference across the turbine, which also contributes to the large surfaces of these
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Fig. [Link] of a closed OTEC ammonia cycle.

The closed cycle approach was first proposed by Barjot in 1926, but the most recent
esign was by Anderson and Anderson in the 1960s. The closed cycle is so met imes referred to as
d

the Anderson Cycle. In the cycle propane was chosen as the working fluid. The temperature
difference between warm surface and cool surface was 20°C. The c surface was at about 600 m
deep. Propane is vaporized in the bo ilei evaporator at about 10 kg/cm2 (10 bar) or more and
exhausted in 1 condenser at about 5 bar.
Instead of usual heavier and more expensive shell and tube h exchangers, the Anderson
OTEC system emplo ys thin plate type h exchangers, which minimizes the mass and the amount
of material a hence cost. The heat exchangers are placed at depths where the sta pressure of the
water in either heat exchanger roughly equals i pressure of the working fluid, this helps in
reducing the thickness of plates.
A fundamental requirement in closed cycle systems is to trans. heat efficient ly across the
heat exchanger surfaces const ituting t evaporators and condensers, so as to achieve a high value
of overall h transfer coefficient (U) measured in watts per kelvin per square meter or W/°K/m2.
For the evaporation, this overall heat transfer coefficient is a measure of how effect ively heat is
transferred sequent ially from s water through the heat exchanger materially (a metallic allo y) a
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hence to the working fluid (e.g., ammo nia). For the condenser, an over U characterized the
reverse heat transfer process.

In an ocean environment, it is likely that a layer of slime known as “bio fouling” will
eventually accumulate on the water side of the he exchangers. Such slime is first comprised or
micro-organisms, at which stage, the bio fouling is called “micro fouling”. Subsequent ly, if the
slime is not removed, addit ional bio-fouling in the form of micro-organism will beco me
attached, augment ing the slime layer. The occurrence micro-fouling seems to be a pre-requisite
for the attachment of macro organisms.

A film of corrosion and possibly of calcareous (e.g. minerals deposits can also
accumulate on the water side (and conceivably through leakage—even on the working fluid side
of the heat trans surfaces). The total formulat ion of bio-fouling, corrosion, and so on, referred to
a “fouling” (or scaling) and will tend to inhibit heat trans through it. The “fouling factor” is a
measure of the thermal resistance‘R f’of a fouling film. This thermal resistance is the reciprocal
of t corresponding heat transfer coefficient ‘hf’of the fouling film.

To maintain viable OTEC heat exchangers, provisio ns must be made to inhibit the
format ion of fouling layers and to remove any significant fouling that forms. Removal can be
accomplished by periodically cleaning t i heat exchanger surfaces through mechanical, chemical
or other means.

Alt hough both closed-and open cycle turbine systems are being explored, it appears that
closed-cycle systems offer the most promise for the near future. Each of the possible working
fluids (i.e. ammo n and propane) has advantages and disadvantages.

SITE SELECTION

In select ing a site for an OTEC facilit y, the primary considerat ion is, of course, a
significant temperature difference—at least about 20°C—between surface and deep ocean waters
(for 700-900 m depth or more) that will permit year round operation.
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The greater the difference, the lower will be the cost of generat ing electricit y. The
best
sites are in the tropical belt between about 20°N and 20°S lat itude. There are, however,
several locat ions outside this area that might be suitable for OTEC plants. In
choosing a site, considerat ion should be given to the potential for bio -fouling effects as
noted earlier.

As a general rule, an OTEC plant would be located offshore in order to provide

access to the deep colder water. However, an ideal situat ion might be one where the
shoreline dropped steeply to a considerable depth. Most of the installat ion could then be
more convenient ly build on land.

ENERGY UTILIZATION

If possible an OTEC plant should be less than about 30 km from shore. The electricit y
generated could then be transmitted inexpensively to land by submarine cable. At
somewhat greater distances, the trails- mission costs would be increased but might be
tolerable.

If the plant is so far fro m shore that these costs become prohibit ive, the electricit y
generated can be utilized at the plant site to produce energy-intensive materials.

One suggest ion is to use direct electric current to decompose sea water by the
process of electrolysis; the main products would be hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen
could be liquified and transported by tanker to a point where it could be used as fuel.
Alternat ively, the hydrogen could be co mbined wit h at mospheric nitrogen to form
ammo nia for use as fert ilizer, thereby saving natural gas which is present ly the main
source of hydrogen for this purpose.
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HYBRID CYCLE

There are several variat ions on the standard OTEC open-cy system. One variat ion
is the “hybrid cycle” which is an attempt combine the best features and avo id t lie worst
features of the open closed cycles. First, as shown in Fig. [Link], sea water is flash
evaporated to steam, as in

the open cycle. The heat in the resul steam is then transferred to ammonia in an
otherwise convent ional closed Rankine cycle system.

Fig. Hybrid Cycle

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ROSPECTS OF OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION IN INDIA

The OTEC project cell established at IIT, Madras has co mpleted the preliminary feasibilit y
study for establishing a, 1 MW OTEC plant in Lakshadeep Island at Minico y. The OTEC
works on the principle of utilizing the temperature difference of sea water at depth and that
at the surface.

The surface sea water is used to vaporize a low boiling chemical which
drives, a turbogenerator. Thevaporized chemical is then compressed, it is condensed by
using co ld sea water from depth. Preliminary oceanographic studies on eastern side
o f Lakshadeep Island suggest the possibilit y of the establishment of shore based OTEC
plant at t he island wit h a co ld water pipe line running down the slope to a depth of 800—
1000 m.

Both the island has large lagoons on the western side. The lagoons are very shallow
wit h hardly any nutrient in the sea water. The proposed OTEC plant will bring up the water
from 1000 m depth which has high nutrient value. After providing cooling effect in the
condenser, a part of deep sea water is proposed to be diverted to the lagoon for the
development of aqua culture. A hydrographic survey of the proposed site was
undertaken by Nat ional Hydrographic Office, Dehra Dun. The preliminary assessment of
survey indicates the availabilit y of suitable condit ions for establishment of OTEC plant.