9.5 Pavement Evaluation - Deflection [Link]
Pavement surface deflection measurements are the Major Topics on this Page
primary means of evaluating a flexible pavement structure
and rigid pavement load transfer. Although other 5.1 Measurement
measurements can be made that reflect (to some degree) a 5.2 Measurement Techniques
pavement's structural condition, surface deflection is an
important pavement evaluation method because the magnitude and shape of pavement deflection is
a function of traffic (type and volume), pavement structural section, temperature affecting the
pavement structure and moisture affecting the pavement structure. Deflection measurements can
be used in backcalculation methods to determine pavement structural layer stiffness and the
subgrade resilient modulus. Thus, many characteristics of a flexible pavement can be determined by
measuring its deflection in response to load. Furthermore, pavement deflection measurements are
non-destructive.
Surface deflection is measured as a pavement surface's vertical deflected distance as a result of an
applied (either static or dynamic) load. The more advanced measurement devices record this
vertical deflection in multiple locations, which provides a more complete characterization of
pavement deflection. The area of pavement deflection under and near the load application is
collectively known as the "deflection basin".
There are three broad categories of nondestructive deflection testing equipment:
Static deflections
Steady state deflections
Impact load deflections (FWD)
The general principal is to apply a load of known magnitude to the pavement surface and analyze
the shape and magnitude of the deflection basin to assess the strength of the pavement structure
(see Figure 9.15).
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Figure 9.15: Deflection Measurement Schematic
WSDOT Deflection Measurement Method
WSDOT uses the FWD.
WSDOT FWD Trailer
5.2.1 Static Deflection Equipment
Static deflection equipment measure pavement deflection in response to a static load.
[Link] Benkelman Beam
The Benkelman Beam (see Figure 9.16), developed at the Western Association of State Highway
Organizations (WASHO) Road Test in 1952, is a simple device that operates on the lever arm
principle. The Benkelman Beam is used with a loaded truck - typically 80 kN (18,000 lb) on a single
axle with dual tires inflated to 480 to 550 kPa (70 to 80 psi). Measurement is made by placing the
tip of the beam between the dual tires and measuring the pavement surface rebound as the truck is
moved away (see Figure 9.17). The Benkelman Beam is low cost but is also slow, labor intensive
and does not provide a deflection basin.
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Figure 9.16: Benkelman Beam Schematic
Figure 9.17: Benkelman Beam in Use
Standard Benkelman Beam tests are described in:
AASHTO T 256: Pavement Deflection Measurements
ASTM D 4695: General Pavement Deflection Measurements
5.2.2 Steady State Deflection Equipment
Steady state deflection equipment measure the dynamic deflection of a pavement produced by an
oscillating load. These devices consist of a dynamic force generator (that produces the oscillating
load), a motion measuring instrument (to measure the oscillating load), a calibration unit and
several deflection measuring devices (transducers, accelerometers, seismometers, etc.). The main
advantage that steady state deflection equipment offer over static deflection equipment is that they
can measure a deflection basin. The most common steady state deflection equipment are the
Dynaflect and the Road Rater.
The stead state deflection equipment (see Figure 9.18) is stationary when measurements are taken
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with force generator (counter rotating weights) started and deflection sensors (transducers) lowered
to the pavement surface. Figure 9.19 is a plot of a typical force output and Figure 9.20 shows the
location of the equipment's loading wheels and five transducers. The equipment is most suitable for
use on thinner pavements including low volume rural highways, county roads, municipal streets,
and parking lots (IMS, 2001).
Figure 9.18: Dynaflect
Figure 9.19: Dynaflect Force Output
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Figure 9.20: Standard Location of Dynaflect Loading Wheels
and Transducers
The Road Rater (see Figure 9.21) is the other popular type of steady state deflection equipment. It
must also be stationary to start and operates in a similar fashion to the Dynaflect.
Figure 9.21: Road Rater
Standard stead state deflection tests are described in:
AASHTO T 256: Pavement Deflection Measurements
ASTM D 4695: General Pavement Deflection Measurements
5.2.3 Impact (Impulse) Load Response
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All impact load devices deliver a transient impulse load to the pavement surface. The subsequent
pavement response (deflection basin) is measured by a series of sensors. The most common type of
equipment is the falling weight deflectometer (FWD) (see Figures 9.22 through 9.26). The FWD can
either be mounted in a vehicle or on a trailer and is equipped with a weight and several velocity
transducer sensors. To perform a test, the vehicle is stopped and the loading plate (weight) is
positioned over the desired location. The sensors are then lowered to the pavement surface and the
weight is dropped. Multiple tests can be performed on the same location using different weight drop
heights (ASTM, 2000). The advantage of an impact load response measuring device over a steady
state deflection measuring device is that it is quicker, the impact load can be easily varied and it
more accurately simulates the transient loading of traffic. Results from FWD tests are often
communicated using the FWD AREA Parameter.
Figure 9.22: FWD Impulse Loading
Mechanism (foreground) and
Sensors (background)
Figure 9.23: FWD Figure 9.24: Dynatest 8000 FWD
Figure 9.25: KUAB FWD Figure 9.26: JILS FWD
The standard impact load response test method is:
ASTM D 4694: Standard Test Method for Deflections with a Falling Weight Type Impulse
Load Device
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5.2.4 Correlations Between Deflection Measuring Equipment
In general, correlations between deflection devices should be used with caution. Too often, a
correlation is developed for a specific set of conditions that may not be present for those using the
correlation. It appears that the best approach is to obtain pavement parameters (such as layer
moduli) from the specific device being used. However, that said, a few of many such correlations
that have been developed follow.
[Link] Benkelman Beam to FWD
(based on unpublished data collected by the Washington State DOT Materials Laboratory in
1982-1983)
BB = 1.33269 + 0.93748 (FWD)
where: BB = Benkelman Beam deflection (inches x 10-3)
FWD = FWD center-of-load deflection (inches. x 10-3) corrected
to a 9,000 lb. load applied on a 11.8-inch diameter
plate
R2 = 0.86 Standard Error = 3.20 mils Sample Size = 713
[Link] Benkelman Beam to Dynaflect
(based on Hoffman and Thompson, 1981)
BB = 20.63 (D)
where: BB = Benkelman Beam deflection (inches x 10-3)
D = Dynaflect center-of-load deflection (inches x 10-3)
R2 = 0.72
[Link] Benkelman Beam to Road Rater
(based on Hoffman and Thompson, 1981)
Comparing a Benkelman Beam load at 9,000 pounds on dual tires with 70-80 psi inflated tires and
Road Rater at 8,000 pound peak-to-peak load at 15 Hz on a 12 inch diameter plate on a stabilized
pavement:
BB = 2.57 + 1.27(RR)
where: BB = Benkelman Beam deflection (inches x 10-3)
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RR = Road Rater (Model 2008) center-of-load deflection at
8,000 pounds and 15 Hz (inches x 10-3)
R2 = 0.66
The Western Direct Federal Division, Federal Highway Administration, Vancouver, Washington
provides the following correlation for the Benkelman Beam to Road Rater Model 400:
BB = 8.0 + 9.1026 (D0)
where: BB = Benkelman Beam deflection (inches x 10-3)
RR = Maximum deflection from Road Rater Model 400
(deflection location between load pads) at a load of
1,300 pounds at 25 Hz
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