SOIL MECHANICS - II
DAMS
Lecture No.15
Muhammad Usman Arshid
DEparTmEnT of civil EnginEEring
UnivErsiTy of EnginEEring & TEchnology Taxila
1
DISTRIBUTION of WATER RESOURCES
WHAT IS A DAM
A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious
material, built across a river to create a reservoir on its
upstream side for impounding water for various
purposes.
A dam and a reservoir are complements of each other
Dams are generally constructed in the mountainous
reach of the river where the valley is narrow and the
foundation is good.
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FUNCTIONS OF A DAM
Dams have Two Main Functions.
The first is to store water to compensate for
fluctuations in river flow or in demand for water
and energy.
The second to raise the level of the water
upstream to enable water to be diverted into a
canal or to increase ’hydraulic head’ –– the
difference in height between the surface of a
reservoir and the river downstream.
Purpose/Need of Dam Construction
1. Drinking and Domestic Water Supply
2. Flood control
3. Irrigation
4. Industrial Water Supply
5. Hydroelectric Energy Production
6. Retention and Control of Sediments
and Inland navigation, Improvement of water quality,
Fish Farming, Recreation facilities
CLASSIFICATION OF
DAMS
Classification of Dams
Based on Function Served
Storage dams
Detention dams
Diversion dams
Debris dams
Coffer dams –
A temp. dam constructed for facilitating construction. It
is an enclosure constructed around a site to exclude
water so that the construction can be done in dry.
Classification of Dams
STORAGE DAM OR IMPOUNDING DAM
It is constructed to create a reservoir to store water
during periods when there is huge flow in the river
(in excess of demand) for utilisation later during
periods of low flow (demand exceeds flow in the
river). Water stored in the reservoir is used for
irrigation, power generation, water supply etc. By
suitable operation, it can also serve as a detention
dam.
Classification of Dams
2. DETENTION DAM
It is primarily constructed to temporarily
detain all or part of the flood water in a river
and to gradually release the stored water
later at controlled rates so that the entire
region on the downstream side of the dam is
protected from possible damage due to
floods. It may also be used as a storage
dam.
Classification of Dams
3. DIVERSION DAM
It is constructed to divert part of or all the
water from a river into a conduit or a
channel. For diverting water from a river into
an irrigation canal, mostly a diversion weir is
constructed across the river.
Classification of Dams
4. COFFER DAM
It is a temporary dam constructed to exclude water
from a specific area. It is constructed on the u/s
side of the site where a dam is to be constructed
so that the site is dry. In this case, it behaves like a
diversion dam.
5. DEBRIS DAM
It is constructed to catch and retain debris flowing
in a river.
Classification of Dams
Based on Hydraulic Design
Overflow dams
Non-overflow dams
Classification of Dams
Based on Materials of Construction
Masonry dam
Concrete dam
Earth dam
Rock fill dam
Timber dam
Steel dam
Composite dam.
Classification of Dams
Based on structural action
Gravity dams
Embankment dams
Earth dams
Roc kfill dams
Arch dams
Buttress dams
Others
Steel dams
Timber dams
GRAVITY DAMS
Gravity Dams use their triangular shape and the sheer
weight of their rock and concrete structure to hold back
the water in the reservoir.
ARCH DAMS
Arch Dams utilize the strength of an arch to displace the
load of water behind it onto the rock walls that it is built
into.
Karakaya Dam – Fırat River;
Height= 173 m
Reservoir Capacity= 9,5 billion m3
BUTRESS DAMS
Buttress Dams use multiple reinforced columns to
support a dam that has a relatively thin structure.
Because of this, these dams often use half as much
concrete as gravity dams
EMBANKMENT DAMS
(Rock Fill or Earth Fill Dams)
They are mostly composed of natural materials such
as, clay, sand, gravel etc...
Impervious core is placed in the middle of the
embankment body
Generally riprap is used to control erosion
COMPOSITE DAMS
Composite dams are combinations of one or more dam
types. Most often a large section of a dam will be either
an embankment or gravity dam, with the section
responsible for power generation being a buttress or
arch.
Gravity & Rock Fill
Classification of Dams
According to Size of the Dam
Large (Big) dam
Small dam
International Commision on Large Dams, (ICOLD) assumes a dam
as big when its height is bigger than 15m.
If the height of the dam is between 10m and 15m and matches the
following criteria, then ICOLD accepts the dam as big:
If the crest length is bigger than 500m
If the reservoir capacity is larger than 1 million m3
If the flood discharge is more than 2000 m3/s
If there are some difficulties in the construction of foundation
Some Dams In Pakistan With Classification
Tarbela dam- composite section dam for
irrigation and power generation
Mangla dam- composite section dam for
irrigation and power generation
Warsak dam- composite section dam for
water supply and irrigation
Hub dam- composite section dam for water
supply and irrigation
Khanpur dam- composite section dam for
water supply and irrigation
Some Dams In Pakistan With Classification
Rawal Dam- composite section dam for
water supply only
Mirani Dam- composite section dam for
water supply
Satpara Dam- composite section dam for
water supply and power generation
SITE SELECTION FOR A DAM
A dam is a huge structure requiring a lot of funds.
Extreme care shall be taken while selecting the site
of a dam.
A wrong decision may lead to excessive cost and
difficulties in construction and maintenance.
Various factors should be considered when
selecting the site of a dam. Such as
SITE SELECTION FOR A DAM
Topography
Suitable Foundation
Good Site for reservoir
(i) Large storage capacity
(ii) Shape of reservoir basin
(iii) Water tightness of the reservoir
(iv) Good hydrological conditions
(v) Deep reservoir
(vi) Small submerged area
(vii) Low silt inflow
(viii) No objectionable minerals
SITE SELECTION FOR A DAM
Spillway site
Availability of materials
Accessibility
Healthy surroundings
Minimum overall cost
Other considerations
SELECTION OF A TYPE OF DAM
Selection of the most suitable type of dam for a
particular site requires a lot of judgment and
experience.
It is only in exceptional cases that the most
suitable type is obvious.
Preliminary designs and estimates are usually
required for several types of dams before
making the final selection on economic basis.
SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM
Topography and valley shape
Geology and foundation conditions
Availability of construction materials
Overall cost
Spillway size and location
Earthquake hazards
Climatic conditions
Diversion problems
Environmental considerations
Roadway
Length and height of dam
Life of dam
Miscellaneous considerations
FACTORS AFFECTING THE TYPE AND DESIGN OF DAM
Selection of the Site and Type of Dam site depends upon ,
Close coordination amongst the
o planners,
o hydrologists,
o geologists,
o geotechnical
o hydraulic and
o structural engineers,
to arrive at economical design for physical factors which
includes topography, geology, foundations, available
materials, hydrology, seismic etc.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE TYPE AND DESIGN OF DAM
Topography.
Surface configuration of dam site, reservoir area,
accessibility of dam site, construction material.
Narrow stream flowing between high rocky walls,
will suggest rockfill or concrete overflow dam.
Other wise in low rolling plains, earthfill dam is
the option.
In semi mountainous terrain, composite dam
section would be better option by using the
saddles as spillways if possible.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE TYPE AND DESIGN OF DAM
Geology and Foundations.
Rock foundations.
Competent rock foundations will dictate
concrete (arch or gravity) dam.
Week rocks like clay, shale, sandstone,
weathered basalt can cause problem in
design, construction and final selection of
dam site.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE TYPE AND DESIGN OF DAM
Geology and Foundations.
Gravel foundation. If gravel provide well compacted
foundations, will be suitable for earthfill or rockfill dam and
low concrete gravity dam.
Silt or fine sand foundation. It can be used for low
concrete gravity and earth fill dam, if properly designed
but not suitable for rock fill dam due to following concerns;
i.e no uniform settlement, collapse on saturation, uplift
forces, excessive percolation losses and down stream toe
erosion.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE TYPE AND DESIGN OF DAM
Geology and Foundations.
Clay foundations.
It can be used for earthfill
dam with flatter slopes but not suitable for
rockfill and concrete dams.
Non uniform foundation. It requires special
engineering skills for site selection and
design of dam.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE TYPE AND DESIGN OF TYPE
Materials Available
Following the other criteria, if sand gravel and
aggregates are in abundance, choice would be
concrete dam.
Following the other criteria, if rock is available in
abundance for different components of dam, choice
would be rock fill dam.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE TYPE AND DESIGN OF DAM
Materials Available
Following the other criteria, if earth is available in
abundance, choice would be homogenous earth fill
dam.
Following the other criteria, if earth is in abundance
with shell materials, choice would be
composite/zoned dam.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE TYPE AND DESIGN OF DAM
Hydrology.
It includes intensity of rain fall in catchments
area, pattern of rainfall, type of catchments
area, amount of run off, pattern of flow in the
channel (perineal/seasonal, uniform
/intermittent), importance of spillways basing
on required down stream flow after
construction of dam.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE TYPE AND DESIGN OF DAM
Spillways. Depending upon the reservoir
capacity and required discharge in the channel
after construction of dam will dictate the type
and designed capacity of spillways.
Earthquakes. The design of dam should be safe
to withstand the seismic loading during its entire
life time. It should be ensured that the reservoir
rim or dam itself should not be located on any
active fault.
Geotechnical Aspects of Earth Dams
Failure Modes (Cont.)
Piping
► Along outlet conduits
► Through cracks across the impervious core
► Inadequately compacted core material at contact
with uneven surfaces
► In zones susceptible to erosion within the
foundation
Overtopping
► Inadequate spillway capacity
► Large, rapid landslides in the reservoir
► Too little freeboard
Geotechnical Aspects of Earth Dams
Failure Modes (Cont.)
Slope Failure
► Design deficiencies
► Neglected remedial actions
Instability
► Excessive deformations
► Excessive stresses
► Excessive loss of materials due to erosion
Geotechnical Aspects of Earth Dams
Failure Modes (Cont.)
Earthquake conditions
► Excessive deformation
► Excessive pore pressure buildup
► Sudden densification of loose, saturated, non-
cohesive soils that causes rapid build-up of pore fluid
pressures
Geotechnical Aspects of Earth Dams
Failure Modes
Cause Failures Incidents Total
Embankment Piping 23 14 37
Foundation Piping 11 43 54
Overtopping 18 7 25
Flow Erosion 14 17 31
Sliding 5 28 33
Deformation 3 29 32
Slope Protection Damage 0 13 13
Deterioration 2 3 5
Gate Failure 1 3 4
Earthquake Instability 0 3 3
Faulty Construction 0 3 3
Geotechnical Aspects of Earth Dams
Filter Design
Facilitates the controlled flow of water and
prevents movement of soil particles
► Collection and control
► Adequate carrying capacity
► Prevents migration of fines
Criteria
► Permeability
► Stability
ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL
STUDIES for DAM
CONSTRUCTION
PRELIMINARY STUDIES
AT THE RESERVOIR AREA AND DAM SITE
1. Dam site investigations
1. Location of dam axis
2. Location of diversion tunnel
3. Location of spillway
4. Location of powerhouse...etc
2. Geological studies
3. Geophysical surveying
4. Underground investigations
1. Boreholes
2. Investigation galleries
3. Pitholes
5. Surveying for materials
1. Field surveying
2. Laboratory tests
PRELIMINARY STUDIES
AT THE RESERVOIR AREA AND DAM SITE
6. Slope stability investigations
7. Earthquake hazard & risk analysis
8. Environmental studies
9. Leakage possibilities from reservoir area
10. Leakage possibilities from dam site
11. Erosion, sedimentation & siltation
DETAILED INVESTIGATION at DAM SITE
1. Topographic surveyings
2. Geological mappings
1/5000 – 1/1000 or 1/500
3. Underground explorations
Boreholes,....etc
4. Hydrogeological studies
5. Slope stability analysis
DESIGN OF GRAVITY DAM
Concrete Gravity Dams
Resist the forces by their own weight
Concrete Gravity Dams
For the dam dimensions:
Check out the safety for
• Overturning
• Shear & sliding
• Bearing capacity of foundation
• No tensile stresses are allowed in the dam body
Overturning Check
1/md
H
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Overturning Check
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Overturning Check
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Overturning Check
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Overturning Check
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Overturning Check
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Sliding Check
1/md
H
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Sliding Check
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Sliding Check
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Sliding Check
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Sliding Check
1/md
H
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Bearing Capacity Check
1/md
H
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FORCES ON GRAVITY DAMS
Free body diagram showing forces acting on a gravity dam
The following loads should be considered:
A) WEIGHT (WC): Dead load and acts at the centroid of the section
B) HYDROSTATIC FORCES:
Water in the reservoir + tailwater causes Horizontal Hu Hd &
Vertical Fh1v Fh2v
C) UPLIFT FORCE (Fu): acts under the base as:
D) FORCE OF SEDIMENT ACCUMULATION (Fs):
Determined by the lateral earth pressure expression
where
• Fs : the lateral earth force per unit width,
• γs : the submerged specific weight of soil,
• hs : the depth of sediment accumulation relative to reservoir
bottom elevation,
• θ : the angle of repose.
This force acts at hs /3 above the reservoir bottom.
F) EARTHQUAKE FORCE (Fd):
Acting horizontally and vertically at the center of gravity
k (earthquake coefficient): Ratio of earthquake acceleration to
gravitational acceleration.
