Chapter 1: Introduction to EV

Department of Automobile and Mechanical Engineering

Institute of Engineering, Thapathali Campus
BACHELORS IN AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING-IV/I
Debendra Raut, Lecturer, IoE/TU
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154 KILOWATT GRID CONNECTED SOLAR AND EV
CHARGING STATION IN LUMBINI, NEPAL

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 History of Vehicle

[Link]
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[Link]
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 History of EV’s
• Pre 1830s- Steam Powered Transportation, because EMI and
motors/generators yet to discover
• 1831- Faradays discovered EMI and Joseph Henry discovered DC motor
• 1834- First Electric Car by Robert Anderson with Non-rechargeable battery
• 1870- Electricity produced by dynamo-generator
• 1879- First electric bulb by Thomas Edison
• 1885- Gasoline powered Tricycle Car
• Golden Age of EVs- 1890 – 1912 (Peak)-1920 Declines
• EVs disappeared in 1935
• 1970- Shortage of gasoline, click for next generation EV to starts
• 1990- Environment concern of gasoline vehicle
• 2000- First majorly EV manufactured in EV in US
• 2010- EV charging and battery price decline

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Source: [Link]
Source: MIT/EVT
 Why EV Disappeared in 1935?
• In golden age, people liked them because in many ways early electric
cars outperformed their gas competitors. Electric cars didn’t have the
smell, noise, or vibration found in steam or gasoline cars. They were
easier to operate, lacked a manual crank to start, and didn’t require
the same difficult-to-change gear system as gas cars.
• Invention of starter motor in 1911, make easy to start gasoline,
eliminating the hand crank
• Cheap and mass production of GV, By 1912, a gasoline car cost only
$650 while the average electric roadster sold for $1,750.
• Rural areas has no access to electricity to charge electric vehicles
• When Henry Ford introduced the mass-produced and gas-powered
Model T in 1908, it symbolized a death blow to the electric car.
• Expansion of roads while EV was limited to city ride. As the U.S.
developed a better system of roads after the First World War, drivers
wanted longer-range vehicles that could go the distance.
• The discovery of Texas crude oil also reduced the price of gasoline,
making both car ownership and car maintenance more affordable to
the average consumer.
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 New Beginning of Electric Cars after Dark Age 1935 to 1960
• Two Turning Points
- Introduction of the Toyota Prius, released in Japan in 1997,
the Prius became the world’s first mass-produced hybrid
electric vehicle. In 2000, the Prius was released
worldwide, and it became an instant success with
celebrities, helping to raise the profile of the car. To make
the Prius a reality, Toyota used a nickel metal hydride
battery. Since then, rising gasoline prices and growing
concern about carbon pollution have helped make the Prius was powered by a Toyota Hybrid System with
two engines, a gasoline 1.5 liter and an electric 288V.
Prius the best-selling hybrid worldwide during the past
decade.

- Announcement in 2006 that a small Silicon Valley startup,

Tesla Motors, would start producing a luxury electric
sports car that could go more than 200 miles on a single
charge. In 2010, Tesla received at $465 million loan from
the Department of Energy’s Loan Programs Office -- a loan
that Tesla repaid a full nine years early -- to establish a
manufacturing facility in California. In the short time since
then, Tesla has won wide acclaim for its cars and has Tesla Sport 215 kW (288HP) motor, 53 kWh lithium-
become the largest auto industry employer in California. ion battery, 393 km electric

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 Specifications/Features
50 Lacs (300km range), 66 lacs
Price (NRs)(400km range) (US$35,000 in US )
61.4 ( 300 km range), 80 (400 km
Battery (kWh)range)
Range (km) 290.00
Max. power
output(KW) 121 hp (90 kW)
Maximum Torque
(Nm) 450.00
Top speed (km/h) 140 (87mph)
Motor Types AC Synchronous BYD e6
Charger30kW AC charging 2h
Ground Clearance 150 mm (Very low)
Performance
(Pickup) 0-60 km/h in 7.6 Sec
Authorized
Dealer Cimex Inc.
Comparable to the Hyundai Tucson,
OthersKia Sportage andEV Lecture-01
the Toyota Rav4 10
 Electric Cars in Nepal

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Source: Presented at NEA, Nov 2019
• The most eminent features is their contribution in reducing greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. In 2009, the transportation sector emitted 25% of the GHGs
produced by energy related sectors. It does not contribute either to any of the
smog making the city air highly polluted.
• As a vehicle, an EV is quiet, easy to operate, and does not have the fuel costs
associated with conventional vehicles.
• As an urban transport mode, it is highly useful.
• It does not use any stored energy or cause any emission while idling, is capable
of frequent start-stop driving, provides the total torque from the startup, and
does not require trips to the gas station
• The instant torque makes it highly preferable for motor sports.
• The quietness and low infrared signature makes it useful in military use as well.
• The power sector is going through a changing phase where renewable sources
are gaining momentum. The next generation power grid, called ‘smart grid’ is
also being developed.
• Different charging voltages and charger configurations can be used in charging
the vehicles. Wireless charging is also being examined and experimented with to
increase convenience.
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 Electric Vehicle in Remote Area

Source: Sagar Gyanwali, NEA

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 Electrical/Electronic Components of EV

• Metering and billing

• Power converter and controls
• BMS
• Protection units

Before move on to each components, lets study, why should we

have an electric car?
[Link]
of-components/19676782
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EV Sub-systems and their interactions

Major EV subsystems and their interactions. Some of the subsystems are very closely related
while some others have moderated interactions(Chan, C.C. 2002)
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Motivation To Embrace Electric Vehicles
Domestic Policy Goals
 Reduce dependence on foreign oil
 Job creation
 Economic Growth (energy sources local)

Global Impact
 Europe to mitigate climate change
 China to balance growth with pollution
 Governments around the world have allocated funding for clean technology

Energy Independence
 Local energy sources reduce price volatility
 Reduce export of dollars, particularly to unstable regions of the world
 Reduce dependence on few key regions – Golf Countries

Developing Nations
 Lower-cost conventional vehicles support economic development goals.
 Urban air pollution and rising oil imports to be the main driver of electrification
 China has stated its goal of reducing the carbon intensity of its economy.
 Lack of Infrastructure (grids) is a huge factor.

Climate Change
 Global support for climate change has gained momentum with Europe leading the way.
 Transportation accounts for roughly 30% of energy related CO2 emissions globally.
 In 1992, the United States ratified the United Nations’ Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), which called on industrialized countries to make voluntary efforts to reduce greenhouse gases.
 EU energy policy provides affordable energy while contributing to the EU's wider social and climate goals

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 Policy and Regulation of EV
Breakdown of measures available to governments for stimulating EV adoption

Measures

Economic Suasive Regulatory Organisational

 Sales tax  Education  Emission targets  Infrastructure
 Subsidies  Standards &  Vehicle  Usage
 Bonus guidelines standards incentives
 Scrappage  Free parking
 Annual tax  HOV lane use
 Fuel taxation

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 Economic Measures – Tax Reduction
Global overview of countries implementing tax reduction measures for EVs

Austria France Israel Switzerland Turkey

Belgium Germany Italy Portugal United
Czech Republic Greece Japan South Korea Kingdom
Denmark India Netherlands Spain United States
Finland Ireland Norway Sweden
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 Economic Measures - Subsidies
Global overview of countries implementing direct subsidy measures for EVs

Canada Japan
China Luxembourg
Finland South Korea
India Spain
Ireland United Kingdom
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 Summary of Global EV Policies
Policy and targets of EVs
• India, 100% electric for small vehicles by 2030 with zero emission
• As of today, 50% of the vehicle sold is electric in Norway and 20% in
Iceland
• Toyota- 100% EV manufacture by 2050
• Many countries and major cities- are going to banned gasoline vehicle
to run by: ([Link], 2019 May )
 Norway- by 2025
 Germany- by 2050
 France- by 2040
 China- 2040
 Costarica- 2021
 Countries include South Korea, the UK, Spain, Taiwan, Portugal,
Netherlands, Israel, India, Denmark, and Ireland- proposed a ban on
gasoline cars

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 Electric Vehicle Incentives
Viable long-term measures for encouraging EV uptake

Short-term Mid-term Long-term

Regulatory measures Organisational measures Economic measures

 Increase consumer  Installation of charging  Aim to increase fleet
awareness about stations turnover rate and speed
importance of fuel  Requirement for new the transition to a
economy homes and car parks to greener transportation
 Tighten fuel economy include provision for EVs system
standards on imported  Renewable energy and  Scrappage schemes and
vehicles smart grid developments decreased taxes/vehicle
charges

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 Modern Vehicle Technology
Conventional Hybrid Battery Electric

Fuel Battery Fuel Battery

Motor/ Motor/
Engine Generator
Engine
Generator

Transmission Transmission Transmission

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Source: MIT/EVT
 Definition of Electric Vehicles
PEV: Plug-in Electric Vehicle
EV: Electric Vehicle PHEV: Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
BEV: Battery-only Electric Vehicle EREV: Extended Range Electric Vehicle
Combustion
Engine

Electric Motor
Electric Motor Generator

Batteries
Battery Batteries
Batteries

Gasoline

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Source: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
 Hybrid and Plug-in-Hybrid
PHEV
HEV
Combustion
Combustion
Engine
Engine

Electric Motor
Electric Motor Generator
Generator

Battery Battery
1 kWh 5-15 kWh
Batteries
Additional Batteries
Batteries

Gasoline
Gasoline

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Source: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
 Degrees of Hybridization
The vehicle is a….
Micro Mild Full Plug-in
If it… Hybrid Hybrid Hybrid Hybrid
Automatically stops/starts the engine
in stop-and-go traffic
Uses regenerative braking and
operates above 60 volts
Uses an electric motor to assist a
combustion engine

Can drive at times using only the

electric motor
Recharges batteries from a wall outlet
for extended all-electric range

Citroën C3 Honda Insight Toyota Prius Chevy Volt

Efficiency
Source: [Link]

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Source: MIT/EVT
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 Energy Loss : City Driving
Urban Drive Cycle Energy Balance : 2005 3 L Toyota Camry

Standby
8% Aero
3%

Fuel Tank 16% 13% Rolling

Engine Driveline
100% 4%

Braking
Driveline
Engine Loss 6%
Losses
76% 3%

POWERTRAIN VEHICLE-Related

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Source: MIT/EVT
 Energy Loss : Highway Driving
Urban Drive Cycle Energy Balance : 2005 3 L Toyota Camry

Standby
0% Aero
10%

Fuel Tank: 23% 19% Rolling

Engine Driveline
100% 7%

Braking
Driveline
Engine Loss 2%
Losses
77% 4%

POWERTRAIN
VEHICLE-Related

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Source: MIT/EVT
 Energy Saving : Hybrid Systems
Micro
Hybrid
Eliminates
Standby
8% Aero
3%

Fuel Tank: 16% 13% Rolling

Engine Driveline
100% 4%

Braking
Driveline
Engine Loss 6%
Losses
76% 3%

Full Hybrid •Engine downsizing

Reduces •Decoupling of engine and wheel Mild Hybrid
Plug-in •Can eliminate engine entirely Reduces

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Source: MIT/EVT
 Energy Loss : City Driving – Electric Vehicle
Urban Drive Cycle Energy Balance

Aero
29%
90% 76%
Batteries Rolling
Motor Driveline
100% 35%

Braking
Driveline
Motor Loss 11%
Losses
10% 14%

POWERTRAIN VEHICLE-Related

Visit: [Link]

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Source: MIT/EVT
 Well-to-Wheels Efficiency
Well-to-Tank Tank-to-Wheels
Generation Transmission 31% Plug-to-Wheels 23%
33% 94% 76%

31% 76% = 23%

Refining Transmission Pump-to-Wheels

82% 98%
80% 16% 13%
Source: [Link] 80% 16% = 13%
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[[Link]
Source: MIT/EVT
How Does Transportation Contribute to Climate
Change?3,000

2,500
Transportation

2,000
million tons of C02

Industrial

Residential
1,500

Commercial

1,000

500

0
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
EIA: 2007 Annual Energy Outlook, Reference Case
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Cause of Global Warming

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)

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 Proof of Global Warming:-
• Alaska
Portage Glacier

1914 2004

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Photos: NOAA Photo Collection and Gary Braasch – [Link]
Global Atmospheric Concentration of CO2

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Global mean surface-temperature change from 1880 to 2016, relative to the 1951–
1980 mean. The black line is the global annual mean, and the red line is the five-
year local regression line. The blue uncertainty bars show a 95% confidence interval.

37
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 Global
Warming:
Shifting Gears

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Billions of Metric Tons Carbon

Goal:
2007 Reductions in
CO2 Per Year

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 Carbon Tons Carbon Goals in US Emission

Produce electricity
efficiently
Use electricity
efficiently
Vehicle efficiency
of Metric

and EV
Solar and Wind
Power
Gigaton

Biofuels
Billions

Carbon capture
Reductions and storage
2007 in CO2
Per Year

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 V2G (Vehicle to Grid) Technology
• Allows communication between utility and vehicle
• Allow integration of more renewables like Solar, wind
• Used EV batteries could be used as stationary batteries
for utilities
• With so much focus on energy efficiency reducing
electricity sales and expensive renewable energy
generation mandated, EVs could be a welcome new
segment for utilities
– They could still be a nightmare
• Batteries could provide ancillary services
Source: McKinsey

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 Challenges
Why don’t they catch on? A conspiracy?
 Challenges
• Limited Range
– Large battery weight/size
• Long Charge times
• High initial cost
• Battery life
• Consumer acceptance
• Grid Integration

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Gasoline: The (almost) perfect fuel

Source: [Link]

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 Energy Equivalency
Gas Batteries
21 Li-ion batteries
1 Gallon
135 MJ (Car battery size)
of energy

340
2.7 kg 54 gal
kg

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 Where does Today’s Energy Come From and Where does it Goes in US?

Solar Is nuclear energy safe?

What about waste?
Nuclear
Hydro Can renewable energy replace fossil energy?
Wind At what cost? Wasted
Electricity
Energy
Geothermal
How can we reduce energy losses?

Natural Gas

What impact does fossil energy have on the climate?

Coal Useful
Energy

Biomass

Where do our liquid fuels come from?

Petroleum At what cost to our economy?

about 80% of energy in

transportation is LOST
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Global and National Energy Outlook

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Earth at Night

EV Lecture-01 NASA, 2016

48
 Global Energy Share
Share of Global Primary Energy Consumption by Region, 2016
5% 3%
7% Total Asia Pacific

Total Europe & Eurasia

42% Total North America

21% Total Middle East

Total S. & Central America

Total Africa
22%

 China alone consumed almost same energy as in Europe and

Eurasia
 Entire Africa consumed the same energy as in Japan only
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 Global Primary Energy Share by Resource

Figure: Total Final Energy Consumption Share by Resources in World,

2016

Renewables 2017 Global Status Report

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 Global Electricity Share by Resource, 2016
Renewables 2017 Global Status
Report

• Total global renewable power capacity is 2,017 GW at year’s end

• Out of Renewable Power Installed in 2016, 47% is Solar,34% wind and 15.5% hydropower
• By the end of 2016, the top countries for total installed renewable electric capacity
continued to be China, the United States, Brazil, Germany and Canada
• China was home to more than one-quarter of the world’s renewable power capacity –
totaling approximately 564 GW, including about 305 GW of hydropower
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 Jobs in Renewable Energy

Solar-energy jobs are growing 12 times as fast as the US economy

([Link]
More Americans Work in Solar Power Than for Apple, Facebook, Google and52
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Twitter Combined ([Link]
Energy Scenario of Nepal

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 Energy Hungry of Nepal? Courtesy:
Dr. S. R Shakya

"The Most Expensive Cost Of Energy

Is The Cost Having No Energy "
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 National Energy Scenario
Energy Composition by Resource for FY 2015/16 (11.77MToE)

Renewable
2.49%
Electricity
3.73%
Traditional
Coal 78.32%
4.57%
Petrolium
10.88%

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Economic Survey Nepal, 2016 55
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No Load shedding during day in 2016/17

NEA, 2017

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 Per Capita Energy Consumption Trend in Nepal

GJ Energy Per Capita(GJ) Electric Energy Per Capita(kWh) kWh

20.00 200.00
18.00 180.00
16.00 160.00
14.00 140.00
12.00 120.00
10.00 100.00
8.00 80.00
6.00 60.00
4.00 40.00
2.00 20.00
0.00 0.00
2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16
Fiscal year

Economic Survey Nepal, 2016

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 History of electric lamp
1882: Thomas Alba Edison opened the first electric power station in New
York City.
1911, 22 May, Operation of electric Lamp post in Kathmandu(500kW
PHPS) (2nd HPS in Asia, First at Darjeeling), NRs 713,000 fully financed by
GON.

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 In the history of 106 years, what has been done so far
Exampel, Total Demand
(FY2016/17) in peak hour is
about 1444MW in dry season,
but production in dry season is
only about 48% of total installed
capacity(ROR type)

(eg. KG144MW-70MW)

NEA, 2017
Survey License for Generation ( As of Kartik 2075)
Hydro > 100MW:- Total capacity for 36 projects = 13031.44 MW
Solar:- Total capacity for 50 projects = 252.64 MW
Wind:- Total capacity for 4 projects = 6 MW
Biomass:- Total capacity for 3 projects = 27.9 MW
Cogeneration: Total capacity for 1 projects = 15 MW

Construction License: Hydro: Total capacity for 188 projects = 6848.587 MW

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[Link]
In the history of 106 years, ~800MW installed

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Why?

Khadga Bista, 2072

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 Khadga Bista, 2072
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 Heavily import of
Fossil Fuel Resulted
the Nations
Business Loss by
40%

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 Rs. 375 in 2041
Rs. 1470 in 2072 (with about Rs 500 Subsidy?)
? in 2080

Courtesy:
Prof. Dr. Jagan Nath Shrestha

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 Fuel wood distribution
Cost Rs17/kg 2072/07/29 (15 Nov 2015)

Courtesy:
Prof. Dr. Jagan Nath Shrestha

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 Courtesy:
Prof. Dr. Jagan Nath Shrestha

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 Source: Nagrik News 14 Mansir 2072 (30 Nov 2015)
118 LT Transformers are reported faulty ( Source:Newspaper Rajdhani dated 2 Dec 2015)
Impact of Induction Cooker

Courtesy:
Prof. Dr. Jagan Nath Shrestha EV Lecture-01 69
 Power Management
• Total energy sold by NEA in FY 2017/18 is
5526.12 GWh
• The imported electrical energy from in this Fiscal
year was 2582 GWh ( ~ 47%) which is ~ 19%
increased from last year data
• Fossil Fuel Import (in KL)
FY 488,675 1,588,869 22,337 197,220 370,560
2074/ Petrol Diesel Kerosene Aviation LPG in MT
75 Fuel

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 Fuel Price Composition
• Price composition for one liter of Petrol in Nepal as of 2017/06/01.

Cost Components NRs/Liter

Purchase Price 45.4
Custom Tax 15.23
Road maintenance 4
Infrastructure of NOC 0.5
Infrastructure of Budi Gandaki Hydropower 5
Pollution Tax 0.5
Handling Cost 6.3
Dealers commission 2.7
Sub Total 79.63
VAT 13% 10.35
Net Price 89.98
Breakdown of current Price? NOC Profit 10.01
Selling Rate 100
Note: Handling Costs includes transportation and storage, technical maintenance, service
station costs, interest expenses and administrative expenses.

[Link]
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We should Always use Best Available Technology (BAT)

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Geography of Nepal
Population:26.4 Million (2011 Census)
Area: 147,182 km2

North

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 Natural Energy Resource Base of Nepal
• About 6,000 rivers, with a total length of about 45,000 km with an
annual discharge of 220 billion cubic meters of water are available
in the country
• The commercial potential of hydro-power in Nepal are said to be
about 83,000 MW and 42,000 MW respectively (?)
• So far only about 603 MW have been connected to peak load
system, which constitute about 1.88% of total energy supply
• Forests supply nearly 78 % of the total energy requirement of the
country, and also provide 50% of fodder for livestock purpose.
• On average Nepal has 6.8 sunshine hours per day, i.e. 2,482
sunshine hours per year with the intensity of solar insolation
ranging from 3.9 to 5.1 kWh/m2/day. (National average is about
4.7 kWh/m2/day)
• Though significant wind potential is noted to be available in
mountainous region (Mustang district, Khumbu region, Palpa,
Ramechhap, Karnali Chisapani, Jumla) no proper wind mapping of
Nepal has been done so far.
EV Lecture-01 74
 Necessity of EVs in Nepal: Closing Summary
1. Use of local clean and renewable energy resource, abundant energy potential
2. Economic growth, kWh/capita
3. Trade Deficit: Minimizing the import of petroleum
4. Foreign independence: Reduce dependence on foreign oil
5. Pollution, Environment and Climate Change: Up to 35,000 Nepalis lose their
lives annually due to diseases caused by air pollution. One in every 10 people
in Kathmandu suffers from chronic lung diseases like COPD, bronchitis and
emphysema.
6. Job creation
7. Less Noise but Instant Torque, perfect energy saving for city ride
8. Money saving and cheaper in the long run (less running and maintenance cost)
9. EV as complete backup solutions, V2G and G2V technology
10. Global impacts, global policy and markets
11. National Policy: The National Plan of Action for Electric Mobility hopes to turn
20% of public buses into electric ones by 2020.

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 Energy Source and Storage in EVs

Battery Only EV

Fuel Cells EV

Battery and Super Capacitor EV

EV Lecture-01
Solar EV 76
 Energy Storage

The 100MW/129MWh battery bank at Neoen’s huge Hornsdale 309 MWp Wind Power
Plant, Australia.
12/17/2019 77
Energy Storage Technologies: An overview of possible applications
» Many new technologies, but what are the applications?
EASE supports all energy storage technologies and believes that storage needs to
be addressed agnostically.

78
[Link]
EV Charging Stations

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 Fuel Efficiency Calculation
Consider Tesla Model S: ( $ 100,000 estimated)
• Battery Capacity= 85 kWh
• Range= 265 mile (426 km) range i.e. ~0.2 kWh/km
• Cost of Energy = NRs 10/kWh *0.2 kWh/km= NRS 2/km
Gasoline: ( $50,000 estimated)
• Consider a similar gas-powered car, which gets 35 mpg (~ 15 km/liter).
• Gasoline contains about 9.5 kWh/liter
• The gas powered car uses 9.5 kWh per 15 km or 0.633 kWh/km (i.e. Tesla is using
only about a third as much energy as the comparable gasoline-powered car)
• Cost of Energy= NRs 110 per liter/15 km per liter= NRs 7.3/km (3.6 times that of
electric car)
Extra cost of Gasoline car: Maintenance cost ? Tax? Pollution?

So, for 100 km travel, electric car cost NRs 200 against NRs730 in gasoline.

Emission: 2.3 kg of Co2 equivalent per liter of gasoline; 15.33 kg of Co2 equivalent
emission for 100 km travel.

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Typical Layout of EV Charging Station

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Public Charging Stations

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Public Charging Stations

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Public Charging Stations with Solar Roofs
at Google, Mountain View,

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 Fast Charging in 15 Minutes using DC electricity
DC plug

240V (AC) DC connection

(Level 2) (Level 3) DC connection 240V (AC)
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 Quick- and rapid-charging DC connectors
CHAdeMO: Japanese Standards
• "CHArge de MOve", equivalent to
"move using charge" or "move by
charge" or "charge 'n' go

• Delivering up to 62.5 kW, up to

500 VDC, high-current (125 A)

• Nissan Leaf, Nissan E-NV200,

Mitsubishi Outlander, Mitsubishi
iMiev, Peugeot iON, Citröen C-
Zero and KIA SOUL etc.

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 Quick- and rapid-charging DC connectors
Combo Charging
System (CCS)
• Germany Proposal
• AC and DC Coupler
• 50 kW to 350 kW
• Use smart grid
protocols to control
charging
• Same connector
serves multiple
purposes
• BMW, GM, VW, and
other carmakers)

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 Quick- and rapid-charging DC connectors
• GB/T Standard 60 kW EV Charger
for Electric Charging Station
• GB/T STANDARD 150 KW Bus DC
Fast EV Charger with Two
Connectors
• Chinese standards
• Other varieties of power ranges

EV Lecture-01 88
 Review Questions on Chapter-1
1. What are the major milestone of EV in its history, explain.
2. What are the global motivation factor to embrace EV. What factors are vital in the
context of Nepal?
3. What are the policy measures to be carried out for the promotion of EV in Nepal?
What are the benefits and challenges on using EV in Nepal?
4. Compare the energy/fuel efficiency and cost of ownership of EV against IC
vehicles.
5. Do you think that increasing the EV share in Nepal’s transportation sectors helps to
Reduce the Trade Deficit and Enhance the National Energy Security? Justify with
your answer.

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EV Lecture-01 90