Chapter —III

Aspects of Written
Communication
 Chapter —III
Aspects of Written
Communication

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3.1 Written Communication: Introduction..------- -—..
3.1.1 Requisites of Written Communication
3.1.2 Characteristics of Written Communication
3.1.3 Merits and Demerits of Written Communication

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3.2 Writing as a Skill.....................................
3.2.1 Scope of Writing
3.2.2 Objectives of Writing
3.2.3 Readability: The Core of Writing
3.2.4 Communication Barriers
3.2.5 Good Writing: Stylistic Features
3.2.6 Guidelines for Good Writing
3.3 Towards Writing Composition.................... .

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3.3.1 Note Taking and Note Making
3.3.2 Paragraph Writing
3.3.3 News Writing
3.3.4 Dialogue Writing
3.3.5 Essay Writing
3.3.6 Writing a Telegram
3.3.7 Office Correspondence
A. Office order
B. Agenda
C. Minutes
D. Giving Instructions and Directions
3.3.8 Writing a Report
3.3.9 Writing Introduction
3.3.10 Writing Bibliography
3.3.11 Writing a Blurb
3.3.12 Writing a CV/Bio-data
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3.4 Towards Rewriting...........

3.4.1 Writing a Summary
3.4.2 Writing a Paraphrase
3.4.3 Writing a Precis
3.4.4 Writing an Abstract

3.5 A Sum-up. 141

References 142
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3.1 Written Communication: Introduction

In written communication, a message is given in words, phrases and

sentences. It involves sending information from one person to another. We
can convey information by writing, typing, printing, telegram, sms, etc.
Written communication is mostly used as a medium to pass information
upwards, downwards, horizontal/lateral, diagonal. It is an important vehicle
of information in all fields of life. It is a formal type of communication.

Brevity characterizes written communication. Written

communication should be accurate, precise, concise, cogent, and pointed. It
should not be irrelevant, repetitive, and circumlocutive.

3.1.1 Requisites of Written Communication

(1) One should acquire the mastery of language.

(2) One should use well structured and inter-connected sentences.
(3) One should use correct and appropriate words in a given order.
(4) Ideas should be logically organized.
(5) Handwriting should be legible or easily readable.

3.1.2 Characteristics of Written Communication

(1) Clarity

The message should be clear, well-planned and expressed in a logical

way. It should not be ambiguous. Clearly written messages avoid
misunderstanding and save time. Vague or ambiguous expressions must be
avoided. Clarity paves way for readability. For readability clear, simple,
familiar, precise, specific words, phrases and expressions should be used.
Long sentences, unclear words and clumsy expressions should be avoided.

Clarity depends upon five factors. They are as follows:

• Use always simple, common and meaningful words. Avoid technical

words, jargons and cliches.
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• Use short and simple sentences as long sentences can confuse the
reader.

• Use proper punctuation in writing; it facilitates comprehension.

• Give always definite and concrete details with facts and figures.

• Use coherence, that is, logical sequence in the presentation of ideas.

Clarity means being clear in meaning. It is indispensable for

understanding. Clarity includes both clarity of expression as well as clarity
of thought. It always uses direct language and specific words and
expressions. It implies avoiding indirect or euphemistic expressions,
exaggeration, artificial eloquence, unnecessary repetition, etc. Information
becomes particular, when one uses specific and concrete words and
expressions in writing. The use of specific and concrete words brings in
particularity, vividness and clarity in presentation. On the other hand,
abstract and vague words confuse the reader.

Original Version Revised Version

Kindlv be advised to make aware of Please, send us details regarding
a few important points such as vour service charges, mode of payment,
service charges methods of payment, concession, discount scheme, and so
concessions, discount schemes, and on.
so on.
It is clumsy and complicated. It is precise and straightforward.

(2) Courtesy

Showing courtesy is an important principle of written

communication. It indicates politeness in writing. Whether the message is
negative or positive, satisfactory or disappointing, it should be conveyed in
courteous language. For example, when a lapse is committed, one should
write “I regret to say that---------” instead of writing “I say that-------,”. In
writing, the style, the manner, and the choice of words reflect the courtesy
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of the writer. One should use always courteous words and expressions in
writing.

Some simple rules of courtesy are as follows:

• Use the courtesy words such as “My pleasure”, “Thank you”, and
“Sorry”/ “Regret” as the situation demands.

• Express appropriate feeling according to the situation.

• Make the other person feel comfortable.

• Be attentive and prompt in responding.

• Irritating phrases and strong expressions should be avoided; instead

of that, use positive, encouraging language.

Original Version Revised Version

You have no other option but to Please, talk to vour accounts
talk to vour accounts manager manager about the problem in my
about the problem in my accounts. accounts. I look forward to hearing
from vou.
The tone is harsh and offensive. The tone is gentle and polite.

(3) Accuracy

Accuracy is a very important feature of communication. It includes

both accurate information and accurate expression. The information should
be correct and well-worded. Overwriting, wrong spellings, grammatically
incorrect structures— these are some reasons of misunderstanding,

• Accuracy of expression requires that there should hot be any errors

of spellings, punctuation, grammar or usage. Everyone has to be careful
about grammar and punctuation. Accuracy always demands precision in
writing.

Precision is the quality of being exact and accurate. It is an essential

feature of writing. An effective sentence requires correctness and
appropriateness in writing.
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The quality of precision demands an exact knowledge of the

meaning of words and involves the use of simple, concrete and familiar

words instead of vague, difficult, unfamiliar and abstract words.

Following are the techniques of precision:

Example 1:

Use of simple and familiar words

Some people use fancy and big words in their writing for increasing
other’s attention. But simplicity in language is an art. Use of simple and

familiar words demand a better understanding and command of the

language. Clear and simple words and phrases make effective
communication possible, while vague and difficult words and phrases
constitute barriers to effective communication.

Read the following passage about metals:

“Although all metals react with oxygen, their reactivity is different. Some
metals, such as sodium and potassium, react with oxygen trenchantly. They
ignite even if retained unenclosed in the air. Magnesium needs to be heated,
before it combines with oxygen. Once inflamed to a temperature, magnesium
ribbon blazes with fire, yielding intense heat and light.”

In the above paragraph, the underlined words are vague, difficult and
unfamiliar. Following is the improved version of the passage. The
underlined words in above passage have been replaced by simple, clear and
familiar words, as indicated below (The underlining is for comparison):

“Although all metals react with oxygen, their reactivity is different. Some
metals, such as sodium and potassium, react with oxygen vigorously. They
catch fire even if kept open in the air. Magnesium needs to be heated before it
combines with oxygen. Once heated to ignition temperature, magnesium
ribbon bums, producing intense heat and light.”
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Example 2: Use of exact words and phrases

Effective communication demands use of exact words and phrases. It

should avoid the use of confusing words. Study the following pairs of
words and use the appropriate one in keeping with- the demands of the
context.

Advise-to give advice / inform-tell

4$ec*-influence / effect-result
All rea^-completely prepared / already -beforehand
Principle-rule of law / principal-most important
Stationary-not moving / stationery-writing materials

(4) Brevity

Brevity is the quality of being brief. It is a striking feature of written

communication. Brevity means giving maximum information in the
minimum number of words possible. It can be achieved by avoiding
wordiness and repetition. There is economy of words. It saves time of the
writer and the reader also.

(5) Conciseness

Conciseness means pointedness in writing. Writing should be

concise and direct. Unnecessary or superfluous words and expressions,
empty words, exaggeration, repetition, etc. should be avoided. In order to
establish communication between the sender and the receiver, written
language should be used appropriately. Direct language should be used to
avoid confusion and misunderstanding.

To put it, in short, conciseness can be achieved by (a) avoiding

unnecessary words in writing; (b) making sure that only necessary and
relevant details are worked out; and (c) eliminating redundant, unimportant
ideas or expressions in writing.
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Original Version Revised Version

I am very happy to inform you that Enclosed is the report on student in
the report on student involvement in academic decision making,
academic decision making, completed for your research
completed for your research department.
department, is being sent to you
along with this letter.
Correct but, complicated and Well-organized with clarity of
confusing. meaning.

(6) Correct Language

Information must be correct in every respect. Incorrect language

spoils the message and creates a bad impression upon the sender; it may
also convey a wrong or unwanted meaning. There should be consistency in
the use of numbers, technical terms, abbreviations, grammar, and correct
spellings, punctuation marks and capitalizations. The text/passage should
not give any wrong or incomplete information. We should write correctly
all dates, days, time, numbers, etc.

(7) Correct Tone

The tone of the text/passage must be appropriate and satisfying. The

tone in writing refers to die manner or mood of expression. A change in the
tone, of course, leads to a change in the emotional effect of an expression.

A negative tone can lead to misunderstanding, resulting in a negative

response from the reader. Therefore, it should be formal, tactful, personal
and positive, as indicated below:

Original Version Revised Version

As we have given the iob to another Thank you for your application for a
candidate, we cannot entertain vour sales position in our company.
application. However, the position has alreadv
been filled. Nevertheless, we have
kept vour resume for future use.
Reflects tactless use of language, Reflects tactful use of language with
with offensive tone and impolite soft, polite manna-.
manner.
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(8) Correct Attitude

Attitude in writing refers to the reflection or impression of the

writer’s opinion on the reader. When one can use correct attitude it involves
proper understanding of the role of positive thinking in business
correspondence. The following guidelines can help in using correct attitude
in business writing.

• Use the “You attitude”, in place of “I attitude” or “We attitude”.

• Avoid negative attitude.

Original Version Revised Version

As vou do not have a current Please, ooen a current account in our
account in our bank, we cannot bank so that we are able to process
process vour request. your request.
The tone is negative and arrogant. The tone is positive and humble.

(9) Unity

The whole message/text must be unified. The principle of unity

applies on three levels;

(a) The individual sentence must be unified;

(b) The individual paragraph must be unified; and
(c) The totality of the message must be unified.

Sentences must be direct, simple, brief, clear and vigorous. Technical

jargon must be avoided wherever possible. Leland Brown states on unity,
“an orderly arrangement of ideas flowing into other ideas and progressing
to conclusions helps achieve unity and is also a major aid to coherence.
There is the relationship between a main idea and a subordinate idea and a
lesser idea in the dependent clauses. Using a conjunction to point out the
relationship is indicated by some transitional means. This provides an
element of sequence and motion that moves the reader in a definite
direction towards accomplishing the purpose of communication.”1
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(10) Coherence

Coherence is essential for good writing. Clarity and relatedness

between words are the two main aspects of coherence. It applies at the level
of words, phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs. The purpose of
effective communication is receiving message in full, reading it with
understanding and giving feedback to the sender. The term coherence is
used in the sense of organizing principle of a paragraph or message. A
message is compressed into a meaningful whole. So completeness is
another essential feature of written communication.

(11) Sentence order/sequence and emphasis

Information should be arranged sequentially so that the reader can

understand it easily. The message should be consistent and continuous with
a sequence of ideas. The most important part of a sentence or a paragraph is
distinctly shown in inverted commas or marked with underlinings. The
principle of emphasis operates there. It makes the writer’s intention clear.
Transparency is great virtue of a writer’s personality and writing.

(12) Avoiding jargon

Jargon is nothing but a technical language. The writer should avoid

jargon as far as possible and write in simple, straightforward language.

(13) Readability

Readability is a sign of good written communication. It is

accompanied by comprehension. Otherwise, the very purpose of writing is
defeated. There are five factors that affect readability:

• Sentences should be brief and meaningful.

• Use more simple sentences than complex and compound ones.
• Use ordinary and familiar words and direct expressions.
• Personal references are necessary.
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• Use concrete words to particularize the character or the situation in

which he/she is placed.

3.1.3 Merits and Demerits of Written Communication

(A) Merits/Advantages

(1) Precise and accurate

Written communication has the quality of precision and accuracy of

language.

(2) Easily verifiable

Written communication, if necessary, can be read again and again. It

also offers itself to verification.

(3) Permanent record

Written communication constitutes a permanent record. It proves

useful for future reference.

(4) Suitable for lengthy and complicated messages

Long and complicated messages can be understood better when they

are in written form. There is less possibility of miscommunication and
misunderstanding in written communication.

(5) Fixing responsibility

In written communication, responsibility of both the sender and the

receiver can be easily fixed.

(6) . Legal validity

Written communication is acceptable as a legal document.

(7) Wide-spread coverage

It is well suited to express message to a large number of persons at

the same time. Furthermore, it ensures transmission of information in
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uniform manner. It is more reliable than oral communication. It can be

repeatedly referred to by the reader.

There is no chance of distortion of message. Secrecy is sometimes

maintained in written communication. It .is useful for official
correspondence.

(B) Demerits/Disadvantages
(1) Time-consuming method

Written communication requires more time than oral

communication.

(2) A possibility of ambiguity or incomprehensibility

If the sender does not write the message properly, the receiver does
not understand it. The clarity of a written message also depends upon the
writing skill.

(3) An expensive method

Written communication is a costly method. It requires stationery,

typing, filing, postal charges, etc. on the part of the sender as well as the
receiver.

(4) Literacy: a must

In written communication, the sender as well as the receiver should
be literate. Without literacy both the sender and the receiver cannot
communicate with each other.
(5) No flexibility
There is no flexibility in written communication. It is rigid and does
not provide any scope for making changes. There is no instant feedback;
because the sender is in one place and the receiver is in another place. Lack
of face-to-face communication and in results lack of personal contact.
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(6) Lack of interaction

It is a formal way of communication; generally, there is lack of
interaction between the sender and the receiver. Usually, it is a one-way
communication.
(7) Lack of motivation, confusion and/ or misunderstanding
Sometimes, there is a lack of motivation. There is no use of body
language. Written communication may, sometimes, lead to confusion and
/or misunderstanding.

3.2 Writing as a Skill

Francis Bacon, the famous essayist, said: “Reading maketh a full

man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man.”2

The above statement emphasizes the importance of writing apart

from that of reading and speaking. Of the three skills mentioned here, all
are related to each other.

Writing is a craft. It means one requires a great skill in acquiring it; it

is supplemented by reading and speaking. Clarity and precision are the two
main principles of writing. Simplicity is a characteristic of written
communication.

Writing is a visible skill. A writer exactly knows what he/she is

doing. Errors in the spoken form can be corrected, because the speaker and
the hearer are present i.e. face to face with each other, whereas those in the
written form cannot be corrected, because the reader is not present at the
moment of writing. Like the spoken mode, the written mode-also serves the
purpose of communication. We can communicate without disturbing
another person, for example, an SMS sent to our friend or relative.

In oral communication, other factors such as gestures supplement our

speech. But in written communication, there is no ulterior aid or
supplementing of this sort. The writer is in one place and the reader in
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another. In writing, there is no instant feedback, because the reader gives

the response, if needed, in the due course of time.

3.2.1 Scope of Writing

The written form of communication includes quite a huge record

about organization, institute, etc. Written form is the most important and
valuable form of communication. There are several forms of written
communication used for different purposes.

Written communication comprises all types of written form like

notices, e-mails, letters, telegrams, memos, agendas, minutes, resolutions,
circulars, tenders, advertisements, complaints, reports, financial statements,
appointments, etc. The written communication is mostly used in the
business organizations, corporate offices, educational institutes, etc.

3.2.2 Objectives of Writing

Following are the main objectives of Written Communication:

• Future reference

Written material/messages can be preserved as records for future

reference.

■ Record of evidence

Written matter carries legal value and significance. Oral messages

have not this feature. Written matter can be produced as a proof/evidence
and has legal validity.

• Measurement of progress

Progress of the work can be observed/understood through the written

matter/information. It is a kind of valuable document.
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• Useful for decision-making

Written messages are helpful for decision making. Old documents

provide necessary information and constitute the basis of future decision­
making.

• Avoiding mistakes

Earlier records may help one reduce mistakes in the process of

transmitting messages.

3.23 Readability :The Core of Writing

The purpose of written communication is readability. Writings are

made readable and interesting through words, phrases, vocabulary, clauses
and sentences. The style should be effective, familiar and natural. Readable
writing includes short and simple sentences, clarity, use of familiar words,
avoiding long sentences and superfluous words, employing simple
language, etc. To put it succinctly any writing should have accuracy,
brevity, clarity, and, in short, readability.

Reading means nothing but eye-contact, looking at printed or written

words or other signs to understand. Readability implies that the message
should be readable, i.e. easy to read. The main purpose of written matter is
to enable the readers to understand. Understanding is a process of learning
by readihg/listening. Reading is related to eyes and listening is related to
ears; together it is, audio-visual. Every writer has to take into cognizance
die reader’s level of understanding, ability, qualification, experience, etc.
Clarity and understandability of the subject are the twin objects of
purposeful writing.

Style is an aesthetic quality of written communication. It differs from

writing to writing. Conciseness, clarity, strength, coherence, unity,
completeness, precision, correctness of the matter and the language, content
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presentation, arrangement of messages, etc. are the characteristics of writing

style.

Generally speaking, there are three types of writing;

(a) General/informative/instructive writing;

(b) Amusing/entertaining/persuasive writing; and
(c) Critical/evaluative writing

3.2.4 Communication Barriers

“All forms of social progress (are manifest)............ Physical barriers

to communication are rapidly disappearing but the psychological remain.
These psychological difficulties are in part a function of the very nature of
language they are due to the emotional characters and mental limitations of
human beings.”

- Daniel Katz

Barriers are nothing but hindrances / hurdles / difficulties /problems.

These affect the transmission of message or information. There are many
problems due to the non-reaching of the message to the receiver. The main
barriers are organizational/managerial, psychological and linguistic. These
are discussed below:

(1) Organizational/Managerial Barriers

This type of barriers arises, when duties and lines of authority are not
clearly defined. Policy, rules and regulations, status and position, complex
structure / system, etc. create the various types of organizational/managerial
barriers.

Various types of organizational barriers are related to the different

aspects of management. They are as enumerated below:

(a) Policy: It is in the written form and act as a hindrance in the actual
working of the organization;
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(b) Rules and Regulations; Rules and regulations work as a barrier in

transmitting a message;

(c) Status and Position: The barrier arising out of status and position of
the higher authority is reflected in non-listening / non-answering or
indifferent attitude of the person concerned; and, finally,

(d) Complex Nature of the Operation: Complexity is a serious problem /

barrier in effective communication.

(2) Semantic Barriers

Semantic barriers are also called language barriers. These barriers

are related to both oral and written modes of communication. Following are
the types of semantic barriers.

(a) Badly Expressed Message

The effective and meaningful written communication requires clarity

and precision. In the absence of clarity and precision the information may
become meaningless. There are some common problems. They are—(a) use
of unfamiliar words, superfluous words, cliches, jargons, (b) lack of unity
and coherence, (c) excessive use of adjectives and adverbs, (d) lack of
simplicity, (e) longer sentences, involved construction of sentences, etc.
The experts, like Knootz and Donnell, list the common faults in the words
such as poorly chosen and empty words and phrases, careless omission,
lack of coherence, poor organization of ideas, inadequate vocabulary,
awkward sentence structure, platitudes, numbing repetition, jargon and
failure to clarify implications, (f) faulty translations: Translation implies
here encoding and decoding of a message. Encoding-decoding process
includes translation of ideas, facts, opinions, feelings into symbols, words,
actions, pictures, etc. The sender sends and the receiver receives different
types of communication. Turn by turn, both of them encode and decode
ideas or message/ information into suitable language so that it is understood
and responded to, properly and completely. Otherwise, faulty translation,
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i.e. wrong encoding and decoding of the message, creates a barrier in the
process of communication.

(b) Unclarified Assumptions

It is an important barrier in communication. When a message is

specific, the unclarified assumptions are not received by the receiver. So,
assumptions should be mutually clear and understandable.

(c) Jargon
Jargon is a technical language; it should be avoided as far as possible
in normal communication. It is a special language of a given field, with its
limited, restrictive use of words, phrases and expressions.

(3) Personal/Psychological Barriers

Some personal barriers are as follows:

(a) Barriers due to superiors / inferiors

The basic barrier arises on account of status and relationship of the

persons concerned in every organization.

(b) Regard and attitude

The regard and attitude of the speaker towards the listener in

connection with communication may affect the flow of message.

(c) Altitudinal complexity

Nature of the individual’s attitudinal complexity makes for a barrier

in communication.

(d) Maintaining status and authority

To maintain status and authority, an officer keeps some distance with

his subordinates. This causes a barrier in communication.
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(e) Prejudice, distrust, misunderstanding

These create hurdles in understanding and harmony in the

organization. There are several minor other factors that act as barriers to
communication. They are resistance to change, imperceptions, closed
minds, phobia or fear complex, lack of confidence, distance and time, etc.

(4) Noise in communication channel

Inattention, premature evaluation, failure of communication, loss by

transmission and poor retention, emphasis on written message, etc. are
serious hurdles in communication.

Following are some of the measures for overcoming barriers to

communication.

(1) Orientation
The employees in the organization should be given periodic
orientation and proper training.
(2) Suitable language

The appropriate tone of language minimizes linguistic barriers to

communication. High-flown, bombastic language should be avoided as far
as possible. The message should be direct, meaningful and in simple
language. One can use simple, straightforward language to avoid semantic
confusion/misunderstanding.

(3) Clarity

The information should be encoded in a clear, simple and direct

language, so that the message is reachable to the receiver.

(4) Acquaintance with the receiver

The sender of the message must have the knowledge of the
receiver— his attitude, educational background, his mental capacity, etc.
 Proper inter-personal relationship 1 KOTJming barriers
to the effective communication. Lack of among the people
affects the process of communication. Both the sender and the receiver
should have respect for each other so that rapport is established.
(6) Feedback
It is a proof of two-way communication process. It shows whether
the message is acceptable or not. In the case of face-to-face communication,
there is immediate feedback. But in the case of written communication,
there is no possibility of immediate feedback; it is a time-consuming matter.
(7) Other measures
Communication should be based on planning. The information / matter
should be complete with foil awareness of the assumptions; otherwise, it
leads to the half-way communication or miscommunication between the
sender and the receiver.

3.2.5 Good Writing; Stylistic Features

Writing well is far more important than proper grammar and correct
spelling. In fact, good writing at times violates the rules of grammar, even
violently. It is also about more than simply developing a good style.

(a) Readability: A Criterion of Writing

In terms of what makes for good writing, readability is about the

basic ability of a reader to make sense of what is written. A work that is
readable if it is grammatically correct and stylistically satisfying.

(b) Focus of Writing

Good writing has a point, a goal that it is intended to achieve. That

goal might be to sell something, to convince someone of something, or to
explain how to do something, but whatever the point, it informs every line.
Anything that does not lead the reader towards that goal is dropped.
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(c) Gracefulness in Writing

Good writing is not just focused on a goal; it leads the reader

inescapably towards that goal. That may be through the use of evidence in
support of an argument, through the relaying of a narrative describing
events occurring over time and in some way, but it must be graceful -
without gaps of reasoning, unsupported assumptions, missing information,
or anything else that would cause a reader to stumble.

(d) Fluidity/Flow in Writing

Good writing is all of a piece - the various elements that make it up

fit together neatly and get the reader along. Flow means that everything is in
its proper place. It is justified by coherence and context.

(e) Concreteness in Writing

Our society tends to value abstract thinking and generalizations over

concrete particularities, but this tends to lead to particularly limp and empty
writing. The best writing, even when the subject is an abstraction, grounds
its topic in the real world through examples, metaphors and analogies, and
anecdotes. This is an intensification of the old “show, don’t tell” rule -
powerful writing does not just tell, it shows in real-world ways that are
easily approachable.

(f) Interest in Writing

A good writer knows his or her audience intimately— the language

they understand, the beliefs they share, the knowledge they hold. He or she
knows what assumptions can be made about the reader, and what
assumptions cannot be made.

Good writing is not boring, because the writer knows what will hold
his or her audience’s interest. It is neither too dense nor too simple for the
intended readership - it’s just right.
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(g) Appealing Tone in Writing

The best writing catches attention, whether through the force of its
argument, the strength of its language, or the importance of its topic. The
reader does not want to stop reading : Persuasiveness characterizes every
piece of writing.

3.2.6 Guidelines for Good Writing

(a) Use simple words and phrases.

Use “improve” instead of “ameliorate”. It is always desirable to use

simple words and phrases such as “like” instead of “in a manner” or
“similar to that of’. Good writing demands using short and familiar words
such as ‘darken’ instead of ‘obfuscate’.

(b) Use only necessary words.

Use only necessary words in the sentences and avoid unnecessary,

superfluous and flowery expressions. For example, in the statement, “Bad
weather condition prevented my travel’, the word ‘condition’ is unnecessary
or superfluous. Instead of that, just write, “Bad weather prevented my trip.”

(c) Use personal pronouns.

We should use personal pronouns such as ‘you’, ‘they’, ‘it’,

wherever necessary, for the sake of cohesion.

(d) Use active voice.

Generally speaking, the use of active voice is desirable. One should

write “the teacher said”..... instead of “It was said by the teacher....”

(e) Use short sentences and paragraphs.

Use always short, clear and meaningful sentences and paragraphs.

Here, the communicator’s job is not to impress but to inform his audience.
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(f) Use illustrations, examples and charts.

Illustrations, examples, charts, diagrams, etc. are supplied with a

view to highlighting the subject-matter and enhancing its significance.

While summing up the discussion, a few tips may be added thus:

• The message /information should be brief and pointed.

• If the message is long, one should give its abstract. It means that the
abstract should highlight the main points.

• The message should be carefully organized.

• Give the suitable title to the piece of writing.

While writing, one should give the attention to the accuracy of the
information. The subject-matter should be carefully organized: it should be
clear and precise. Firstly, state the important point, then the more important
point, and finally the most important point in the ascending order, or vice
versa, that is, in the descending order. The introductory part of a piece of
writing is as important as the concluding part. The body of the text should
comprise paragraphs— the one leading to the other. One should observe the
principle of “one point one paragraph.”

3.3 Towards Writing Composition

3.3.1 Note-taking and Note-making

The writing skill includes two sub-skills: (a) Note-taking and (b)
Note-making. We jot down notes while listening to a lecture / speech/ talk.
We make notes while reading a chapter from a book or an article from a
journal. These two skills are aids to memory and help us develop the habit
of self-study. Notes are written not verbatim but in the form of gist or
summary. So, the note/-taker/maker has to listen to or read the text
carefully. He / she understands the most significant statements or the key
sentences of the text. Both these sub-skills need to be learnt systematically
 105

through practice. The most important thing is to grapple with the theme and
bring out the relevant points of a spoken or written discourse.

3.3.2 Paragraph Writing

(a) Paragraph Structure

A paragraph is nothing but a distinct section of a piece of writing, a

part of discourse. Generally speaking, a paragraph is defined in terms of
length: Normally, it is a group of a few sentences; it is half a page long; it
can be of one sentence also.

If a sentence is basic to a paragraph, the paragraph is basic to a

composition /text/discourse. Writing a paragraph simply means arranging a
number of interconnected sentences in a certain logical sequence or order.
A paragraph implies a continued piece of writing. Words and phrases are
connected with each other in a sentence; similarly, sentences are connected
with each other in a paragraph. When the paragraphs come together and
form a whole - cohesive and coherent—we have what is called a text /
discourse. Good writing creates interest in its reader. It rouses his
intellectual curiosity and appeals to his sensibility. A series of sentences
contains an idea (a feeling) or two and performs such communicative
functions as (1) revealing thoughts or giving information, (2) expressing
emotions, (3) holding phatic communion, etc. By his experience a good
writer knows how a sentence he writes carries on or enhances the effect of
the earlier sentences. The subject is important; so also the style, in which it
is given, is equally important. Every paragraph has a topic sentence which
conveys the central idea of that paragraph.3 All writing should be essentially
persuasive; it should interest, entertain, and enlighten its reader.

A paragraph includes several related sentences and deals with one

controlling idea. The controlling idea is the topic or the theme of the
paragraph. The main function of the paragraph is to illustrate, exemplify,
substantiate, develop, or explain the theme.
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(b) Principles of Paragraph Writing

It is very essential to develop the ability to write effective paragraph.

Paragraph writing is a significant productive skill. Writing should be
purposeful, precise and reader-oriented; it is important to compose
paragraphs that are clear, concise, cohesive and result-oriented.

For writing an effective paragraph, a careful writing plan should be

adopted to ensure proper length, unity, coherence or logical development
and organization of ideas.

(i) Proper Length

Paragraph length should be adjusted according to the needs of the

readers, subject matter, writing style, variety and emphasis. Paragraphs
having various lengths may be used as per the needs of the writing
assignment. Following are given some suggestions helpful for making
decisions about appropriate paragraph length while writing.

• Adjust paragraph length to the reader—his attentiveness.

• Adjust paragraph length to the subject matter—its interest.
• Adjust paragraph length to the demands of the subject-matter—its
variety and emphasis.

(il) Unity of Thought

Unity is the principle of oneness. Unity in written communication

means wholeness in main idea, thought or thesis. A paragraph is a logical
division of the argument of a longer piece of writing. A paragraph develops
a single idea related to the central theme. One main thought maintains the
principle of unity.

• Topic Sentence

The main idea or the theme of a paragraph is called a topic sentence.

A topic sentence is a key-sentence: it states the abstract of the idea
/argument to be developed in a paragraph.
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• Supportive Sentence

The remaining sentences of the paragraph develop, support,

exemplify and explain the central theme. They support the main argument.
The topic sentence is placed at the beginning or at the end of a paragraph.
Sometimes a topic sentence may not be included and the main idea is
worked out through details only. The topic sentence is very helpful to
introduce the paragraph and give its reader a clear idea about the theme or
content of the paragraph.

• Concluding Sentence

The concluding sentence thus helps one summarize the paragraph. It

may be written in the form of a simple, complex or compound sentence.

(iii) Coherence

Coherence is a valuable quality of paragraph writing. In cohesive

paragraphs, ideas are linked and one idea logically leads to the other. One
paragraph is linked with the next paragraph. In order to achieve coherence
in paragraph writing, it is necessary to use appropriate cohesive devices or
sentence connectors, as enlisted below:

• Pronoun

In order to achieve coherence, one should use common pronouns

such as they, we, it or demonstrative pronouns such as this, that, these,
those.

• Sentence- Connectors

A sentence linker connects two sentences in a paragraph. It is called

a “conjunction”. It may consist of a single word such as, and, but, or, which,
because, if, etc. or a phrase such as due to, owing to, because of, in spite of.
etc.
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• Use of Sequence—Words

For effective paragraph writing one should use sequence words such
as first, firstly, second, secondly, next, then, after, that, now, later, finally,
lastly, afterwards, following, etc.

Following are some examples:4

(1) After I shut down the computer, I went to sleep.

(2) First take a form, then, fill in the form and finally submit it to the
manager of the bank.

(b) Examples
• Passage 1: POTATOES

Potatoes were totally unknown in the Old World before the 16th
century. The Spanish conquerors of Peru first introduced them to the
outside world Now, they have become a major crop throughout the world
and even the survival of some nations, like Ireland for instance, depends
upon the success orfailure ofa potato crop.

It is estimated that the value of the potatoes grown around the world
in one year will far exceed the value of all the gold looted by Spanish
conquerors ofPeru through the centuries oftheir dominance.

A Critical Comment; Thoughtful writing may be giving a piece of

information. It makes you think mostly at conceptual level.

• Passage 2: POTATOES

Potatoes are an amazing crop. They survive almost under any

conditions. They grow quickly and resist natural calamities with great
toughness. Man can learn a few things from them, notably their
adaptability, which is rooted in their basic simplicity.

A Critical Comment: Creative writing will have partly thoughtful

and partly emotional elements at the level of sensibility.
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• Passage 3: POTATOES

It was very hot - the potato. It scalded her fingers. For a moment,
she didn’t feel the burning sensation. She remembered the time when
George had rushed to her help while she was peeling potatoes. She had
upturned the pot ofthe boiling water and hers were severely burned.

George had applied neomycine to them and had said soothing words in her
ears. Who would do it now? For a moment, she was lost in the thoughts of
George. But onlyfor a moment. The hot scalding potato jerked her back to
reality. And then she realized that the pain of a hot potato was more easily
sufferable than the pain ofseparation from your loved ones.

A Critical Comment; Fictional writing is illustrated here—a

situation with two characters—with the use of contrast

• Thus, from the communicative point of view, a paragraph consists of

three kinds of sentences; they are as follows:

(1) Main or the topic sentences: It expresses the main idea of the
paragraph.

(2) Major supporting sentences: It expands, illustrates, explains,

supports or strengthens the main idea with subsidiary points and
supporting details.

(3) Minor supporting sentences: It further exemplifies and supports the

main idea with minor points minor supporting details.5

While phrasing the sentences, appropriate keywords, or lexical items,

cohesive markers and linkers should be chosen from both the points of
view—semantic and grammatical.

Here, look at the model or ideal paragraph/s organized in the light of

the guidelines given above and the four stages indicated and illustrated:
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Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings. On one level,

spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the soul, but on another level, the
songs spoke about slave resistance. For example, according to Frederick
Douglass, the song "O Canaan, Sweet Canaan" spoke of slaves' longingfor
heaven, but it also expressed their desire to escape to the North. Careful
listeners heard this second meaning in the following lyrics: "I don't expect
to stay/Much longer here. /Rim to Jesus, shun the danger. // don't expect
to stay."

When slaves sang this song, they could have been speaking of their
departure from this life and their arrival in heaven; however, they also
could have been describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to
Jesus, but to the North. Slaves even used songs like "Steal Away to Jesus (at
midnight)" to announce to other slaves the time and place of secret,
forbidden meetings. What whites heard as merely spiritual songs, slaves
discerned as detailed messages. The hidden meanings in spirituals allowed
slaves to sing what they could not say.

(c) Organizing a paragraph

There are many different ways to organize a paragraph.

Organization depends on the controlling idea of the paragraph. Following
are a few modes of composing a paragraph with brief comments.

• Narration: Narrative technique implies telling a story or narrating an

event. One must go, chronologically/ sequentially, from start to
finish.

• Description: In description, we give specific details about what

something looks, smells, tastes, sounds, or feels like. We should
organize spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic.

• Process: We should explain how something works or goes step by

step or follows a sequence—first, second, third.
 Ill

• Illustration: It implies giving an example to make out the point.

We go through four stages in building a paragraph. Each stage of the

process will include an explanation supplemented by a bit of "model" text
to illustrate how it works.

* (i) Controlling idea and create a topic sentence

Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the

controlling idea. This idea directs the paragraph's development Often, the
controlling idea of a paragraph will appear in the form of a topic sentence.

In some cases, we may need more than one sentence to express a

paragraph's controlling idea. Here is the controlling idea for our "model
paragraph," expressed in atopic sentence:

Example; Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings.

(ii) Explain the controlling idea

Paragraph development continues with an expression of the rationale

or the explanation that the writer gives for how the reader should interpret
the information presented in the thematic statement or topic sentence of the
paragraph. The writer explains his/her thinking about die main topic, idea,
or focus of the paragraph. Here's the sentence that would follow the
controlling idea about slave spirituals:

Example: On one level, spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the

soul; but on another level, the songs spoke about slave resistance.

(iii) Give an example/examples along with explanation

Paragraph development progresses with the expression of some type

of support or evidence for the idea and the explanation that comes before it.
The example serves as a sign or representation of the relationship
established in the idea and explanation portions of the paragraph. Here are
 112

two examples that we could use to illustrate the double meanings in “slave
spirituals.”

The next movement in the paragraph development is an explanation

of each example and its relevance to the topic sentence and rationale that
were stated at the beginning of the paragraph. This explanation shows
readers why we choose to use this/or these particular example as evidence
to support the major claim, or focus, in our paragraph.

One should continue the pattern of giving examples and explaining

them until all points/examples that the writer deems necessary have been
made and explained. NONE of our examples should be left unexplained.
We might be able to explain the relationship between the example and the
topic sentence in the same sentence which has introduced the example.
More often, however, we may need to explain that relationship in a separate
sentence. Look at these explanations for the two examples in the slave
spirituals paragraph:

Example T. For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the song "O

Canaan, Sweet Canaan" spoke of slaves' longing for heaven, but it also
expressed their desire to escape to the North. Careful listeners heard this
second meaning in the following lyrics: "I don’t expect to stay / Much
longer here. /Run to Jesus, shun the danger. /1 don't expect to stay."

Explanation: When slaves sang this song, they could have been speaking of
their departure from this life ami their arrival in heaven; however, they also
could have been describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to
Jesus, but to the North.

Example 2: Slaves even used songs like "Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)"
to announce to other slaves the time and place of secret, forbidden
meetings.
 113

Explanation: The relationship between example 2 and the main idea of the
paragraph’s controlling idea is clear enough without adding another
sentence to explain it.

(Iv) Complete the paragraph's idea or transition into the next

paragraph

The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the

loose ends of the paragraph and reminding the reader of the relevance of the
information in this paragraph to the main or controlling idea of the
paragraph. At this point, you can remind your reader about the relevance of
the information that you have just discussed in the paragraph. We might
feel more comfortable, however, by simply transitioning our reader to the
next development in the next paragraph.

Example: What whites heard as merely spiritual songs, slaves discerned as

detailed messages. The hidden meanings in spirituals allowed slaves to sing
what they could not say.

To sum up the discussion, we should continue to use this

instructional pattern until we have completely developed the main idea in
one paragraph or two.

3.3.3 News Writing

(1) The Headline

While reading a newspaper the headline is the first thing that attracts
the reader’s attention. It is usually printed in bold and capital letters and
sometimes in a different colour. The headline gives the essence or the gist
of a news story. Brevity is its soul. Some of the language features that mark
the headline may be enumerated thus: (1) the omission of articles (2) the
use of present tense (3) the use of active voice and (4) the use of concrete
and vivid words. For example, we say:

PLANE CRASH KILLS 20 IN FOGGY WEATHER

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(2) The Lead/Intro

The first or the opening paragraph of the story is called the lead or
the intro. It introduces the crux of the story to the reader. Some of the
keywords in the headline are usually found here.

(3) The Conclusion

The lead or the introductory paragraph is then supplemented by two

or three succeeding paragraphs working out the details of the news story.
The most important thing comes first and the least important at the end.6 So,
the details of the news story are arranged in the descending order of their
importance.

Now, let us explain these features of news-writing:

(1) Introduction
(2) Thematic development
(3) Conclusion

Newspaper is one of the most important media of communication.

Sometimes it is called print media. It covers a variety of news items from
the different walks of life. We have political news, economic or commercial
news, socio-cultural news, sports news, news related to
science/technology/engineering, etc. A newspaper also gives features and
stories of various sorts; it includes editorials, articles, cartoons,
advertisements, letters to the editor, etc.

A news story is always there. An event is narrated, accident is

described and we have a news story published in the newspaper. It has four
parts as indicated below:

(1) The headline

(2) The dateline
(a) place (b) date of the incident
(3) The lead/ intro
(4) The body of the text followed by the conclusion.
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We have a theme here. The theme and the details are worked out in
the story, and that constitutes the body of die text. There are 2 or 3
paragraphs that work out the details. In the last paragraph we have the
conclusion of the story. The story begins in the lead and finds its ending in
the concluding sentence of the last paragraph.

3.3.4 Dialogue Writing

Dialogue is an oral conversation between two or more people

expressing their feelings and opinions. There are two types of dialogues -
formal and informal.

Writing a dialogue - a dialogue in real-life situation anyway—does

not come easily to everyone. Done well, dialogue advances the story and
flashes out the characters while providing a break from a direct, straight
exposition. A realistic dialogue is one of the most powerful tools at a
writer’s disposal, be it a short story, novel or drama.

These are the few tips for writing a dialogue:

• Listen to how people talk.

Having a sense of natural speech patterns is essential to good
dialogue. We should start paying attention to the expressions that people
use and the music of everyday conversation.
• The dialogue should sound like the real speech or conversation.

The dialogue should read like real speech. How do you accomplish
that? Alfred Hitchcock said that a good story was “life, with the dull parts
taken out.” This very much applies to dialogue.

• Don’t provide too much Info at once.

It should not be obvious to the reader that they’re being fed

important facts. Let the story unfold naturally through dialogue.
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• Punctuate the dialogue correctly.

The rules for punctuating the dialogue need to be observed: Many

learners need help in getting them right from the beginning to the end.

3.3.5 Essay Writing

The word essay is derived from the French word “essayer”, it means
“to try”, means “to do something” or “to attempt”. It is further defined as,
“a composition with a focused subject of discussion” or a “long, systematic
discourse”. An essay is nothing but a short composition in prose which may
be written on a given topic. It has a beginning (introduction), a middle i.e.
development of the theme or main argument (body) and end (conclusion).

Following are the characteristics of a well- written essay:

(1) Cohesion and Coherence

Cohesion and coherence are the basic requisites of essay writing. The
dictionary meaning of the word “cohesion” is “sticking together”. It implies
grammatical correctness. Coherence means logical sequence or arrangement
of thoughts or ideas with causal relationship.

(2) Unity

Cohesion and coherence bring in unity of the text. The writing

should consist of parts, i.e. paragraphs which, when brought together,
constitute unity. Unity means, here, writing the essay on a single theme or
for a single purpose. It then looks whole and complete.

(3) Style

Another important requisite of essay-writing is an appropriate style

of writing. There are a variety of styles.8 Some of them are as follows:

(a) scientific style

(b) descriptive/reflective/narrative style
(c) critical/creative or imaginative style
(d) factual/neutral style
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(e) persuasive style

(f) analytical style
(g) poetic or literary style
(h) objective/ subjective style

(4) The Personal Touch

An essay should reveal the personal views and opinions on feeling

and attitude of the writer towards the subject.

3.3.6 Writing a Telegram

A telegram is the oldest and fastest means of written communication.

It transmits message quicker than a letter. It differs from letter writing.
Economy of words is the main feature of writing telegram. There is no use
of punctuation marks. The message, the sender’s name and the address are
all in block/capital letters. The word “STOP” is written to indicate
end/break between sentences. The telegram is costlier and every word is
priced. Brevity, clarity, and accuracy are the characteristics of a telegram.
Words with prefixes and suffixes (for example, unacceptable, imperfect,
inappropriate) can be used to economize the use of words in the telegram.

The chief advantage of the telegram is that it provides a permanent

record. Telegrams are usually sent, when the matter is urgent. Articles (a,
an, the) always be omitted, and pronouns sometimes.

Following are the tips on writing a telegram.

(1) Write the message on the telegram in capital letters.

(2) Avoid the salutation and the complimentary close and remember to
insert the name of the sender.

(3) Put the word “STOP” to indicate the end of a sentence.

(4) The message must be brief, clear, and accurate.

(5) Always use brief sentences, for example. Say “arriving 9 am” instead
of “I shall be arriving at 9 am.” The receiver should know all the
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code/abbreviations of words. For example, RYL means ‘Regarding

your letter’, REFGRAM means ‘Referring to your telegram’.

3.3.7 Office Correspondence

(A) Office Order

Office Order is an important aspect of internal communication. It is a

downward communication; it is used from the higher to the lower class.
Generally, orders are related to the posting of person, promotion,
suspension, termination of service, granting/releasing/ withholding
increments granting/withholding certain/ privileges, imposing certain
restrictions, intimation of disciplinary proceedings, etc. While drafting
orders, the following points are kept in mind:

• Orders should not contain unnecessary information/details; the

wording must be concise and precise.
• The language of the orders should be simple and straightforward
avoiding jargon, slangs, idioms and phrases.9
Example 1- An office order regarding the promotion of an employee.

Ref: Pers/455/23 Date: 7.5.20...

OFFICE ORDER

Ms. Shital Deshmukh, Accounts Assistant, is promoted as Senior

Accountant with immediate effect. She will draw the Basic

Pay ofRs.5500 in the pay scale Rs.4500-100-5500-150-6500.

Other allowances incentive will be paid as admissible in accordance

with the company’s rules.

To: Ms. Shital Deshmukh Sd/- Aran Gupta

Through: Accounts Department Manager (Personnel)

The underlined words and phrases in the above order are a part of the
register called “officialese”. The language tone is formal.
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(B) Agenda

Agenda is also known as “business”. It is a list of points/minutes to

be discussed in the meeting. The resolutions are passed by the majority of
the members present in the meeting.

The agenda starts with the item/point ‘approval of previous minutes.’

Because the previous meeting’s minutes should be approved before the
present meeting. These points are written in the agenda as ‘minutes’. There
are two ways of writing the minutes in the agenda:10

> In the form of nouns

■ Appointment of a sub-committee to look into losses

■ Proposal to open a branch in....
■ Membership drive ....
■ Fund collection....
■ Review of the month’s activities....

> Using infinitive verbs

■ To appoint a sub-committee to look into...

■ To consider a proposal to open a branch....
■ To organize a membership drive....
■ To collect funds....
■ To review activities of the month....

Writing of agenda is different from field to field. The date of the next
meeting is fixed in the current meeting.
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Specimen Agenda

1. To confirm the minutes of the meeting held on 25 July, 2003

(enclosed)

2. To approve the revised budget for 2003-04 and the budget

estimates for the year 2004-05, with or without modification
(will follow)

3. To consider applications for life membership(Iist enclosed!

4. To review the working of the society and its institutions.

5. To fix the date of the next meeting.

6. Any other matter permitted bv the chair.

The underlined words and phrases in the above order are a part of the
register called “officialese”. The language tone is formal.

(C) Minutes

“Minutes” means a record of the decisions taken at a meeting. All the

departments of companies, institutions, organizations, etc. have to maintain
a record of the meetings. In the meeting, decisions are taken; they should be
well-worded in clear and precise language. Generally, minutes of the
companies and the statutory bodies are written in a formal style. Every item
begins with the phrase “Resolved that....”

Minutes are a permanent legal document and can be produced in a court

as a record of evidence.

Following are some of the details noted down besides the resolutions
passed:11

(1) The name of the body and introductory nature of the meeting.

(2) The day, date, time and place of the meeting.

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(3) The name of chairperson of the meeting followed by the list of

names of members present, along with their signatures.

(4) Leave of absence to those who are not present.

(D) Giving Instructions and Directions

We have the instruction, for example, “Answer any five questions”

at the top of a question paper. Similarly, when we enter a university
campus, we have the notice boards giving us directions showing us the
ways-indicated by the arrows, to the administrative building, to the library
building, to the department of English, etc. When we enter a colony, we
have to ask several questions to locate the residence of our friends.
Similarly, we have to make enquiries at the enquiry window of a bus stop or
a railway station. As an officer, one 1ms to give instructions in writing to
one’s subordinates. So, we need to use two types of sentence structure here:
(1) interrogative sentences implying either ‘wh’ type of questions or ‘yes-
no’ questions (2) imperative sentences, either positive or negative. The
Government Resolutions (GRs) published in the gazettes or available on the
website are directives carrying the validity of law.

3.3.8 Writing a Report

Departmental/Official Report

Report means a statement or description of what has been said, seen,

done, etc. It is the description of some matter or event or a course of action.
A good report contains facts, figures, diagrams, information, analysis,
opinions, suggestions, maps, charts, graphs, and statistical tables, specially
compiled for a particular purpose. C.A. Brown defines a report as “a
communication from someone, who has to inform someone, who wants to
use that information”.12 It describes the events or individuals to someone
who requires it. According to the American Marketing Society; the purpose
of a report is “to convey the interested persons the whole result of the study
 122

in sufficient details and arranged so as to enable each reader to comprehend

the data and so determine for himself the validity of conclusions”.13

Every institute, organization, business, and government needs

reports. Reports may be oral or written. A written report is better that an
oral one. In an organization report falls under the category of upward
communication. It could be written for a group or a person. A decision and
action depend on management of the organization/ institute. The people
involved in the report are not decision makers. It is only a feedback for the
management/ institute. A report should be sequential, logical, and honest.
Reports are prepared by the experts in the field.

Following are the types of a report:

(a) Types of a Report

Types of a Report

(b) Principles of a Successful Report

(1) A report should be short, clear, pointed, accurate complete and

meaningful.

(2) Its style and tone should be gentle, polite and formal.

(3) It should have time limit to read.

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(4) A report should be divided into paragraphs; each para should have a
central idea.

(c) The Format of a Report

There are various components in a report. It should be pointed,

logical, and cohesive. Now let us enumerate the components of a report as
indicated below:

(1) Title sheet

This sheet includes the title and the names of the reportees, the
purpose, the date and month of submission. It occurs on the first page of
longer reports. But about the short reports, the title is given on the first page
and remaining details should be in the body of the text.
(2) Acknowledgement

It is not a part of a report. It should be brief and it has no page

numbers.

(3) Letter of authorization

One authorizes through this letter some one in confidence to receive the
award.

(4) Covering letter

The report is submitted along with a covering letter. It includes the

information followed for the investigation.

(5) Table of contents

When the report is long, a table of contents is necessary to the report.

(6) Executive summary (Abstract)

It is an important part of a long report. It helps the reader to know all

matter in brief. It should inform the reader the purpose of the report, scope,
method, findings, etc. It should be brief.
 124

(7) Introduction

It should give a brief study of the report.

(8) Body

The body of the report contains the details of the analysis or the
study. It should be divided into sections or chapters.

(9) Findings /recommendations

Findings should be brief and pointed.

(10) References

List of reference books is given for further study. In the references

should be given thus: the name of the writer, book / report, the place,
publisher and the year of publication, the page [Link].

(11) Appendices

Appendices should be numbered.

(12) Language and style

The report should be grammatically correct. Sentences should be

short and simple. Accuracy and precision are the hall-marks of a report.

(B) Research / Academic Report

In case of research, report is a major component of the study. A

research report is in written form; it is planned and well-formulated.

a. Components of Research/ Academic Report;

• Statement of the problem: In case of research report, the problem-

should be stated in clear and brief manner.

• Review of literature: It contains the study of related or relevant

literature
 125

• The conceptual framework: The terms and concepts with their

definition and application.
• Research Question or Hypothesis- The specific questions to be
answered through the proposed research design.
• Coverage- Data collection: observation, analysis, interpretation,
conclusions, inferences, findings.
• Data processing and analyzing with the help of tools and techniques.
• Conclusion: Findings: Inferences, Observations and Relevance.
b. Outline of an Academic Report

Aims and objectives: significance of the report

Topic: Area of Study and Hypothesis

Sources: Primary and Secondary

Methodology, notes, data collection, analysis, synthesis, presentation.

Conclusion: findings and recommendations, followed by prospects of

further research and the relevance of the present report.

c. Format of the Report

• Source of information

Sources of information need to be mentioned after the hypothesis.

There are two sources of information. The first one is primary data/source
and the second one is secondary data/source. Observation, experimentation,
books, questionnaires, interviews, personal opinions/ observation etc. are
inclusive parts of a report.

• Methodology

The methodology of a report differs from report to report.

Methodology demands the exact meaning or explanation of concepts and
the terms used in the report. Each report has its own methodology:
historical, descriptive, exploratory, analytical, comparative, and statistical.
 126

A methodology includes the use of tools and techniques to be adopted for

collecting information in the preparation of the report.

• Bibliography (for a research-work)

Bibliography is a list of books which is attached to the end of the

work. There are notes and references at the end of each chapter. A Thesis/
Dissertation of the [Link] / Ph.D. degrees or any serious study has it at its
end.

(i) For a book

It includes the name of the author/institution, the title of the book in

Italics, and subtitles, if any. It includes edition/ reprint, place of publication,
name of the publisher, and the year of publication, with pagination at last.
For example,

Shailaja B. Wadikar, New Trends in Literary Criticism a Spectrum, New

Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors (p) LTD., 2010.

(ii) For an Article in a Periodical

It includes name of the author/writer, title of the article in inverted

commas, the name of the periodical in italics, volume no., date, pages, etc.

Single author-The last name comes first and the personal name comes next

For example: Kumar, Ravi. J.

Rayudu C. S.

(hi) For an Article in a Journal

The title of joumals/magazines should be written in capital and

italicized. The following example illustrates the various kinds of
joumals/magazines entries:

Examples:
 127

• Kumar, R. B. and Kumar, S. Ramesh (1995), “Changing Trends in

Marketing” in the journal Modern Management, August-January, pp
18-20.

• Rayudu, C. S. (1985), “Ratio analysis and Financial Performance” in

the journal. Indian Co-operative Review, July 59-70

d. Essential Requirements of Good Report Writing

For the preparation of a good report, we need to cultivate

perseverance, resourcefulness and patience along with some hard work. A
report is prepared by a writer. It should be readable and understandable to
the reader/receiver. Jargons and cliches should be avoided.

(1) Accuracy

Accuracy involves/includes a valid, reliable, and complete format for

presenting the matter, suitable word selective, to convey the correct
meaning, with appropriate grammar, correct spellings, and punctuation
marks, etc.

(2) Selection of the Title

Every report should be given an appropriate title which indicates the

nature and the scope of its subject. The title of the report should be short
and meaningful.

(3) Clarity, Conciseness and Completeness

The report should be clear, concise and complete.

(4) Simplicity and Objectivity

A report should be simple, objective and complete format for

presenting the matter, suitable word selective, to convey the correct
meaning, with appropriate grammar, correct spellings, and punctuation
marks, etc.
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(5) Brevity

Brevity is an important part of written communication. A good report

writer writes his message in a few words as far as possible, and also avoid
repetition of words, sentences does not use superfluous words. A brief
report saves time of both the writer and the reader. And it gives opportunity
to understand and act upon them. Use of simple words, sentences, familiar
words, exact words— all these are important factors of written
communication.

J. Batty suggests that “If the report is quite long or detailed, a

synopsis should be prepared to cover all significant facts and
conclusions.”14

(6) Coherence
Coherence is also important for effective written communication.
Coherence helps the reader to understand the matter/information. It requires
message planning, emphasis, linguistic usage, and translation from one
point to another, their modification and parallelism. Principle of coherence
is needed to achieve clarity in matter/information. It applies to the whole
written matter inclusive of words, sentences, paragraphs and message.
Written material should be arranged in sequence so that reader can pick out
the main idea/theme, fact very easily. Continuity, consistency and logical
presentation of the message should not be ignored.
(7) Unity

Unity is nothing but a condition of being one. The principle of unity

operates on three levels:

(a) The individual sentence,

(b) The individual paragraphs, and
(c) The totality of die subject.

The individual sentences, paragraphs and the entire discourse as a

whole should give the glimpse of interconnectivity.
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(8) Honesty

The report must be honest. Honesty in report writing involves a

sense of obligation to oneself and to other people. Sincerity and integrity
are high water-marks of report writing.

(9) Readability

The report must be readable. Readability is the most important

principle of written communication.

(10) Attractiveness

The report should be attractive in its lay-out and presentation. It

should not only interest but also impress the readers.

To sum up the discussion, the report should be readable, faithful,

truthful, effective, and relevant.

3.3.9 Writing Introduction (for a book)

We write introduction to a book and also to a subject topic or an

essay or article. The introduction is brief and impressive. It is good and
suits the subject The nature of the topic decides the content of the
introduction. Sometimes, it gives the background of topic or hints at the
theme directly. The first kind of introduction is indirect, while the second is
direct. Generally speaking, the introduction to the essay is organized,
keeping in view the following points:

(1) Background of the topic,

(2) The purpose of writing,
(3) The intended audience, and
(4) The theme or the subject of writing.

A good introduction is always interesting and motivates the reader to

read the text on till he reaches its end.
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3.3.10 Writing Bibliography (for a book)

Bibliography is a list of books and is placed at the back of a book.

Preparation of bibliography is one of the major components in a research
report and the research study remains incomplete till the bibliography is not
prepared. The bibliography contains books, journals, articles, reports, acts,
newspapers, magazines, periodicals, encyclopaedias, online sources, such as
internet, World Wide Web, etc. Bibliography is prepared by arranging the
list alphabetically. There are different ways of writing bibliography. The
order of writing is the name of the author, with the last name placed first;
the title of the book in italics, the place of publication,, and the name of the
publisher as well as the number of volume.

Following are the tips for writing a bibliography:

■ Co-author: In the case of more than one author, the abbreviation et al.
can be used. It stands for “and others.”
■ Pseudonym: In the case of pseudonym, it means a false name used by
the author that is placed first; the writer’s real name should be indicated
in square brackets.
■ Edited or Translated Works: The edited or translated work should be
followed by the abbreviation ‘ed.V ‘tr.’

Illustrations

• For a book: It includes the name of authors(s)/ institution, full title of

the book in italics with subtitles if any. The title of series, volume or
number in the series, volume number,' edition, place of publication,
name of publisher, year of publication.
• For a Single author: The last name first and personal name must be
given in an inverse order. For example,
Rayudu, C. S., Media and Communication Management, Mumbai,
Himalaya Publishing House, 1995.
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• For Two or more authors/co-authors: In the case of co-authors, only the

name of the first writer is reversed while the following names remain in
the original order, not reversed. For example,

Sharma R. K., et al.. Practical Costing, S. Chand and Company

(Pvt.) Ltd., New Delhi, 1998.

• For an article in a periodical/joumal: It includes the name of the author,

title of the article in inverted commas, name of the periodical in italics,
volume no./issue no., date, pages, etc. The titles of joumals/magazines
are italicized and capitalized. For example,

Kumar, R. B. and S. Ramesh Kumar (1995), “Changing trends in

marketing”, Modern Management, August-January, pp. 18-20.

Rayudu C.S., (1985), “Ratio analysis and Financial Performance”,

Indian Co-operative Review, July, 54-70.

• For an Encyclopedia: It follows the sequence such as the title of

Encyclopedia, date of edition, volume no, the title of article in inverted
commas, page numbers. For example,

The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1997. Volume 7, "Gorillas," pp. 50-51.

• For a Newspaper: The order of writing is the name of the author (last
name first), the name of article in inverted commas, the name of
newspaper, city, the state of publication, (date): the edition if available,
section, page number/s. For example,

Shaikh, Manzur, "Spoken English Communication." The New York

Times, New York, NY. (3/1/98): Atlantic Region, Section 2, p. 09.

• For a Person Interviewed: The way of writing is - (a) full name (Last
name/sumame comes first), (b) profession/occupation, and (c) date of
interview. For example,

Nalbalwar, Mahesh. Assistant Lecturer. April 1,1996.

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• For a film:

• Give Title, Director, Distributor, Year. For example,

Braveheart, Dir. Mel Gibson, Icon Productions, 1995.

• For CD-ROM:
• Give Disc title: Version, Date. "Article title," pages if given. Publisher.
For example,

Compton's Multimedia Encyclopedia: Macintosh version, 1995.

"Civil rights movement," p.3. Compton's News Media.

• For Online Sources

• Internet: First write the author of message, (Date). Subject of message.
Electronic conference or bulletin board (Online). Available e-mail:
LISTSERV@ e-mail address. For example,

Ellen Block, (September 15, 1995). New Winners. Teen Booklist

(Online). Helen Smith@[Link]

• World Wide Web: Write the URL (Uniform Resource Locator or

WWW address), the author or item's name, if mentioned, date. For
example,

(Boston Globe's www address)

[Link] Today's News, August 1,1996.

• For a Magazine/Joumal: Write the author (last name first), "Article

Title." Name of the magazine. Volume number, (Date): page numbers.
For example,

Jordan, Jennifer, "Filming at the Top of the World." Museum of

Science Magazine. Volume 47, No. 1, (Winter 1998): p, 11.15

3.9.11 Writing a Blurb

The term blurb has been around for just over a century. It is
attributed to the American humorist Gelett Burgess. He provided a drawing
of an appealing woman whom he named "Miss Blurb" to be printed on the
 133

back cover of his book alongside a promotional text. Thereafter, the concept
of having a blurb to promote a book stuck with publishers, in text form at
least

Publishers will often ask authors to write a back cover blurb although
the final text will normally be done in conjunction with the publisher's
marketing department.

There are two modes of blurb-writing:

(a) Extracts from the Reviews

A few selected sentences are extracted from the both reviews

published in the standard newspapers. They are presented as blurb on the
back-page of the book. The book is thus recommended for reading
possessing. It is for this reason, that the word blurb is associated with any
text used with the sole purpose of promoting sales of a book. It is a kind of
advertisement.

(b) Self-Published Authors

Writers, who take advantage of the latest Print on Demand technology to

self-publish, are required to provide their own blurbs. Writing a blurb
should never be undertaken as an afterthought.

The blurb is a reader's first contact with a book, and is written in 100
words or so. Perhaps, it might be his last contact with the book: therefore
writing a blurb is a difficult and important task, not to be taken lightly.

The blurb on the back-cover of the book is in some respects a

synopsis of the book, but it has several functions:

(b) to describe the story without giving away the ending.

(c) to convey the genre, type, or style of the book.

(d) to entice the reader to buy the book.

(e) to highlight the book's unique qualities.

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The ideal blurb should be:

• appealing - attracting the reader to the book

• intriguing - making the reader want to know how the story

unfolds

The ideal blurb should avoid being:

• hyperbole
• blatant advertising

3.3.12 Writing a CV/Bio-data

We introduce ourselves/our friends, sometimes orally and sometimes

in writing. We also introduce a subject or a topic. Giving or writing
introductions is also a matter of skill. While applying for a job, we supply
bio-data usually on a separate sheet attached to the application.
Conversation is a mode of speaking as well as writing. It is through
conversation we get introduced to each other, formally or informally. On
introduction, greetings are exchanged. It is a part of phatic communion,
which aims at social contact through interpersonal communication in oral or
written form.
A conversation usually begins with the introduction. Introduction is
at the beginning of the meeting itself. Greetings are exchanged. In the
introduction of oneself or a person, reference is made to one’s/his/her name,
relation, profession, position in the company or the organization and
achievement. Observance of politeness and formality is of great importance
here. ’
A bio-data is severally called: C.V. (curriculum vitae), resume, and
career history. A part of the bio-data changes according to the purpose for
which it is used. In bio-data one gives information about oneself.
It includes personal details regarding name, birth, address,
educational qualifications, experience, interests, hobbies, achievements,
references, etc.
 135

The bio-data is provided along with the application for a job or

fellowship/scholarship. The format is standardized and one has to strictly
adhere to it. It includes all the relevant information; so, one has to be brief
and pointed in its presentation. The information provided follows a certain
sequence and is well organized.

3.4 Towards Rewriting

3.4,1 Writing a Summary

Following are some tips for writing a summary:

(1) Proper Citation

The summary begins by citing the title, author, source, and, in the
case of a magazine or journal article, the date of publication and the text.

(2) Thesis Statement

The overall thesis of the text selection is the author’s central theme.
There are several aspects to an effective thesis statement. It comprises two
parts: (a) the topic or general subject matter of the text, and (b) the author’s
major assertion, comment, or position on the topic. This central theme is
summarized clearly and accurately in a one-sentence-thesis-statement. The
thesis statement does not contain specific details discussed in the text.

(3) Formulating the Thesis Statement

We need to formulate a central theme that weaves the one-sentence

segment summaries together. This is the thesis statement. In many articles,
the author will state this directly. '

We may wish to take his direct statement of the thesis and restate it
in our own words. Needless to add that in news magazine articles, the thesis
is often suggested through the article’s title and sub-title. In other articles,
we may have to write our own one-sentence thesis statement that
summarizes the central theme.
 136

(4) Supporting Ideas

The author supports his/her thesis with supporting ideas. We need to

use the following basic guidelines when summarizing supporting ideas:

• Cover all of the author’s major supporting ideas.

• Omit specifics, such as illustrations, descriptions, and detailed

explanations.

• Indicate the author’s purpose in writing: to inform, to persuade, or to

entertain. If the passage is a persuasive piece, report the author’s bias
or position on the issue.

• Avoid all personal opinions and inferences. Let the reader know that
we are reporting the author’s ideas.

(5) Grammar and the Mechanics of Writing

Grammar and related concerns ensure that, as a writer, we

communicate clearly to our reader. The following tips are particularly
important:

• Restate the ideas in the writer’s own words as much as possible.

Avoid direct quotation.

• Use transitional words for a smooth and logical flow of ideas.

• Edit and re-write the work.

• Check grammar, punctuation, and spellings.

(6) Length

The length of a summary depends on how long the original document is.

(7) Steps in Summary Writing

Initially, summary writing seems to be a challenging task. It requires careful

reading and reflective thinking about the article. Most of us, however, tend
 137

to skim or read without focused reflection, but with time and effort, the
steps listed here can help one attempt an effective summary.

• Read the article

• Reread the article.

• Divide the article into segments or sections of ideas. Each segment

deals with one aspect of the central theme. A segment can comprise
one promote paragraphs. A news item or a magazine article tends to
begin with an anecdote. This is the writer’s ‘lead’ into the article, but
does not contain the thesis or supporting ideas. Typically, the feature
called ‘lead’ does not constitute segment of thought.

• Label each segment. Use a general phrase that captures the subject-
matter of the segment. Write the label in the margin next to the
segment.

• Highlight or underline the main points and key phrases.

• Write a one-sentence summary for each segment of thought on a

separate sheet of paper.

(a) Attempting the Initial Draft/s

• Begin with a proper citation of the title, author, source, and date of
publication of the article summarized.

• Combine the thesis statement and your one-sentence segment

summaries into a one-to-two-paragraph summary.

• Avoid all unnecessary words, repetitions, all personal ideas and

inferences.

• Use transitions for a smooth and logical flow of ideas.

• Conclude with a “summing up” sentence by stating what can be

learned from reading the article.
 138

(b) Editing the Final Draft

Have I answered who, what, when, why, and how questions?-Is my

grammar, punctuation, and spelling correct? Have I left out my personal
views and ideas? Does my summary “hang together”? Does it flow when I
read it aloud?-Have someone else to read it. Does the summary focus the
argument or the central idea of the article? Positive responses to all these
questions lead to the final draft of the SUMMARY.

3.4.2 Writing a Paraphrase

A paraphrase is restatement of a text or passages, using other words.

The term “paraphrase” is derived from the Latin word “Paraphrasis” or
from the Greek word “para phrasein”, meaning “additional manner or
another mode of expression”. Semantically speaking, the paraphrase
characterizes re-editing the text in its entirely.

A paraphrase typically explains or clarifies the text that is being

paraphrased. For example, “The signal was red” might be paraphrased as
“The train was not allowed to proceed”. For example, in “The signal was
red, that is, the train was not allowed to proceed,” the phrase “that is”
signals the paraphrase that follows.

Following are some of the features of a paraphrase:

(1) A paraphrase is typically more detailed than a summary. It is

restructuring the original in different words.

(2) A paraphrase may attempt to preserve the essential meaning of the

material being paraphrased.

Let us now differentiate between a paraphrase and a metaphrase:

A metaphrase represents a “formal equivalent” (word to word i.e.

verbal rendering) of the source, while a paraphrase represents a “dynamic
equivalent” (sense to sense i.e. semantic rendering) thereof. The metaphrase
 139

attempts to translate a text literally mid the paraphrase conveys the essential
thought expressed in a source text—if necessary, at the expense of literality.

3.4.3 Writing a Precis

The word precis is derived from die Latin word “praecisum”. It

means “cutting short”. In English, we have other words which are
equivalent to “precis”, such as abstract, summary, substance, abridgement,
epitome, etc. Precis writing is a valuable art. It is used in reporting the
substance of speech or a long official document. In precis writing, generally
the direct form of speech or the first person is not used. It is always written
in the third person, for the style is objective. The precis is one third of its
original length.

The headlines in newspapers, the titles of the chapters, the titles of

the stories all of these are in the nature of precis. One has to develop the
skill of presenting the main argument or statement of each paragraph in
simple brief, correct, lucid language and avoid the unnecessary examples
and explanations. The precis is in logical order and is characterized by a
dual sense of continuity and completeness.

(a) Techniques of Precis Writing

(1) Read the passage twice or thrice carefully; and underline the striking
words and sentences.

(2) Write down the important ideas, statements, and arguments in a

coherent sequence with the use of cohesive devices.

(3) Avoid the unnecessary words, irrelevant details, illustrations,

examples, anecdotes, comparisons, figures of speech, unnecessary
repetition, personal comments, etc. Instead of this use lucid and
simple language.

(4) Give the maximum information in minimum words. In length, it is

1/3 of its source/original text. Economy characterizes its language.
 140

(5) Precis is not an independent piece of writing and the writer should
use his/her own words while preparing the precis.

(6) And at last give a suitable title to the precis. The title should convey
the central idea of the passage.

(b) A Sample of Precis-writing

• The Original Text

A precious situation has arisen in the icy parte of Kashmir. The

mercury has dipped below zero and many lakes including the Dal Lake
have frozen. Kashmir looks a landscape painted in white. While Kashmiris
take an icy winter in their stride, this year the earthquake victims are
especially hit, and are living in the open in makeshift housing.

• The Precis
An Icier Winter in Kashmir
Kashmir’s icy parts are facing sub-zero temperatures. The land there
is snow-covered and the lakes are frozen. This makes life hard for
earthquake victims.16

3.4.4 Writing an Abstract

“An abstract is a short description, or a condensation, of a piece of

writing.” It is known as “digest”, “summary” and “epitome”. The abstract
highlights the major points, content, scope, etc. in abbreviated form.
Generally, the abstract contains three paragraphs; the first paragraph talks
about the main aim of the writing report. The second paragraph discusses
the adopted methodology in brief; and the last paragraph talks about the
conclusion. It should represent as much as possible of the quantitative and
qualitative information in the document, and also reflect its reasoning.

There are two types of abstracts:

Abstract functions as like a summary but it is shorter than it. Brevity,

clarity, coherence are the features of abstract writing. There are two types of
 141

abstracts (a) descriptive abstract (b) informational abstract. The difference

between the types of abstracts is in their length. An informational abstract is
longer than a descriptive abstract.

Following are the Tips for writing an abstract:17

(a) We should not refer in the abstract to information that is not in the
document

(b) We should avoid using T or ‘we’, and choose active verbs instead of
passive when possible for example, “the study tested” rather than “it
was tested by the study”.

(c) We should avoid trade names, acronyms, abbreviations, or symbols.

We would need to explain them, and that takes too much room.

(d) We should use key words from the document.

(e) We should remove extra words and phrases.

It will not be out of place here to discuss: “What is a gist?”

The word "gist" means, "the main or essential part of a matter." A

gist statement is usually around 20 words. A gist is the main or general
meaning of a piece of writing, a speech or a conversation.

GIST statements are commonly used by students to outline book

chapters or essays to help them identify the main points in writing.

3.5 A Sum-up

, Thus, the entire discussion in this chapter has thrown light on the
various aspects of Written Communication in terms of register/style such as
writing skill, Note-taking and Note-making, Feature-writing, Report­
writing, Summary-ZSynopsisZ Precis-ZAbstract writing, etc. We shall move
on in the next chapter to the core topic of this research project “Registral
Variations in Written Communication.”

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 142

References

1. C. S. Rayudu, Communication, Mumbai; Himalaya Publishing

House, 1997, p.149.
2. G. S. R. K. Babu Rao, Business Communication and Report Writing,
Mumbai; Himalaya Publishing House, 2003,p.l06
3. Y. S. Kalamkar, Dr. S. S. Pundlik, Communication Skills in English
Book2, Nashik: YCMOU, 2002, p.69.

4. Ashraf M. Rizvi, Effective Technical Communication, New Delhi:

Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, 006. P. 344.

5. Ibid. p. 338.

6. Y. S. Kalamkar, Dr. S. S. Pundlik, Communication Skills in English

Book 3, Nashik: YCMOU, 2002, p. 12.
7. [Link]
8. K. K. Ramchandran, K. K. Lakshmi, M. Krishnakumar, Business
Communication, New Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd., 2007, p.272.
9. J. N. Jain, P. P. Singh, Modem Business Communication, New
Delhi: Regal Publications, 2007, p.336.
10. Urmila Rai, S. M. Rai, Business Communication, Mumbai: Himalaya
Publishing House, 2003, p.138-139.

11. Ibid, pr 140-141.

12. Rayudu C. S., op. cit. p. 448.

13. Ibid, p. 448.

14. Ibid, p. 472.

15. [Link]
16. V. K. Jain, Omprakash Biyani, Business Communication, New
Delhi: S. Chand and Company LTD., 2007.p.208.
17. http ://[Link] [Link]/
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