Module 2.
1 The Concept of the Synapse
SYNAPSE – The point of communication between two neurons. Charles S. Sherrington's
observation of reflexes enabled him to infer the existence of synapses and many properties
Properties of Synapse
Reflexes
o Automatic muscular responses to stimuli.
o In a leg reflex, a sensory neuron excites a second neuron, which in turns excites a motor
neuron, which excites a muscle.
Reflex Arch
o The circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response.
Sherrington observed several properties of reflexes that suggest special processes at the
junctions between neurons:
o (1) Reflexes are slower than conduction along an axon.
o (2) Several weak stimuli presented at nearby places or times produce a stronger reflex
than one stimulus alone does.
o (3) When one set of muscles becomes excited, a different set becomes relaxed.
Speed of a Reflex and Delayed Transmission at the Synapse
Because transmission through a reflex arc is slower than transmission through an equivalent
length of axon. Sherington concluded that some process at the synapses delays transmission.
TEMPORAL SUMMATION
Temporal summation – repeated stimuli within a brief time have commulative effect. (ex. a light
pinch of the dog's foot did not evoke a reflex, but a few rapidly repeated pinches did)
Presynaptic neuron – neuron that delivers transmission Postsynaptic neuron the one that
receives the transmission.
Postsynaptic neuron – the one that receives neuron transmission.
Excitatory postsynaptic Potential (EPSP) – a graded depolarization which results from a flow
sodium ions into the neuron.
Spatial summation
Spatial summation
o summation over space
o Synaptic inputs from separate locations combine their effects on a neuron. This is critical
to brain [Link] most cases sensory input at a single synapse produces only a
weak effect. If the neuron receives many incoming axons with synchronized input,
spatial summation excites the neuron.
o Temporal summation and spatial summation ordinarily occur together.
INHIBITORY SYNAPSES
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is the temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane
IPSP occurs when synaptic input selectively opens the gates for potassium ions to leave the cell
(carrying a positive charge with them)
or for chloride ions to enter the cell (carring the negative ions)
RELATIONSHIP AMONG EPSP, IPSP AND ACTION POTENTIAL
Stimulation at a synapse produces a brief graded potential in the postsynaptic cell. An Excitory
graded potential ( depolarization) is an EPSP : An inhibitory graded potential ( hypolarization) is
an IPSP. An EPSP occurs when gates open to allow sodium to enter the neuron's [Link]
IPSP occurs when gates open to allow potassium to leave or chloride to enter.
Spontaneous firing rate – a periodic production of action potentials even without synaptic
input.
In this case EPSP's increase the frequency of action potentials above the spontaneous rate,
where as EPSP's might increase the rate to 15 or more, where a preponderance of IPSP's might
decrease it to 5 or fewer
MODULE 2.2 CHEMICAL EVENTS AT THE SYNAPSE
THE SEQUENCE OF CHEMICAL EVENTS AT A SYNAPSE
The neuron synthesizes chemicals that serve as a neurotransmitters
Action potentials travel down the axon. At the presynaptic terminal, an action potential enables
calcium to enter the cell. Calcium releases neurotransmitters from the terminals and into the
synaptic cleft, the space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons
The released molecules diffuse across the narrow cleft, attach to receptors, and alter the activity
of the postsynaptic neuron.
The neurotransmitter molecules maybe taken back into the presynaptic neuron for recycling or
they may diffuse away.
Some postsynaptic cells send reverse messages to control the further release of
neurotransmitter by presynaptic cells.
TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
At a synapse, a neuron releases chemicals that affect another neuron. That chemicals are known
as “neurotransmitters”
nitric oxide – a poisonous in large quantities; oddest transmitter; a gas released by many small
local neurons.
acetylcholine ( the most popular neurotransmitter)
dopamine
epinephrine
norepinephrine
compounds known as “catecholamines”- contains a catechol group and amine group
SYNTHESIS OF TRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine – synthesize from choline ( abundant in milk, eggs and peanuts)
The amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine, present in proteins are precursors of dopamine,
norepinephrine and epinephrine.
the relationship among epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine—compounds known as
catecholamines, because they contain a catechol group and an amine group.
amino acid tryptophan, the precursor to serotonin, crosses the blood -brain barrier by a special
transport system that it share with other large amino acids.
STORAGE OF TRANSMITTERS
Presynaptic terminal – stores high concentrations of neurotransmitter molecules in vesicles,
tiny nearly spherical packets ( Nitric oxide is an exception to this rule. Neurons release nitric
oxide as soon as they form it inside of storing it)
Neurons that release serotonin, dopamine or norepinephrine contain an enzyme, MAO
( Monoamine oxidase)
MAO are inhibitors; that breaks down these transmitters into inactive chemicals, thereby
preventing the transmitters to accumulate to harmful levels.
RELEASE AND DIFFUSION OF TRANSMITTERS
At the end of the exon, an action potential itself does not release the neurotransmitter, rather
depolarization opens voltage calcium gates in presynaptic terminal
EXOCYTOSIS – burst of release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neuron.
ACTIVATING RECEPTORS OF THE POSTSYNAPTIC CELL
Effect of a neurotransmitter depends on its receptor on the postsynaptic cell
When the neurotransmitter attaches to its receptors, the receptor may open a channel –
exerting an ionotropic effect – or may produce a slower but longer effect – a metabotropic effect
ionotropic effects, corresponding to the brief on/off effects that Sherrington and Eccles studied
In contrast to the sodium and potassium channels along an
Axon, which are voltage-gated, the channels controlled by a neurotransmitter are transmitter-
gated or ligand-gated channels. (A ligand is a chemical that binds to something.)
Metabotropic effect and second messenger
Initiating of metabolic reactions that start slowly than ionotropic effects
Emerge 30 ms or more after the release of transmitter
Metabotropic synapses use many neurotransmitters ,ionotropic effect dpend on glutamate or
GABA.
Second messenger communicates to areas within the cell
G protein—that is, a protein coupled to guanosine triphosphate (GTP), an energy storing
molecule.
NEUROPEPTIDES
Neurons contains neuropeptide
Neuropeptides as “neuromodulators”
Are released mainly by dendrites,and also by the cell body and by the sides of the exon
Are important for hunger,thirst and other long-term changes in behavior and experience
DRUGS THAT ACT BY BINDING TO RECEPTORS
Hallucination drugs – drugs that distort perception, such as lysergic acid diethylamide
Nicotine – a compound present in tobacco, stimulates a family of acetylcholine receptors known
as nicotinic receptors
Opiate drugs – are derived from, or chemically like those derived from, the opium poppy
INACTIVATION AND REUPTAKE OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Various neurotransmitters are inactivated in different ways
Neuropeptides are not inactivated( they simply diffuse away)
acetylcholinesterase breaks it into fragments: acetate and choline
serotonin and catecholamines (dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine) do not break down
into inactive fragments but simply detached from the receptors
The presynaptic neuron takes up much or most of the released neurotransmitters molecules
intact and reuses them. This is called reuptake occurs through special membrane proteins called
transporters stimulant drugs including amphetamine and cocaine inhibit the transporters for
dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine.
Hormone – Is a chemical secreted by cells in one part of the body and conveyed by the blood to
influence other cells.
Selective list of hormones
Hypothalamus – promote and inhibit release of hormones
Anterior pituitary ( thyroid) – stimulates thyroid gland
Posterior pituitary (oxytocin and vasopressin) – oxytocin-uterine contractions, milk release,
sexual pleasure
Vasopressin – raises blood pressure, decreases urine volume refer to
Negative Feedback from the Postsynaptic Cell
Autoreceptors —receptors that respond to the released transmitter by inhibiting further
synthesis and release.
Two other reverse transmitters are anandamide
Cannabinoids, the active chemicals in marijuana, bind to anandamide or 2-AG receptors on
presynaptic neurons, indicating, “The cell got your message. Stop sending it.”
Electrical Synapses
At an electrical synapse, the membrane of one neuron comes into direct contact with the
membrane of another, as shown in Figure 2.19. This contact is called a gap junction.