What Are the Potential Effects of a Large Impact Event?
An impact of a bolide greater than 1 km in average diameter may be
accompanied by very strong earthquakes reaching up to magnitude 13 (Richter scale)
and, subsequently, aftershocks of gradually decreasing magnitude.
Drastic change in climate change condition could also take place. The prolonged
suspension (several months) of dust in the atmosphere coming from the disturbed rock
may prevent insolation cause an impact winter.
Wildfires the smoke from such wildfires could also add to the dust which are already
preventing the insolation.
Tsunamis may happen when a large impact takes place in the ocean. 1 to 3 km-high
tsunamis-more than enough to flood a significant portion of landmasses on earth- are
projected for bolides with a 10-km average diameter.
Acid rain could result from the contamination of water vapor in the clouds by nitrogen
oxides. Nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere are combined during the shock created
by the impact.
How to Prepare for an Impact
The point is that there is a risk and as with any natural hazard, some set of
procedures for prediction, warning, and mitigation should be followed.
Knowing the physical characteristics and the paths of NEOs is important to be
able to predict when they are most likely going to come close in Earth. The objective of
tracking these NEOs is to be able to have enough lead time (several years) for
preparation. Preparation can be either of the two:
1.) Initiating a space mission to intercept NEO either by deflecting or destroying it
and
2.) Preparing supplies necessary for survival of the population that could potentially
be affected or evacuating the entire area expected to be affected by the impact.
SECTION 7.2 GROUND SUBSIDENCE
Images of houses and cars being swallowed by the ground are seen every now and
then. You have learned in a previous chapter that subsidence associated with
earthquake ground ruptures are not responsible for these.
Fig. 7.2-1. The Bohol cenotes is a sinkhole located in the man-made forest in
Barangay Villa Aurora, Bilar, Bohol Island.
Photo credits: The Mines and Geosciences Bureau, Department of Environment and
Natural Resources.
What is Ground Subsidence
Ground subsidence is the relative lowering of the earth’s surface usually with
respect to the mean sea level. It can be a result of any of the following: dissolution
and collapse of limestone, excessive groundwater withdrawal, mining, oil and gas
extraction, earthquakes, and change of season.
Causes of Ground Subsidence
Carbonate dissolution and collapse. This is a common cause of subsidence
especially in the Philippines which has an abundance of limestone terrains due to its
geographic setting and extensive coastlines. When acid rainwater seeps into the
ground, limestone is dissolved little and creates voids. Acidic fluids could also be
introduced by leaking sewage systems or water supply and distribution networks.
As a result, the ground surface either lowers slowly or collapses rapidly and swallow’s
cars, houses, and other property. The depression formed is called a sinkhole
Excessive groundwater withdrawal is also main cause of subsidence in the
Philippines, particularly in the CAMANAVA area of Metro Manila (Caloocan, Malabon,
Navotas, and Valenzuela; Figure 7.2-3 and in a lot of other highly populated urban
centers in developing countries worldwide.
Figure 7.2-3. A processed radar image showing the movement of the ground in Metro
Manila and neighboring provinces. The gray arear near Marilao, Meycauayan, and
Caloocan (near Manila Bay) are sinking as fast as 5.5 cm/year. The gray areas north of
Laguna de Bay south of Binan, and west of Dasmarinas are moving upward or sideward
by as much as 1.92 cm/year in the direction of the satellite.
Subsidence in CAMANAVA is manifested by perennial flooding.
Extraction of oil and natural gas. The withdrawal of these fluids is mainly
anthropogenic but can also be caused by natural processes such as by outflow through
springs.
Figure 7.2-4. Source: Rimando, R. E., PhD dissertation, 2002
Earthquakes. Aside from the relative subsidence measured on the hanging wall of a
normal fault or the footwall of a thrust or reverse fault, another situation in which ground
subsidence may occur is during liquefaction, which takes place in areas with fine-
grained sediments or areas that were reclaimed.
Underground mining methods The area that subsides is usually only the ground
surface directly about the mined area. However, subsidence can also occur
unexpectedly in abandoned old portions of mines.
Isostatic rebound The Earth’s crust which is floating on the asthenosphere, reacts to
the addition or removal of load on its surface. On the other hand; areas which receive
large deposits of sediments like valley and bodies of water tend to become even lower
in elevation because of isostatic subsidence.
Change in season has an effect on clays which are types of mineral that have
absorptive property. During wet season, clays in the soil tend to expand. But during the
dry season these shrink again. Buildings and other property resting on this type of
ground may suffer cracking and foundation failure if these are not designed to cope with
such situations.
Effects of Ground Subsidence
Due to its slow rate, subsidence may not have the terrifying effects of other
natural disasters like volcanic eruptions and earthquakes but its effect may last for a
long period of time. Slow subsidence can proceed almost unnoticeably but may still
cause serious, widespread damage to property (Figure 7.2-5).
Mitigating Subsidence- Related Hazards
It is hard to determine the exact time and location of a subsidence-related
disaster unless real-time subsidence monitoring systems can be deployed in areas
which are subsidence-prone.
A more pragmatic approach is to map out the areas which are subsidence-prone
and to either avoid development in the area or adapt by modifying or strengthening
structures. Areas which experience subsidence are prone to severe, extensive, and
prolonged flooding so structure are roads, for instance, could be elevated. Dikes and
pumping or drainage systems can also be constructed.
SECTION 7.3 COASTAL EROSION
The constant pounding of the waves does something at a very rapid pace to the
form and shape of coastal areas. Recent catastrophic storms and global climate change
have raised concerns about the harmful ecological and economic effects of coastal
erosion.
Figure 7.3-1. A photo showing strong waves hitting a limestone cliff along Morong
Beach in Sabtang, Batanes Island.
What is Coastal Erosion?
Coastal erosion is a natural process which shapes shorelines by the wearing a
way of coastal land or beaches, mainly by impact to waves along the shoreline (Figure
7.3-1). Rock fragments can be dislodged by high- energy waves invading the spaces in
a fractured or cracked narrow strip of land projecting out into the sea. (headland).
Causes of Coastal Erosion
The natural process of coastal erosion not only involves waves. Factors such as
the length of fetch; wind direction and speed; wave length, height, and nearshore water
depth; tidal influence the intensity of coastal erosion. Human can also be considered as
agents in speeding up the process and in intensifying the effects of coastal erosion.
Here is a list of the ways by which humans accelerate coastal erosion process:
Removal of vegetation cover exposing sediment to wind and water action.
Concentration of drainage water flow into the sea causing erosion of that part of
the coast.
Construction of structure including coastal erosion control structures that interfere
with the natural flow of coastal materials, causing erosion in adjacent areas of the
shore.
Building activities that damage natural protective features.
Activities which destroy natural protective features such as dunes and vegetation
cover.
Shipping and boating activities producing extra wave action.
Effects of Coastal Erosion
Coastal erosion is accentuated during storms that carry waves with a lot of
energy. Exposure to hazards related to coastal erosion is mainly due to inhabitation and
extensive development of coasts into rural centers.
Figure 7.3-2. A coastal area that is threatened by coastal erosion.
Coastal erosion could modify the landscape and possibly cause damage
gradually over a season or after many years. The foundation of houses built on such
areas can be compromised and may even result in total wreck.
Figure 7.3-3. A picture of a house along the beach in La Union that has been
demolished and drifted away due to destabilization of its foundation.
Coastal erosion impacts humanity and the environment in various ways.
Managing Coastal Erosion
Coastal erosion can be quite challenging to manage. People living near the
ocean should come up with a well-thought-of plan and should not hastily attempt to
build structures, like seawalls, to stabilize the shoreline and the properties behind or to
do reclamation. Land-use management and planning should always be an option as it is
usually even more effective than hard engineering shore protection measures in
preventing hazards related to coastal erosion. But there are some instances, however,
in which shore protection structures are indispensable.
Figure 7.3-4. A seawall composed of a concrete wall designed to protect a city’s coastal
area.
Here are some of the more specific measures that can be taken to protect and reduce
coastal erosion:
Preservation of and restriction of activities and development in natural protective
features (e.g., dunes and beaches).
Regulating coastal erosion protection structures to ensure that natural protective
features are not damaged.
Prohibiting construction in areas of active coastal erosion and in areas within
reach of coastal storms.
Restricting development of public utilities in areas prone to coastal erosion to
discourage new development in these areas.
Building coastal erosion protection structures only when and where necessary
(to prevent loss of lives and property).