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N a tu r e o f R e s ea r c h
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Meaning of Research
Research, to some people, connotes a specialized field of study
enshrined in technical, esoteric language and procedures as though it
were a secret ritual practiced only by scientists in white laboratory
gowns, studying mice in a laboratory setting. Thus, if one asks a
group of college students their impressions of research, they would
say such statement as "difficult, time-consuming and requiring basic
knowledge and skills in statistics."
Students often see research as part of the scientifically inclined.
Such an attitude is often validated, unfortunately, by how research is
taught. The research course becomes a battle-ground where the stu-
dents struggle hard to survive. What we have here is the failure to
communicate research in order for the students to understand the full
value and importance of teaming the research discipline.
Research becomes a meaningful activity when we find it use ful.
It is important in acquiring knowledge and indispensable in problem-
solving.
Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of think -
ing, employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures in or der
to obtain a more adequate solution to a problem than would be possible.
It starts with a problem; collection of data; analysis of facts, which are
critical and reaching decisions based on actual observa tions. It
involves original work, instead of more exercises on personal
opinion, a genuine desire to prove not only what, but how much
 Research is also defined as "systematic, controlled, empirical,
inquiry, subject-topic, problem-solving and method." The key
concepts of words in these definitions can explain the very nature
and. • (1) characteristics of research as follows:

1. Systematic - palms to the need to examine topics on a step by-step

procedure rather than to plunge hap-hazardly into sources of data,
following the generally accepted principles and practices of
research.
2. Controlled - the degree to which the observation arc con-trolled
and alternative explanations of the outcome are ruled out.
3. Empirical - points to the need to gather factual data and to 1 test
subjective reality and have the findings open to further scrutiny and
testing.
4. Inquiry - the "why" of the research, focused on the need to
investigate and search for Math and knowledge, which separates
research from everyday ways of learning.
5. Subject/Topic - the "what" of research which includes the scope
covering the phenomenon of its problem with some limits of the
investigation.
6. Problem solving - the essence of research in finding out the
answer to the problem raised more specifically, addressing the
objectives formulated.
7. Method - the "how" of research which explains the means to an
end or arriving at data specifying the designs, identifying
samples/respondents of the study, preparing the tools/ instruments
for data gathering, procedures and statistical treatment of the
gathered data.

Purposes of Research
The principal goal of research is the preservation and
improvement of the quality of human life. All kinds of research are
directed
 toward this end. The purpose of research is to serve man. The
goal of research is the good life. Because of research, man has
attained progress and comfort in life. For more specific purposes
and goals of research, the following a, as follows:
1. Discover new facts of known phenomena
2. Find solution to problems that are only partially solved.
3. Improve or develop new products
4. Discover unrecognized substances or elements
5. Validate generalizations into systematic order
6. Provide basis for decision-making in any undertaking
7. Satisfy the researcher's curiosity
8. Acquire better and deeper understanding about one
phenomenon to another
9. Verify existing knowledge
10. Improve educational practices by raising the quality of
school products
11. Promote health and prolong life
12. Enhance man's basic life

Characteristics of Research
1. Empirical. Research is hood on direct experience or
observation by the researcher. The collection of data
relies on practical experience without benefit of the
scientific knowledge or theory.
2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and
principles. Scientific investigation is done in an
orderly manner, so that the researcher has confidence
in the results. Logical examination of the procedure
used in the re-search enables the researcher to draw
valid conclusions; thus, the logic of valid research
makes it important for decision-making
3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process. It " • problem
and ends with a problem. For instance%-rts ii • who
 completes his study states his findings andr`=,se4,;b4 •
his conclusions and recommendations. In his , • tions,
many problems may crop up an other subje:''end''
study; hence, the cycle is repeated. ts for ,41:
4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical p,.„ in
gathering data, whether historical, descriptive ex—
cedur, o sal or any alternative research methods. In
histoPriecra7 search, the data gathered focus on the
past; in des, rr. • research, the study focuses on the
present situatioriPti`e • perimental, future and in an
alternative, either pass ;en. 0 and the future. ED
5. Replicability. The research design and procedures are •
heated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and
co.; elusive results. Similarities and differences of
replicated researches can be compared. The more
replicated on searches there are, the more valid and
conclusive the re-sults would be.
6. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise
judgrnem A higher level of confidence must be
established, i.e., at I percent or 5.0 percent level of
confidence. Based on these levels, the researcher is
confidently precise in his interpretations on whether
the results are significant or insignificantant, or
whether to reject or accept the hypothesis.

Kinds and Classifications of Research

There are many kinds of research which are classified

according to their distinctive features. Some of the
classifications arc as follows:
1. According to Purpose:
a. Predictive or Prognostic. It has the purpose to
deter-aline the future operation of the variables under
invest, gation with the aim of controlling or redirecting
such for the better. Its purpose is to giVe the results
from on, Establish a close statistical connection
between characteristics educational practice or pattern
and seek to es-5 (f) of students and a prediction of
educational out-come.
b. Directive. It determines what should be done
based on 0.. the findings. This is to remedy an
unsatisfactory condi-* tion, if there is any. ;,-., c.
Illuminative. It is concerned with the interaction of the
= components of the variable being investigated; i.e.,
in-n teraction of the components of educational
systems and Sa. aims to show the connection among
student character--3 'sties, organizational patterns and
policies and educa-tional consequences.
2. According to Goal:
a. Basic or Pore. It is done for the development of
theo-ries and principles. It is conducted for intellectual
plea-sure of learning. Much of this is a kind of
research has been done in psychology and in
sociology.
b. Applied. The application of the results of pure
research. This is testing the efficiency of theories and
principles. For instance, a principle says that "praise
reinforces learning." To determine if this is true, one
conducts an experiment in which there are two classes.
In one class, he uses praises but in the other, there is
no praise at all. All other things arc kept equal. At the
end of the ex-perimental period, he gives the same test
to the two classes. If the scores of the students in the
class with praise are significantly higher than those in
the class without praise, then the principle is true.
3. According to the Level of Investigations:
a. Exploratory. The researcher studies the variables
per-tinent to a•specific situation.
b. Descriptive. The researcher studies the relationships
of the variables.
C. Experimental. The researcher studies the offects ct
the variables on each other.
4. According to the Types of Analysis:
a. Analytic Approach. The researcher attempts to ;dens
tify and isolate the components of the research tion.
b. Holistic Approach. This begins with the total
situation focusing attention on the system first and on
its intern, relationships.
5. According to Scope:
a. Action Research. This involves the application of th;
stops of the scientific method in the classroom prob-
lems. It is a firing fine on the job-type problems used
la, teachers, supervisors, administrators and managers,
to improve the quality of their decision-making and
actions It seeks more dependable and appropriate
means of pro-moting and evaluating growth in line
with specific and general objectives and attempts to
improve practices without reference to Whet he r
findings would be appli-cable beyond the group
studied 00 000
6. According to choice of answers to problems.
This is con-cerned with the findings that answer the
problems into evalu-ation and developmental research.
a. Evaluation. These arc all possible courses of action.
which are specified and identified in which researchers
try to find out the most advantageous.
b. Developmental. This focuses on the findings or
devel-oping a more suitable instrument or process than
has been available.
7. According to Statistical Contcnt:
a. Quantitative or Statistical Research. This is onc m
which inferential statistics are utilized to determine the
results of the study. Inferential statistics such as corre-
lation, chi-square and analysis of variance, are used to
test the hypothesis. This typo of research usually
eludes comparison studies, and cause-and-effect rela-•
tionships.
b. Non-quantitative Research. This is used for quantity
CD or statistics, which is practically nil (nothing or
zero). a This is especially true in alternative research
such as anthropological ethnocultural studies,
indigencous and participatory where description is
usually used. Descnp-,-7-. tive data are gathered rather
than qualitative data. •
8. According to Time Allotment:
a. Historical research describes what was. 3
b. Descriptive research describes what is. Cn
c. Experimental research describes what will be. iZelk

9. According to the Types and Kinds of Research:

this fo-cuses on the area or field of activity.
 a. Proprietary Research. This is conducted for a
specific audience and is not shared beyond that
evidence.
b. Scholarly Research. This promotes public access to
knowledge.
c. Behavioral Research. This is based on the belief
that objective knowledge is obtained through careful
and sys-tematic observation and measurement of what
people do. This is most reliable on operationalism,
which is the transformation of abstract concepts into
behaviors that can be precisely qualified. The goal is
tee identify and test laws that can explain, predict and
lead to the con-trol of behavior.
d. Phenomenological Research. This is based on the
be-lief that what people do depends on what they
perceive or what goes on their minds. it focuses on the
internal, psychological meaning that guides behavior,
describes how people understand their life experience,
tend to be theory-generated or inductive, and aim to
shape the de-velopment of a theory.
e. Communication Research. This is an investigation
of five communication elements where possibly, some
research problems may be analyzed such as:
1. Control Analysis (Source) affecting their performance sue:h. 0 as
their credibility, capabilty, expertise, functions, n) structures and
needs/problms.
2. Content Analysis (Message). This determines the nature and
characteristics of message, mines (r) rations of any of the scopes and
themes, slant and
3. Media Analysis (Channel) This refers to medias comparative
advantages, media features' o , = media's c and costs
4. Audience Analysis (Receiver). This concerns au-dience behavior,
tastes, interests, opinions, where they reach and can be conducted on
the following feedback level, audience level and expectations.
5. Impact Analysis (Effects). This is to know the current trends in
such areas as community media system, information diffusion, media
socialization, children and television, and media motives, uses and
gratifications and can be done on an aware-ness, attitude, change,
behavior change and practice level.
Research Process
Research has been concerned with gathering data that can help us
answer questions about various aspects of society and thus can enable
us to understand society. It may be observed that teachers at all levels
continually make decisions about instructional activities such as
curriculum, teaching strategies, classroom management and stu-dent
learning. They base these decisions in their understanding of
accumulated knowledge about education. A lot of the knowledge
about teaching and learning cornes from educational researchers who
seek answers to educational questions on existing educational
questions on existing educational problems. An important sign of a
productive profession like education is the systematic attempt of
researchcrs to examine the knowledge based upon which the
profession operates. This systematic attempt to examine knowledge is
called research.
Research is a process of systematically collecting information about
an identified problem, analyzing the data, and on the basis of le
evidence, conforming or refuting a prior prediction. Research is not
unique within the total research community, it is the application of
some generally accepted systematic procedure to investigating the
knowledge base of education.
Analogous to educational research is educational evaluation, the use
of research techniques to judge the effectiveness of existing place
programs of instruction.
Educational evaluation is an important area of educational research.
There are five major characteristics indicative of a profession whose
research is knowledge based (Berliner, 1987).
First, professionals work at verifying ideas and practices believed to
be effective. Most often, some teachers read about "new" teaching
techniques M a professional journal and say, we've known that for a
long time. Perhaps as professionals, however, teachers cannot rely
entirely on a common sense approach intuition and perception need to
be supported by empirical data that arc existing, reliable and valid and
this can be substantiated through research.
Second, professionals work at discovering new ideas and practices
that are exemplified by an idea that has been extensively re-searched
on, was once new, and is now common in schools; the application of
reciprocal teaching, which features guided practices in applying
learning strategies (Roseshine and Meitner, 1994).
 Third, professionals clarify ideas that arc designated to simplify
teaching. This is illustrated by research results about learning
procedures when they are applied to problem solving in various
subject areas.
Fourth, although completed, educators try to simplify teaching. They
often express ideas that may complicate everyone's teaching.
Fifth, professionals discover ideas and practices that are counter-
intuitive.

The Teacher as Researcher

Teachers need to assume the responsibility of examining their own
practices. Since teachers are held responsible for what and how they
teach, it is necessary to take leadership in determining what insights
about learning should be systematically applied in classrooms. It is
important that classroom teachers collaborate with researchers when
evaluated and upgraded by curriculum and instructional centers and
state agencies. Teachers are called upon to participate in research that
are significantly affecting that happens in the class-
Research
1. Reduces the gap between findings and classroom practice;
2. Creates a problem-solving mindset that helps teachers when they
consider other classroom dilemmas;
3. Improves teachers' instructional decision-making process;
4. Increases the professional status of-teachers;
5. Helps empower teachers in their own profession at class-room,
institutional, district, regional and national levels; and
6. Offers the overriding and ultimate advantage of providing potential
or improving the educational process for children (Olson, 1990).

The research procedures that arc typically associated with the =idea of
a teacher are the qualitative and action research.
Understanding Research as Process
Understanding research from the perspective of researchers is very
important. It is important that certain guidelines must be established.
The researcher starts and stops several times, rejects questions and
possible solutions, and perhaps encounters different pitfalls.
To insure maximum consistency and efficiency, there are certain steps
that must be observed in researching on a problem.
1. The researcher selects a problem area and specifics
re-search questions. From personal experience,
professional readings or perhaps discussions with
colleagues, the re-searcher selects a problem area
for study; for example, the writing performance
with disabled students. Writing skill has
increasingly become an issue in the teaching and
learning of content areas other than language and
communication art.
2. The researcher examines and researches data bases
to re-view existing results and define terms. At this
stage, the researcher tries to find out what other
researchers have done to answer similar questions.
By consulting books, educational encyclopedias,
professional journals, and electronic data bases,
the researchers gain insights about what other have
done and what conclusions were drawn from their
research. The researcher knows that his work is
based on certain assumptions, one of which is that
it will add to the body of knowledge. His aim is to
help other researchers reach some agreement about
the controversy surrounding the teaching of
writing to pupils with learning disabilities. After
reviewing the material from these sources, the
researcher concludes that the meaning of some
terms require classification.
3. The researcher formulates researchable question_
point, the researcher returns to the questions about
a ing one or more of them. He decides to answer
dire_' • lions and must now determine whether
those qu.,,tions, to be answered in a specific order.
The answer is cause the answer to the question.
"What can be tic; help pupils with learning
disabilities in the content art' "presupposes is the
writing performance of pupils with I, ing
disabilities" and "How does the performance 00Th
with the performance of pupils without ICarnmg
 4. The researcher selects a research design.
5. The researcher determines the research method.
This st.2, includes the three common aspects the
researcher mu, terminc and these arc:
a. Where and when the research
will occur.
b. With whom specifically the
research will be done
c. With what device pupils'
characteristics and their urn. ins will be assessed,
and
d. How they will analyze the
information and data collecol In selecting a
location, the researcher must consider that there is
better control of the data collecting and to make
unobtrusive observation and recordings.
6. Thc researcher describes and selects the
respondents to be used in the study. If there is a
person who is interested in doing the study with
pupils that reflect the range of abilio and
performance test scores, he collects relevant data
nor-mally found in pupils' permanent records
information a sage. grade level and educational
history.
7. The researcher selects tests to score the pupils'
wilt', The researcher begins to document the
pupils' writ. I" formance. To do this, samples, of
the pupils' writing in c, tont area classes are
obtained and scored and the, 31' analyzed by some
accepted systems.
8. The researcher conducts the study. The
researcher r,°; has enough information to answer
the first question.

Fr' 14,JRE OF RESEARCH l3 U) 0 is the writing performance of

pupils' with learning disabil i-a) tics?" to answer the second question,
"How does the Pc, formance compare with the performance of pupils'
without FE learning disabilities?" The researcher collect the same data
about pupils who do not have learning disabilities. Because C it is
impractical to collect data about all pupils in the [Link] ;....!. school,
the researcher decides to select randomly a portion of the pupils
without learning disabilities at each grade level.

As the researcher proceeds with the study, another 0 question arises.

The researcher wants to know, "Arc the SD teachers using any
instructional strategies and techniques 3 that seem to enhance the
learning of pupils who are learning and techniques that seem to
enhance the learning of pupils (/) ,,,,, ,,,. I,....,,,,,, ,,,,,,4? 1, ,..,‘..,,,, this
nnectinn he sets
up a series of classroom observations and teacher interviews. He
would like to determine possible answers to these ques-tions by
collecting information about what really occurs in classrooms while
teaching and learning take place. To answer the last question, "What
can be done to help pupils with learning disabilities At effectively in
the con tent areas? The researcher selects and prepares Instruc-tional
activities and collects additional information. Using the information
gleaned from other researchers, professional sources, and from other
classroom observations and teacher interviews the researcher selects
these instructional pro-grams, to help the pupils who are learning
disabled to write effectively in content area classes? or ,hich of the
pro-grams causes the pupils to write effectively?" At this point, the
researcher decides how long (how many days, weeks and months) the
instructional program will last and who will conduct the actual
teaching.
9. The researcher analyzes the data and determines the impli-cations
of the researches. After conducting the study and collecting the data,
the researcher analyzes the data, using appropriate statistical
(quantitative) and non-statistical (quali-tative) methods, after which he
determines what implica-tions the results of the study have for other
researchers and teachers.

mEmoDsRESEARCI4 THESIS-WR1TING AND APPLIED (1), io.

The researcher publishes the results of his study, ' S1) research has
been completed, a w ritten repo, is • researcher describes (a) the
reason for conducting tre-id hconclusions he has made about the
research' (1) steps undertaken to select the respondents (pupils, • ing
scoring procedum, and the instnictional the in-service training
instructional programs, and the activities, they were used in the
content area classes, and (e) theli tistical results. 0

Important Terms used in Research

There are important terms that are used in research. The moll
common are:
1. Variable. In the broadest sense, a variable is anything in research
situation that varies and can be measured. It can be human
characteristics (pupils, teachers, or school ad-ministrators) or it can be
characteristics, groups, schools, districts, instructional materials. The
various characteris• tics are called variables and can be matured.
Education. ally relevant traits of humans, include age, intelligence,
read. Mg scores, learning comprehension, level of motivation, sen-
sitivity to noise and light, and ethnicity. Another relevae unhuman
characteristics include the sin and print of books. the frequency an
event occurs, the location of classes, the economic status of teachers
and pupils and pupils' atten-dance records.
2. Research design. The research design is the plan used tc study a
problem or issue. There are two basic research de signs based on the
way data and information are collected synthesized and analyzed are
quantitative research tical data analysis) and qualitative research (non-
statistic, data analysis). In the example of the research used in th topic,
it may be noted that a combination of these types tte used, the
researcher also used three sub-categories of gaa titative research,
descriptive, comparative and causatiN Descriptive research provides
information about one or roc
Comparative research provides an explanation oa... h out thc extent of
a relationship between two or more vari-n • ables. Experimental or
causative, research provides information about how one or more
variables influence another cr, variable.
3. Hypothesis. A hypothesis is a tentative statement about how one or
more variables arc related. Many researchers , convey the relationship
as used by the researcher in our .., example, the question. For the
causative design used by the n researcher in our example, the question
is which of the in-• structional programs help pupils with learning
disabilities E write effectively in content arca classes; could be ap-
proached in these forms,
a. Directional hypothesis: There will be an
improvement in the w, pupils with learning disabilities write after
receiving effective writing instructions in content area classes.
b. Prediction: Instructional program X will produ.
a guar-_ ter improvement in the way pupils with learning disabili-ties
write in content area classes than with instructional program Y.
c. Statement of purpose: The purpose of this study
is to determine whether either of the instructional programs help
pupils with learning disabilities to improve their writ-ing.
d. Question: Which of thc two instructional
programs causc pupils with learning disabilities to write more ef-
fectively?
4. Subjects: The subjects are the particular individuals used in the
research. Onc group of subjects in the example in this chapter
consisted of pupils classified as learning dis-abled in grade five. In the
comparative and causative de-signs, thc research also used as subjects
a small group of pupils who were not learning disabled. Hc randomly
se-lected a portion of the pupils without learning disability. The
randomly selected group is a sample of all the pupils with-

, (f) FIGURE I. Stages of the Research Process

(1) Defining the Problem
(2) Planning a Research Design
(3) Planning a Sample W 0 4"
(4) Gathering the Data
(5) Processing and Analyzing the Data
6. Formulating Conclusions and Preparing te Report
(7) Defining the New Problem

out learning disabilities in the school. The population is the larger

group with which the researcher thinks his results can be used. 5.
Control group The group of subjects in experiment, research not
receiving the experimental research not

NAI ORE OF RESEARCII , . C)- receiving the experimental

conditions or treatment CI) (sometimes called the comparison group).
Zz
6. Correlation. A measure of the extent to which too or CD more
variables have a systematic relationship. C.
7. Dependent variable. The variable researchers make the acted upon
variable. It is the variable whose value ,--r- may change as a result of
the experimental treatment.
8. Independent variable. The influencing variable in ex-0 perimental
research, the one to which researcher at -0: tributes causation
(sometimes called experimental vari--S able) which each research
project is unique in some U) ways, all projects involve the same
stages. These arc 0 choosing the problem, formulating the research
design, 02 gathering the data, coding and analyzing the data, and —
interpreting the results. Each of these stages is depen-i- dent upon the
others, and the total research process is Cr quite circular. If the
hypothesis is rejected, the researcher must revise the study and begin
again. Even if the hy-pothesis is not rejected, the researcher may wish
to rep-licate the stud, to make sure the findings arc accurate.
Decision alternative in the Research Process
A number of alternatives arc available to the researcher during each of
the stages of the research process. The research process can be
compared with a guide or a map. On a map, some paths are better
charted than others. Some are difficult to travel and some arc more
interesting and scenic than others. Rewarding experiences may be
gained during the jouniey. It is important to remember that there is no
right path or best path for all journeys. The road one takes depends on
where one wants to go and the resources (money, time and labor) one
has available for the trip. The map analogy is useful for the researcher
because in each stage of research process there are several paths to
follow. In some instances, the quickest path will bc appropriate means
of research because of certain time constraints. In other circumstances
when money and human resources arc plen-
the path of the research taken may be quite different. Explora-tion of
the various paths of the research decisions is the primary urpose.
Figure 2 shows the decisions that researchers must make in rach stage
of the research process. Discussion of the research pro-cess begins
with problem discovery and definition because most re-;earth projects,
even if at an earlier moment in time, are initiated ,ecause of some
uncertainty about some aspects of the firm or its nvironment.
Process 1. Problem Discovery and Definition
In figure 2, the research process begins with problem discov-•ry and
identification is the first step toward its solution. The word problem,
in general usage, suggests that something has gone wrong.
Unfortunately, the term problem does not connote opportunity nor
does it connote the need for evaluation of an existing program, such
.ts employee satisfaction with professional development programs.
Actually, the research task may be to clarify a problem, to evaluate a
program, or to define an opportunity and problem discovery and
definition will be used in this broader context. It should be noted that
the initial stages is problem discovery rather than definition (the re-
searcher may not have a clear cut statement of the problem at the
outset of the research process). Often, only symptoms are apparent to
begin with. Profits may be declining, but management may not know
the exact nature of the problem. Thus, the problem statement is often
made only in general terms. What is to be investigated is not yet
specifically identified. Too often, researchers concentrate on finding
the right answer than asking the right question. Many do not realize
that defining a problem may be more difficult than solving it In
research, if the data are collected before the nature of the problem is
carefully thought out, the data probably will not help solve the
problem. The adage "a problem well-defined is a problem half solved"
is worth remembering. This adage emphasizes that an orderly defined
research problem gives a sense of direction to the investigation. C

ful attention to problem definition allows the researcher troher Cl)

proper research objectives. If the purpose of the research set th, the
chances of collecting the necessary and relevant data and 'kat mation
without collecting surplus information will be much ',for; CD Even at
this point, the exact nature of the problem may not rt,' defined. Once a
problem has been discovered, the researcher ell begin the process of
precisely defining it r=i Although the problem definition stage of the
research is :7; ably the most important stage, it is frequently a
neglected area research. Too often, it is forgotten that the best place to
he: research project is at the end. Knowing what is to be accomplished
determines the research process. A problem definition error or orris.
sion is likely to be a costly mistake that cannot be corrected in later U
stages of the process. Q)0, Exploratory research is usually conducted
during the initial stage of the research process. The preliminary
activities to undertake is to refine the problem into a researchable one.
The purpose of the ex. ploratory research process is a progressive
narrowing of the scope of the research topic and a transformation of
the discovered prob. !ems into defined ones, incorporating specific
research objectives. bo analyzing any existing studies on the subjects,
by talking with kno,I. edgcable individuals and informally
investigating the situation, the researcher should know exactly what
data to collect during the for• mal project will be conducted. Figure 2
indicates that a decision must be made regarding the different research
techniques. The research has four basic categories of techniques for
obtaining insights and a clear idea of a problem, secondary data
analysis, experience sur• vcys, pilot studies, and case studies.
Secondary data or historical data arc data that are previous', collected
and assembled for some project other than the one at hand Primary
data are data gathered and assembled specifically for the project at
hand. Pilot study is used in the context of exploratory starch, the data
collection methods are informal and the findings may lack precision
because rigorous standards are relaxed. A decision must initially be
made as to precisely what should researched. After identifying and
clarifying the problem, with or out exploratory research, the
researchers should make a formal statemcnt of the problem and the
research objectives. This delineates the type of information that
should be collected and provides a frame-_ work for the scope of the
study or research projcct. It is a study that 1 completes or is planned to
follow the stages in the research process.
Process 2. Planning the Research Design
After the researcher has formulated the research problem, the research
design must be developed. A research design is a master plan
specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and ana-lyzing
the needed information. It is a framework of the research plan := of
action. The objectives of the study, determined during the early C
:sages of the research, are included in the design to ensure the Infos C
station collected appropriate for solving the problem. The research 2
investigation must also determine the source of information, the de-=
sign technique (survey or experiment), the sampling methodology, and
the schedule and cost of research. Figure 2, indicates four basic design
techniques for descriptive and casual research: surveys, ex-periments,
secondary data and observation. The objectives of the study, the
available data sources, the urgency of the decision, and the cost of
obtaining the data will determine which design technique is chosen.
Process 3. Sampling
Although the sampling plan is included in the research design, the
actual sampling is a separate stage of thc research process. How-ever,
for convenience, the sample planning and sample generation are
treated together in this section. Sampling involves procedures that use
a small number of items or that use parts of the population to make a
conclusion regarding the whole population. In other words, a sample
is a subset from a larger population. If certain statistical pro-cedures
arc followed, it is unnecessary to select every item in a popu-lation
because the results of a good sample should have the same
characteristics as the population of the whole. The next sampling issue
concerns sample size. How big should the sample be? Typically, large
samples are more precise than small ones, but if proper probability
sampling is implemented, a small pro-

a reliable measure of the researcher to how the sampling units the only
one type of sampling. every mart selected because it may reduce costs
being ;se 'CI awn'. s ,,dure more effective and efficient
- d dose geographical cl a sampling procedure that selects area clusters
rather than individual If numbers of the PoPulat. units in the
population will reduce costs. In other words, rather than selecting
1,000 individuals throughout the country, it may be mor" economical
to select 25 provinces and then sample within those pro: to inter.
select the most appropriate sampling procedure to meet established
...study objectives. There are two basic sampling techniques: (1)
probability sample as ulation has is defined as a sample in which
every member of the pop known, non-zero probability of selection,
(2) if sample units are se. !acted on the basis of personal judgment;
this is called sample method of a non-probability sample. Simple
random, stratified, quota, clu that ster and judgmental samples are
some of the many types of samples may be drawn.
Process 4. Data Collection
Once the research design has been formalized, the process of
gathering information from respondents may begin. Obviously, there
are many research techniques and methods of data collection. When
the survey method is utilized, some form of direct participation by the
respondents is necessary during the process. The respondents may
participate by filling out a questionnaire or by interacting %vit., an
interviewer. If an unobtmsive method of data collection is utilized, the
subjects do not actively participate. Often, there are two Phases of
collecting data: (1) The pre-tasting phase, Using a small sub-sample,
may determine whether the data collection plan for the study is !..,n
appropriate procedure. A small scale pre-test provides an advance.

opportunity for the investigator to check the data collection form to

minimize errors due to improper design elements, such as question
wording sequence. Additional benefits arc discovery of confusing
interview instructions, learning of the questionnaire is too long or too
short,. and uncovering other such errors. Tabulation of data from the
pretests provides the researcher with a format of knowledge that may
be gained from actual study. If the tabulation of the data and statistical
tests do not answer the researcher's questions, this may lead the
investigator to redesign the study. (2) The main study is the core of
the process and it is the next stage after the pre-testing phase.
Process 5. Data Processing and Data Analysis
Once the fieldwork has been completed, the data must be con-verted
into a format that will answer the decision maker's questions. Data
processing generally begins with the editing and coding of the data.
Editing involves checking the data collection forms of omission,
legibility, and consistency in classification. The editing process, cor-
rects problems like interviewer questioned errors, e.g., and answers
recorded on the wrong portion of a questionnaire before the data are
transferred to a computer or readied for tabulation. Analysis is the
application of logic to understand and interpret the data that have been
collected about a subject. It may involve determining consistent
patterns and summarizing the appropriate de-tails revealed in the
investigation. The appropriate analytical tech-niques for data will be
determined by the researcher's information requirements, the
characteristics of the research design, and the na-ture of the data
collected. Statistical analysis may range from por-traying a simple
frequency distribution to very complex multivariate analysis, such as
multiple regression.
Process 6. Conclusions and Report Presentation
The final stage in the research process is to interpret the infor-mation
and make conclusions for decisions.