POLITECNICO

DI MILANO

IC engine performance maps

 POLITECNICO
Topics DI MILANO

• IC engine performance maps:

 Torque
 Power
 Specific fuel consumption

• Coupling an IC engine with an external device.

• IC engines for road transportation applications:

 Requirements for the torque and power curve.
 Use of the gearbox.
 POLITECNICO
Engine performances DI MILANO

• An IC engine is usually coupled with another device:

 Electric generator
 Provides mechanical energy to pump/compressor/propeller
 Prime mover in an automobile

• For any of these uses, it is fundamental to know how engine performance

varies with the needs of the device.

• Engine performances (torque, power, fuel consumption, emissions) are

mainly function of the thermo- and fluid dynamic processes taking place
within intake/exhaust systems and cylinders.
 POLITECNICO
Engine performances DI MILANO

Engine performance maps

• They express the engine power (Pb) and torque (Tb) as function of the engine
speed.
• Engine operating conditions cannot be determined only with one parameter
(engine speed), but also the engine load must be specified. For a given
engine speed, it is possible to regulate the engine power and torque by
means of:
 A throttle valve in SI engines, regulating the amount of air and fuel
entering the cylinder (the volumetric efficiency changes too)
 Changing the amount of injected fuel in CI engines, regulating the
amount of heat released by combustion (the volumetric efficiency does
not change).
 POLITECNICO
Engine performances DI MILANO

Engine performance maps

Naturally aspirated, spark-ignition engine.

• In-line, 4 cylinders

Torque [Nm]

Power [kW]
• r = 12
• Vt = 1796 cm3
• D = 84 mm
• S = 81 mm
• Pb,max = 100 kW @ 5500 rpm
• Tb,max = 180 Nm @ 3500 rpm

Engine speed [rpm/1000]

 POLITECNICO
Engine performances DI MILANO

Engine performance maps NA, SI engine

• Engine power (Pb) and torque (Tb) as function
of the engine speed at full load for a
passenger car, naturally aspirated, spark-
ignition engine.

Torque [Nm]

Power [kW]
• The maximum engine torque can be found at
an engine speed which is relatively low
compared to the full engine speed operating
range.
• The engine torque is strictly related to the
engine speed dependency of volumetric
efficiency and global efficiency (lv and hb):

 a V QHV
Tb  hb  lv  
 2   cycle Engine speed [rpm/1000]
 POLITECNICO
Engine performances DI MILANO

Engine performance characteristics NA, SI engine

• hb is inversely proportional to the rotational
speed (main piston speed), since mechanical
friction losses increase with it.
• If a fixed valve timing is used, lv has a
maximum for a defined engine speed then:

Torque [Nm]

Power [kW]
 air backflows from the cylinder to the
intake port at lower speeds.
 at higher speeds, pressure losses in the
intake system (manifolds, throttle body,
valves) reduces the density of the air
entering the cylinder.
100
• As a consequence, the maximum engine

VE [%]
torque is very close to the maximum value of 95 VE
the volumetric efficiency. Then it decreases. 90

Engine speed [rpm/1000]

 POLITECNICO
Engine performances DI MILANO

Engine performance characteristics NA, SI engine

• The engine power (Pb) is the product of
torque and rotational speed:
2  n
Pb    Tb   Tb
60

Torque [Nm]

Power [kW]
• The power curve grows initially since both Tb
and n grow.
• After the maximum torque speed, the engine
power growth rate is reduced since Tb
decreases (but n still grows).
• A maximum in the power curve is reached
when the engine speed increase cannot
compensate the engine torque decrease any
more.
Engine speed [rpm/1000]
 POLITECNICO
Engine performances DI MILANO

Engine operating characteristics

• Torque as function of the engine rotational speed for different road
applications

automobiles application

600, 250, ..., is the number which identifies the

total displacement in cm3
 POLITECNICO
Engine performances DI MILANO

Engine performance maps TC, CI engine

Turbocharged, compression-ignition engine.

• In-line, 4 cylinders

Torque [Nm]

Power [kW]
• r = 16.5
• Vt = 1995 cm3
• D = 84 mm
• S = 90 mm
• Pb,max = 105 kW @ 4250 rpm
• Tb,max = 300 Nm @ 1500 - 3000 rpm

Engine speed [rpm/1000]

 POLITECNICO
Engine performances DI MILANO

Engine performance maps TC, CI engine

• Engine power (Pb) and torque (Tb) as function
of the engine speed at full load for a
passenger car, turbocharged, compression-
ignition (Diesel) engine.

Torque [Nm]
• Now specific powers of TC, CI engines and NA,

Power [kW]
SI engines are very close (60 kW/dm3) for
passenger car applications.
• The maximum power speed of CI engines is
lower than SI engines, since the combustion
process is slower.
• The maximum torque is significantly higher
for the same power, since the speed where it
is reached is lower. In this way, CI engines
provides a better drivability. Engine speed [rpm/1000]
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

Coupling an IC engine with an external device

• The main features of the engine maps are very important when the engine has
to be coupled to an external device. IC engines generates mechanical energy,
and the characteristics (i.e. power and torque requirements) of the coupled
device can be divided into three different categories:
1) The engine is coupled with a machine requiring a constant revolution speed
and variable torque depending on the load (i.e.: engine connected with
electricity generator).
2) The engine has to provide a torque which is proportional to the square of the
engine speed (i.e.: engine connected with a pump, compressor, marine
propeller).
3) The engine works in a wide range of speed and loads, it has to be quick during
transients and stable at steady-state conditions (i.e.: engine for road
transportation).
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

Coupling an IC engine with an external device

1) The engine is coupled with a machine requiring a constant revolution speed

and variable torque depending on the load (i.e.: engine connected with
electric generator).

In this case, engines with a high number of cylinders and a big flywheel are
used to reduce the periodic irregularity. The engine efficiency is optimized for
the main speed of operation and should work for very long times without
maintenance.
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

Coupling an IC engine with an external device

2) The engine has to provide a torque which is proportional to the square of the
engine speed (i.e.: engine connected with a pump, compressor, marine
propeller, airscrew).

This is the category of the engines coupled

with fluid-machines whose required
torque is proportional to the square of
their revolution speed.

For these engines the operation speed-range is strictly related to the gearbox
employed and its efficiency. The required torque and power are well known and for
this reason it is possible to optimize the engine in a well defined region of speeds
and loads.
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

Coupling an IC engine with an external device

3) The engine works in a wide range of speed and loads, it has to be quick during
transients and stable at steady-state conditions (i.e.: engine for road
transportation).

This represents the most difficult case. The engine performance and efficiency
should be high in a wide range of speeds and loads. Furthermore, reduced
pollutant emissions are required.
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

Engines for road transportation applications

The best exploitation of the available engine performance could be achieved if

the engine power were constant with the vehicle speed:
Pb  Fm opt vvehicle  constant

This expression allows to compute the driving force as a function of the engine
power and the vehicle speed.

The resisting force can be expressed as:

R  R0  R2v 2

• R0 : it depends on different factors (road slope, friction, …) but not on the

vehicle speed;
• R2v2 : it is proportional to the square of the velocity (drag force, tires
friction,…)
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

In the ideal case (green curve):

1) The driving force is

inversely proportional to
the vehicle speed
(hyperbola).

2) For very low vehicle speed,

the maximum driving force
(Fm)Max is limited by wheel
slip.

The vehicle operating condition

is identified by the intersection
between the driving and
resisting force curves.
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

In the ideal case (green curve):

1) All the operating conditions

are stable: all the
intersection points are
where the driving force
curve is decreasing.

2) During transients, all the

engine power is available:
the accelerating force Fac is
always maximum:
Fac  Fm  R
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

In the real case (red line), if a

single gear ratio was used, the
driving force curve is related to
the engine torque curve:
P  M   F  v

M  engine M  engine
F 
v wheel  rwheel
k M
F
rwheel
engine
k : gear ratio k 
 wheels
There is a significant
difference between the ideal
and real driving force curves.
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

Consequences:

1. Only that part of the curve

on the right of the
maximum ensures stable
operating points.

2. It would be impossible to
overcome slopes higher
than R(v).

3. The accelerating force F’ac

is much lower than the one
in the ideal case, during
transients for the same
velocity.
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

For all these reasons, a single

gear ratio cannot be used in an
IC engine for road
transportation.
Thus, a gearbox becomes
necessary in order to change
the shape of the Fm curve,
making it suitable for the
different road properties.
By changing the gear ratio, the
driving force curve changes:

M   ki  M
F 
v rwheel
• i = 1, … n
• n: number of gears (4-7)
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

The use of a 4 gear

transmission modifies
the driving force curve,
making it similar to the
ideal case and allowing
the engine to be used
for road transportation.

A better approximation of the ideal curve (Pm = constant) can be obtained:

• If a high number of gears is used
• If the engine has a high elasticity.
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

Maximum vehicle speed

 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO
 POLITECNICO
IC engine applications DI MILANO

Engine elasticity can be measured as the difference between the maximum power
and the maximum torque speeds.

Comparison between three different engines: a, b, c with different elasticity.

Engine “a” Engine “b” Engine “c”

TORQUE

TORQUE
POWER

POWER

POWER
TORQUE
Engine speed Engine speed Engine speed
 POLITECNICO
Engine fuel consumption maps DI MILANO

Fuel consumption map for a Naturally Aspirated, Spark-Ignition engine

expressed as a function of the engine speed and load (bmep)
Brake mean effective pressure [MPa]

Fuel consumption
[g/kWh] (g/MJ)
Power
[kW] • Continuous
120 lines: constant
fuel
100
consumption
80
• Dashed lines:
60
constant power
40
20

Engine speed [rpm]

 POLITECNICO
Engine fuel consumption maps DI MILANO

• Minimum fuel consumption can be found for 80-95% load and close to the
maximum torque speed.
 POLITECNICO
Engine fuel consumption maps DI MILANO

• At constant engine speed, fuel consumption drastically increases when the

load is reduced:
 Reduction of mechanical efficiency
 Increase of pumping losses
 Increase of thermal losses
 Air/fuel ratio slightly decreased (rich mixture)
 POLITECNICO
Engine fuel consumption maps DI MILANO

• At constant engine speed, fuel consumption increases with the load:

 Air/fuel ratio is decreased.
 POLITECNICO
Engine fuel consumption maps DI MILANO

• At constant load, starting from the minimum fuel consumption point:

 Fuel consumption increases with the engine speed:
 Air/fuel ratio is enriched
 Friction losses
 Fuel consumption increases also when the engine speed is reduced:
 Thermal losses
 Air/fuel ratio is enriched
 POLITECNICO
Engine maps DI MILANO

Fuel consumption depends on load in SI engines

• In a SI engine, bsfc significantly increases with the reduction of engine load.
Example:
 3000 rpm, bmep = 10 bar, bsfc = 250 g/kWh
 3000 rpm, bmep = 5 bar, bsfc = 300 g/kWh
 This means that a load reduction of 50% produces a bsfc increase of 20%!

• This is related to three factors:

Pb = Pi+ – Pg.e. – Pm.f.
 Pi+ (due to the positive area of thermodynamic cycle) is reduced because
of higher thermal losses (the heat exchange surfaces remain constant).
 Pm.f. remains almost constant with the engine load (mechanical friction
depends only on the engine speed)
 Pg.e., i.e. the pumping losses (gas exchange, negative area), significantly
increases when the engine load is reduced.
 POLITECNICO
Engine maps DI MILANO

• The fuel consumption dependency on the engine load can be explained by

looking at the ideal cycle:
 At full load conditions, both intake and exhaust strokes takes place at
ambient pressure. For this reason, no work is required for gas exchange.
 If a throttle valve is used, load is regulated by introducing a pressure loss in
the intake system. This reduces the amount of charge (air+fuel) mass flow
in the cylinder.

 However, this kind of regulation requires

Pressure

additional work. Part of the work

provided by the piston during the
expansion stroke, is used during gas
exchange. The net available work is:
ps  L = A5-8-2-3-4 – A8-6-7-1
pa

Volume
 POLITECNICO
Engine maps DI MILANO

IDEAL CYCLE AT PARTIAL LOAD

The available work is the

Pressure
difference between the
work provided during the
power cycle (1-2-3-4) and
the work required for gas
exchange (5-6-7-1)

pa
p1

Volume
 POLITECNICO
Engine maps DI MILANO

IDEAL CYCLE AT PARTIAL LOAD

Positive work provided by
the gases to the piston
when the valves are
Pressure
closed.

The work is positive when

the cycle direction is
clockwise.

pa
p1

Volume
 POLITECNICO
Engine maps DI MILANO

IDEAL CYCLE AT PARTIAL LOAD

Negative work required to
exchange gases when the
valves are opened at
Pressure
partial load.

The work is negative

when the cycle direction
is anti-clockwise.

Exhaust

pa
p1
Intake Volume
 POLITECNICO
Engine maps DI MILANO

• Load regulation in SI engines reduces the global efficiency and increases the
fuel consumption, it this is achieved by means of a throttle valve. Alternatives
are possible, such as load regulation using valve timing (VVA+VVT).

• In this way, the intake valve is closed exactly when the correct amount of
charge mass is trapped for the desired load.

• 5-6: exhaust stroke

• 6-8: intake phase (valve opened)
•
Pressure

8-1: expansion phase during the

intake stroke (valve closed)
• 1-2: compression
• …

No work required for gas exchange in

this case. Efficiency increases.
Volume
 POLITECNICO
Engine fuel consumption maps DI MILANO

Fuel consumption map for a Turbocharged, Compression-Ignition Engine

expressed as a function of the engine speed and load (bmep)

Power
[kW]

• Continuous
lines: constant
BMEP [MPa]

fuel
consumption

• Dash-dotted
lines: constant
power

[rps]
[rpm]
Engine speed
 POLITECNICO
Engine fuel consumption maps DI MILANO

• Fuel consumption for Diesel engines is lower than SI engine since they have a
higher efficiency (40-50%) at full load. Diesel engines have higher efficiencies
because they have a higher compression (and expansion) ratio. This means
higher work available.
• Fuel consumption dependency on the engine speed (at constant load) follows
the same trend as in SI engines:
 At low speeds thermal losses becomes significant.
 At high speeds mechanical friction reduces the available work.
 POLITECNICO
Engine fuel consumption maps DI MILANO

• At constant engine speed, fuel consumption does not increases as much as in

SI engines:
 bmep = 1.5 MPa, n = 1500 rpm, bsfc = 200 g/kWh
 bmep = 0.75 MPa, n = 1500 rpm, bsfc = 218 g/kWh
• In this case, a 50% load reduction provides only an 8% increase in bsfc. This is
due to the fact that load regulation in Diesel engines is done by changing only
the amount of injected fuel. This does not introduce any pumping losses.
 POLITECNICO
Engine BTE (brake thermal efficiency) DI MILANO