ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004-05 Section 8

ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2005

Lecture Handout 3

Section 8: Thermodynamics
Section 9: Nuclear Power
Section 10: Nuclear Reactors
Section 11: Nuclear Fuel Cycle
- the waste disposal aspects of thsis topic will be covered
more fully
by Alan Kendall in Week 10

Section 12: Nuclear Fusion

Section 13: Introduction to Hazards of Radiation

– additional aspects to be covered separately by Alan Kendall

52
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004-05 Section 8

8 THERMODYNAMICS:

8.1 SUMMARY of KEY POINTS from ENV-2A14: Carnot efficiency = ------------------------------ =

1: FIRST LAW equates the algebraic sum of the work 63.9%

done by a system to the algebraic sum of the heat 566 + 273
transfers to/from the system.

Heat into system is "positive": so overall efficiency in power station:-

Heat rejected is "negative"
Work done BY system is "positive": = 0.9 x 0.639 x 0.75 x 0.95 x 0.94 =
Work done on system is "negative" 0.385
| | | | |
combustion carnot isentropic generator station
i.e.. W 1 + W2 + ....... = Q1 + Q2 loss
+ .........
allowing for transmission losses and the primary
energy ratio,
In a typical system W = Q1 - Q2
1 unit of primary energy will produce:-
2: SECOND LAW is more restrictive than the FIRST LAW
and states that when WORK is obtained from heat, the 1 x 0.385 x 0.95
conversion process must ALWAYS reject heat. This
limits the theoretical (or CARNOT) efficiency. --------------------------- = 0.359 units of
delivered energy
work out 1.02
3) Efficiency is defined as ------------------------- x 100
heat in i.e. 1 / 0.359 = 2.79 units of primary energy are
needed to deliver 1 unit of electricity.
Since heat flow is proportional to temperature we can
replace heat flows by temperature. 8.2 Properties of Steam (See Fig. 8.1)
T1 - T2

i.e.  = --------------------------- x 100 · When water is heated at a constant rate it temperature

T1 will rise in an ever increasing manner until boiling
starts. Then while any of the water remains liquid, a
phase change takes place at constant temperature.
This the theoretical or Carnot efficiency. Thereafter the temperature starts to rise rapidly again.
In this last region the steam becomes superheated.
4) Practically, the efficiency will always be less than the
Carnot Efficiency. To obtain the "real" efficiency we
define the term Isentropic Efficiency as follows:- · If the experiment is repeated at a higher pressure, the
onset of boiling will occur at a higher temperature and
time, and the end of boiling will usually occur in less
actual work out
time than at 1 bar. That means that the time for boiling
isen = ---------------------------------------- reduces as the pressure increases.
work output from Carnot Cycle
· If the pressure is increased further then a higher boiling
Thus "real" efficiency = carnot x isen temperature will be detected while the time during the
boiling phases is reduced further.
5) A power station involves several energy conversions.
The overall efficiency is obtained from the product of
the efficiencies of the respective stages.

EXAMPLE:

Thus in a coal fired power station like DRAX, the

steam inlet temperature is 566 o C and the exhaust
temperature to the condenser is around 30 o C. The
combustion efficiency is around 90%, while the
generator efficiency is 95% and the isentropic
efficiency is 75%. If 6% of the electricity generated
is used on the station itself, and transmission losses
amount to 5% and the primary energy ratio is 1.02,
how much primary energy must be extracted to
deliver 1 unit of electricity to the consumer?
(566 + 273) - (30 + 273)

53
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004-05 Section 8

heat will be transferred to the system at constant

temperature and also rejected at constant temperature.
The boiling process is a constant temperature heat
transfer system and we should thus aim to use such
Fig. 8.1 Heating water/steam. Heating is done at a systems whenever possible to transfer heat.
constant rate in all cases. The horizontal portions of the
curves represent boiling or condensing. The shape of these
temperature time curves is the same as the temperature
· Just as the work done by a piston on a gas is
entropy curves.
pressure x change in volume
· A line can be drawn through all point coinciding with
so the heat transfer in a constant temperature
the onset of boiling, and a second one at the end of
process will be
boiling. These two lines form an arch which join at the
top. This critical point (as it is called) coincided with a
temperature x change in entropy
temperature of 373 oC and 273 bar pressure for water.
Thus for water at 273 bar pressure, the water will
increase in temperature consistently, and then suddenly
when it reaches the critical point it will change directly
into steam WITHOUT BOILING.

· ENTROPY is a measure of irreversibility in a system.

For a perfect machine, then energy transfer will be
without change in entropy or ISENTROPIC. Practical
machines will always have some inefficiency and the
entropy will rise during energy transfers which do not
involve HEAT (i.e. expansion through a turbine).

· On the other hand the entropy of a system can change Fig. 8.2 Work done by a piston
during heat transfer. Ideally for the best heat engines,

54
8.3 Power Cycles used in conventional Steam Power Stations:

8.3.1 Ideal Cycle: - Carnot Cycle.

HP steam
Turbine
Q T
in 3 Wout
Boiler 2 3 1 -> 2 compressor work in :
T1
2 -> 3 boiler heat in:
2
3 -> 4 turbine work out:
A
Compressor 4 T2B 4 -> 1 condenser heat out]
1 4

Condenser s
W 1
in Q out
LP Steam
and water

Fig. 8.3 Carnot Cycle

Theoretical Performance
pressure temperature [specific steam consumption (ssc) ideal
1.36kg of steam per MJ work]
H.P inlet 2.75 MPa 502.4K
L.P. outlet - 299.6K
[specific steam consumption (ssc) practical
2.04kg of steam per MJ work]
T1 - T 2 502.4 - 299.6
 = ----------- = ---------------------- = 40.3% Problems with Carnot Cycle
T1 502.4
1) It is difficult to stop condensation at A (tendancy
But practically, isentropic isen = 80%, and work out to go to B).
is reduced by 20%, and work into compressor is
2) Nearly impossible to adequately compress
increased by above 20%.
water/steam mixture.
so practical efficiency = 40.3 x 0.8 ~ 27%.
3) Large drop in effective efficiency due to technical
inefficiencies.
8.3.2 Rankine Cycle (basic form):
This is a straightforward modification of the Carnot Cycle so that condensation continues to B.

1->2 feed pump work in:

2->3->4 heat in (boiler):
4->5 turbine work out:
5->1 condenser (heat out)

HP steam 4
Turbine
Q T
in Boiler Wout 3 4
2
2
1 5
Condenser
s
W in ~ 0 LP Water
Feed pump Q
out
Fig. 8.4 Rankine Cycle

With temperature and pressure the same as for the

Carnot cycle, Advantages
ideal = 35.0%
1) Much lower drop arising from inefficiencies.
but when inefficiencies are taken into account 2) Amount of steam circulating is less (because more
practical = 28.0% energy is extracted per kg) hence smaller diameter
pipes.
i.e., the practical efficiency is greater than the practical Disadvantage
efficiency of the carnot cycle since there is minimal
increase in work in to feed pump as it is nearly zero Heat in is not all at top temperate, and hence
anyway. irreversible.

[ssc (ideal) 1.06 kg MJ-1]: [ssc (practical) 1.31

kg MJ-1]
8.3.3 Rankine Cycle with Superheat
 superheater
1->2 feed pump work:
Turbine 2->3->4 boiler heat in:
T 4->5 superheater:
Qin 5 Wout 5 5 ->6 turbine work out
Boiler 6->1 condenser heat out
3
2 4
Steam conditions superheat to
2 700K, other conditions as for
6 carnot cycle.
1
6
 ideal = 37.3% :
Condenser s
ssc = 0.84 kg MJ-1
Win~0
Feed Pump Qout
Fig. 8.5 Rankine Cycle with Superheat

.Advantages 2) Lower steam consumption and hence smaller

1) Mean temperature at which heat is taken in is pipes.
increased, and hence efficiency is increased (over
Rankine).
8.3.4 Rankine Cycle with Superheat and Reheat
Reheat temperatures = 700K, other conditions as in previous example.

 ideal = 38.3%:

ssc = 0.69 kg MJ -1

1->2 feed pump:

2->3->4 boiler heat in:
4->5 superheater
5->6 hp turbine:
6->7 reheat:
7->8 Ip turbine:
8->1 condenser

Advantages

1) Further increase in 
2) Further reduction in specific
steam consumption.

Title:
Creator: Harvard Graphics 2.30
CreationDate:

Fig. 8.6 Rankine Cycle with Superheat and Reheat

8.3.5 Rankine Cycle with Superheater and Bleed Heating

 Bleeding pressures at (0.97, 0.25 and
0.04 MPa), other conditions as in
previous example. Although only
three bleeding pressures are shown,
this is symbolic. In a typical coal fired
power station there will be as many as
7 bleeding pressures, each with its
own feed water heater.

ideal = 40.2% :

ssc = 0.98 kg MJ -1

Title:
Creator: Harvard Graphics 2.30
CreationDate:

Fig. 8.7 Rankine Cycle with Super Heating and Bleed Heating

2) Bleed heating reduces temperature difference

1) Marked improvement in efficiency - nearly as during heating.
high as Carnot efficiency.
Disadvantages
 to the steam at temperatures other than optimum. One
Increase in specific steam consumption over previous way to improve this is to bleed of part of the steam
case. This means that pipe diameters etc. must be from the turbines to pre-heat the water. While is
larger, and the number of feed water heaters used markedly improves the efficiency, it does cause the
depends on economics. Thus only the largest power steam consumption to rise, and hence much larger
stations tend to have large numbers of such heaters. pipes are need. Most stations have some bleed-heating
stages, but it is only in the largest units is it possible to
8.4 Use of Low Temperature GEOTHERMAL energy to technically or economically have the large number of
improve efficiency bleed-heating stages needed for optimum efficiency.

A particularly effective way of using low temperature i) The T - s diagram below shows that for a carnot
GEOTHERMAL energy which might otherwise be cycle operating at a higher top temperature, the area
difficult to use, is to replace the bleeding pipes and enclosed by the rectangle is smaller, and hence
use the geothermal energy to heat the feed water although the efficiency is higher, the amount work
heaters. This noticeably improves the efficiency, but output from 1 kg of steam is less, and large volumes of
does not have the penalty of the increased steam steam must be circulated to compensate. For this
consumption of the above example. reason, and that mentioned in (8) above, the ultimate
efficiency of steam stations is severely limited.
8.5 SUMMARY POINTS
a) Theoretically a power station operating as a carnot
cycle will be the most efficient as all the heat is
supplied or rejected at constant temperature, and also
the work inputs and outputs are reversible and thus are Te m p e ra t u re
isentropic (i.e. there is no change in entropy during the
work input and output). However, it is practically T
impossible to achieve such an ideal situation, and the Ta B C
Rankine Cycle (while being less efficient theoretically
can achieve greater practical efficiencies).
Tb b c
b) Water has a critical temperature of 373 o C at a pressure
of 273 atmospheres. At that point the properties of T2
water and steam become indistinguishable and water
changes into steam without boiling. a A D d

c) For optimum efficiency, as much of the transfer of

heat should be done at a constant temperature (i.e. e n t ro p y s
through boiling). Because of the limitations in (6),
this limits the top temperature in steam driven stations
and hence their ultimate efficiency. While some
experiments have been done with stations operating in j) A carnot cycle operating between a top temperature of T a,
the super-critical region, they are not that reliable
(Drakelow "C"). and T2 is more efficient than one operating between T b
and T 2. However, the amount of steam which must
d) Superheating the steam does increase the efficiency as circulate in the case with T a is larger because the work
part of the heat transfer is at a higher temperature. This
done per kilogram of steam is smaller as the area of
has the advantage also of reducing the amount of steam
rectangle ABCD is smaller than that of abcd.
circulating (as the area enclosed in the Temperature -
entropy i.e. T - s chart) is larger. The steam also
become drier and causes less problems with corrosion
on the turbine blades.

e) Most power stations expand part of the steam through a

high pressure turbine and then return the steam for
reheating (albeit at lower pressure). This further
improves efficiency.

f) NOTE: the AGR nuclear reactors do have reheating,

but the PWRs do not. Thus the AGR reactors are
significantly more efficient than the PWRs.

h) One problem with all the above solutions to improve

efficiency is that large quantities of heat are transferred
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 9

8.6 COMBINED CYCLE GAS TURBINE STATION (1223-823)/1223 x 0.8 = 23%

===
A combined cycle gas turbine station overcomes the
problem in steam stations that the temperature 1 unit of fuel produces 0.23 units of work and this
cannot be raised too high because of the properties gives 0.23 x 0.95 = 0.22 units of electricity
of water/steam. Instead gas is compressed and burnt (0.01 units are lost) and 0.77 units into waste heat
at a significantly increased temperature in a gas boiler.
turbine, which by itself is not that efficient.
However, by using the waste gases to raise steam The waste heat boiler then provides 0.77 x 0.8 =
(replacing the conventional boiler), the overall 0.62 units of energy to steam turbine, and 0.15 units
efficiency is greatly improved. are lost to the flue.

EXAMPLE:- The overall efficiency of the steam turbine is (773-

303)/773 = 61%
Gas turbine inlet and outlet temperatures are 950 oC ( =
so allowing for isentropic efficiency, 0.62 x 0.61 x
1223K) and 550oC 0.8 = 0.30 units of work are provided which in turn
generates 0.95 * 0.3 = 0.28 units of electricity,
( = 823K) respectively. Corresponding steam while 0.02 units are lost from the generator.
temperatures are 500oC
( = 773K) and 30oC ( = 303K) respectively. Finally, 0.32 units are rejected to the condenser (i.e.
the difference between the energy into the steam
also efficiency of waste heat boiler is 80%, and turbine and the work out from it).
isentropic efficiency of gas turbine is 70% and that
of the steam turbine is 80% (all other efficiencies are So total electricity generated is 0.22 + 0.28 = 0.50
as in previous example). What is overall efficiency units. but 6% of electricity is used on station itself,
of station? so overall efficiency:-

FIRST the efficiency of gas turbine is = 0.50 x 0.94 = 47%

=====
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 9

9. NUCLEAR POWER

9.1 NATURE OF RADIOACTIVITY - Structure of

Atoms. The number of neutrons present in any element varies. Thus
it is possible to have a number of ISOTOPES of the same
Matter is composed of atoms which consist primarily of a element. Thus there are 3 isotopes of hydrogen all of which
nucleus of positively charged PROTONS and (electrically have 1 PROTON:-
neutral) NEUTRONS. This nucleus is surrounded by a cloud
of negatively charged ELECTRONS which balance the - HYDROGEN itself with NO NEUTRONS
charge from the PROTONS. - DEUTERIUM (heavy hydrogen) with 1 NEUTRON
- TRITIUM with 2 NEUTRONS.
PROTONS and NEUTRONS have approximately the same
mass, but ELECTRONS are about 0.0005 times the mass of Of these only TRITIUM is radioactive.
the PROTON.
UNSTABLE or radioactive isotopes arises if the Z differs
A NUCLEON refers to either a PROTON or a NEUTRON significantly from N. For the heavy elements e.g. Z > 82,
most nuclei become unstable and will decay by the emission
Different elements are characterised by the number of of various particles or radiation into a more stable nucleus.
PROTONS present thus the HYDROGEN nucleus has 1
PROTON while OXYGEN has 8 PROTONS and
URANIUM has 92. The number of PROTONS is known as
the ATOMIC NUMBER (Z), while N denotes the number of
NEUTRONS.

Fig. 9.1 Energy Binding Curve

1) The energy released per fusion reaction is much greater than the corresponding fission reaction.
3) In fission there is no single fission product but a broad range as indicated.
9.2 NATURE OF RADIOACTIVITY - Radioactive Some very heavy UNSTABLE elements exhibit FISSION
emissions. where the nucleus breaks down into two or three fragments
accompanied by a few free neutrons and the release of very
There are FOUR types of radiation to consider:- large quantities of energy. Other elements may be induced to
1) ALPHA particles - large particles consisting of 2 FISSION by the capture of a neutron. The fragments from the
PROTONS and 2 NEUTRONS fission process usually have an atomic mass number (i.e.
i.e. the nucleus of a HELIUM atom. N+Z) close to that of iron.
2) BETA particles which are ELECTRONS
3) GAMMA - RAYS. These arise when the kinetic Elements which undergo FISSION following capture of a
energy of Alpha and Beta particles is lost passing neutron such as URANIUM - 235 are known as FISSILE.
through the electron clouds of other atoms. Some of
this energy may be used to break chemical bonds Diagrams of Atomic Mass Number against binding energy
while some is converted into GAMMA -RAYS per NUCLEON show a minimum at about IRON - 56 and it is
which are similar to X -RAYS, but are usually of a possible to estimate the energy released during FISSION
shorter wavelength. from the difference in the specific binding energy between
4) X - RAYS. Alpha and Beta particles, and also say URANIUM - 235 and its FISSION PRODUCTS.
gamma-rays may temporarily dislodge
ELECTRONS from their normal orbits. As the All Nuclear Power Plants currently exploit FISSION
electrons jump back they emit X-Rays which are reactions, and the FISSION of 1 kg of URANIUM produces
characteristic of the element which has been excited. as much energy as burning 3000 tonnes of coal.

UNSTABLE nuclei emit Alpha or Beta particles in an [The original atomic weapons were Fission devices with the
attempt to become more stable. When an ALPHA particle is Hiroshima device being a 235U device and the Nagasaki
emitted, the new element will have an ATOMIC NUMBER
two less than the original. While if an ELECTRON is bomb being a 239Pu device.]
emitted as a result of a NEUTRON transmuting into a
PROTON, an isotope of the element ONE HIGHER in the
PERIODIC TABLE will result. Thus 235U consisting of 92
9.4 FUSION
PROTONS and 143 NEUTRONS is one of SIX isotopes of If two light elements e.g. DEUTERIUM and TRITIUM can
URANIUM decays as follows:- be made to fuse together then even greater quantities of
energy per nucleon are released (see diagram).
alpha beta alpha
235U ------> 231Th -------> 231Pa -------> 227Ac The sun's energy is derived from FUSION reactions, and
despite extensive research no FUSION reactor has yet been a
URANIUM THORIUM PROTACTINIUM net producer of power in a commercial sense. Vast quantities
ACTINIUM of energy are needed to initiate fusion. 10 years ago, the
input energy was around 10 000 times that output. Recent
Thereafter the ACTINIUM - 227 decays by further alpha and developments at the JET facility in Oxfordshire have
beta particle emissions to LEAD - 207 ( 207Pb) which is achieved the break even point.
stable.
Similarly two other naturally occurring radioactive decay [The current generation of nuclear weapons are FUSION
devices.]
series exist. One beginning with 238U, and the other with
232Th. Both of these series also decay to stable (but
CHAIN REACTIONS
different) isotopes of LEAD.
FISSION of URANIUM - 235 yields 2 - 3 free neutrons. If
exactly ONE of these triggers a further FISSION, then a
9.3 HALF LIFE. chain reaction occurs, and contiguous power can be
generated. UNLESS DESIGNED CAREFULLY, THE
Time taken for half the remaining atoms of an element to FREE NEUTRONS WILL BE LOST AND THE CHAIN
undergo their first decay e.g.:- REACTION WILL STOP.

238U 4.5 billion years IF MORE THAN ONE NEUTRON CREATES A NEW
235U FISSION THE REACTION WOULD BE SUPER-
0.7 billion years CRITICAL (or in layman's terms a bomb would have been
232Th 14 billion years created).

All of the daughter products in the respective decay series IT IS VERY DIFFICULT TO SUSTAIN A CHAIN
have much shorter half - lives some as short as 10 -7 seconds. REACTION, AND TO CREATE A BOMB, THE
URANIUM - 235 MUST BE HIGHLY ENRICHED > 93%,
When 10 half-lives have expired, the remaining number of AND BE LARGER THAN A CRITICAL SIZE
atoms is less than 0.1% of the original. OTHERWISE NEUTRONS ARE LOST.

ATOMIC BOMBS ARE MADE BY USING A

CONVENTIONAL EXPLOSIVE TO BRING TWO SUB-
9.3 FISSION CRITICAL MASSES OF A FISSILE MATERIAL
TOGETHER FOR SUFFICIENT TIME FOR A SUPER
CRITICAL REACTION TO TAKE PLACE.
 Materials which can be converted into FISSILE materials are
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS CANNOT EXPLODE FERTILE. URANIUM - 238 is such a material as is
LIKE AN ATOMIC BOMB. THORIUM - 232 which can be transmuted into URANIUM -
233 which is FISSILE. FISSION REACTORS. Naturally
9.5 FERTILE MATERIALS occurring URANIUM consists of 99.3% 238U which is
Some elements like URANIUM - 238 are not FISSILE, FERTILE and NOT FISSILE, and 0.7% of 235U which is
FISSILE. Normal reactors primarily use the FISSILE
but can transmute as follows:-
properties of 235U.
beta beta
238U + n ----> 239U In natural form, URANIUM CANNOT sustain a chain
----> 239Np ----> 239Pu
reaction as the free neutrons are travelling at too high a speed
to successfully cause another FISSION, or are lost to the
Uranium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium
surrounds. This is why it is impossible to construct an
- 238 - 239 - 239 - 239
atomic bomb from natural uranium.
The last of these PLUTONIUM - 239 is FISSILE and may be MODERATORS are thus needed to slow down/and or reflect
used in place of URANIUM - 235. the neutrons.
ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 10
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 10

10. FISSION REACTORS

10.1 NORMAL FISSION REACTORS THUS The original Windscale AGR is now being
CONSIST OF:- decommissioned. The last two stations
Heysham II and Torness (both with two
i) a FISSILE component in the fuel reactors), were constructed to time and have
operated to expectations.
ii) a MODERATOR
SGHWR - STEAM GENERATING HEAVY WATER
iii) a COOLANT to take the heat to its point of use. REACTOR - originally a British Design
which is a hybrid between the CANDU and
BWR reactors. One experimental unit at
Some reactors use unenriched URANIUM - i.e. the 235U Winfrith, Dorset. Tony Benn ruled in favour
remains at 0.7% - e.g. MAGNOX and CANDU reactors, of AGR for Heysham II and Torness in last
others use slightly enriched URANIUM - e.g. AGR, Labour Government. Recently JAPAN has
SGHWR (about 2.5 - 2.7%), PWR and BWR (about 3.5%), been experimenting with a such a reactor
while some experimental reactors - e.g. HTRs use highly known as an ATR or Advanced Thermal
enriched URANIUM (>90%). Reactor.
The nuclear reactor replaces the boiler in a conventional PWR - Originally an American design of
power station and raises steam which is passed to a steam PRESSURISED WATER REACTOR (also
turbine. Most the plant is identical to a conventional power known as a Light Water Reactor LWR). Now
station consisting of large turbines, often incorporating most common reactor.-
superheating and reheating facilities, large condensers, huge
cooling water pumps, and a set of auxiliary gas turbines for
frequency control and emergency use. The land area covered BWR - BOILING WATER REACTOR - a derivative
by a nuclear power plant is much smaller than that for an of the PWR in which the coolant is allowed to
equivalent coal fired plant for two reasons:- boil in the reactor itself. Second most
common reactor in use:-
1) There is no need for the extensive coal
handling plant. RMBK - LIGHT WATER GRAPHITE MODERATING
2) In the UK, all the nuclear power stations are REACTOR - a design unique to the USSR
sited on the cost (except Trawsfynydd which is which figured in the CHERNOBYL incident.
situated beside a lake), and there is thus no 28 units including Chernobyl were operating
need for cooling towers. on Jan 1st 1986 with a further 7 under
construction.
In most reactors there are three fluid circuits:-
CANDU - A reactor named initially after CANadian
1) The reactor coolant circuit DeUterium moderated reactor (hence
2) The steam cycle CANDU), alternatively known as PHWR
3) The cooling water cycle. (pressurised heavy water reactor). 24 in use
in CANADA, INDIA, ARGENTINA, S.
The cooling water is passed through the station at a rate of KOREA, PAKISTAN and ROMANIA, with
tens of millions of litres of water and hour, and the outlet 14 further units under construction in the
temperature is raised by around 10 oC. above countries.

In 1987 there were a total of 374 reactors world-wide in HTGR - HIGH TEMPERATURE GRAPHITE
operation having a combined output of nearly 250 GW. A REACTOR - an experimental reactor. The
further 157 reactors were then under construction with a original HTR in the UK started
combined output of 142 GW. decommissioning in 1975, while West
Germany (2), and the USA (1) have
i.e. the total output of about 400 GW is about 8 times the operational units. None are under
total UK generating capacity. construction.

FBR - FAST BREEDER REACTOR - unlike all

10.2 REACTOR TYPES - summary previous reactors, this reactor 'breeds'
PLUTONIUM from FERTILE 238U to
MAGNOX - Original British Design named after the operate, and in so doing extends resource base
magnesium alloy used as fuel cladding. Four of URANIUM over 50 times. Mostly
reactors of this type were built in France, One experimental at moment with FRANCE, W.
in each of Italy, Spain and Japan. 32 units are GERMANY and UK each having 1 unit, and
in use in UK. the USSR having 3. France is building a
commercial reactor, and JAPAN and W.
AGR - ADVANCED GAS COOLED REACTOR - Germany experimental ones
solely British design. 14 units are in use.
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 10

Country Number of Types % electricity derived from

Reactors nuclear power
Argentina 2 CANDU 14
Belgium 7 PWR 56
Brazil 1 PWR <1
Bulgaria 6 WWER 46
Canada 22 CANDU 19
China 3 PWR 1
Czech Republic 4 WWER 28
Finland 4 PWR 30
France 56 PWR 75
Germany 21 PWR/HTGR 29
Hungary 4 WWER 44
India 9 CANDU/PWR? 1
Japan 49 PWR 31
Kazakstan 1 RBMK <1
Korea 10 PWR 35
Lithuania 2 RBMK 76
Mexico 2 PWR 3
Netherlands 2 PWR 5
Pakistan 1 CANDU 1
Russia 29 RBMK/WWER 11
Slovakia 4 ? 49
Slovenia 1 ? 38
South Africa 2 PWR 6
Spain 9 PWR/BWR 35
Sweden 12 PWR/BWR 51
Taiwan 6 PWR/BWR 32
Ukraine 15 RBMK 34
UK 33 Magnox/AGR/ 25
PWR
USA 109 PWR/HTGR 22

10.3.1 MAGNOX REACTORS. · MINIMAL CONTAMINATION FROM

BURST FUEL CANS - as defective units can
FUEL TYPE - unenriched URANIUM be removed without shutting down reactor.
METAL
clad in Magnesium alloy
· VERTICAL CONTROL RODS which can fall
MODERATOR - GRAPHITE by gravity in case of emergency.
COOLANT - CARBON DIOXIDE
DIRECT RANKINE CYCLE - no superheat or
reheat efficiency DISADVANTAGES:-
varies from 20% to 28% depending on
reactor · CANNOT LOAD FOLLOW - Xe poisoning
prevents increasing load after a
ADVANTAGES:- reduction without shutting reactor down to
allow poisons to decay sufficiently.
· LOW POWER DENSITY - 1 MW/m 3. Thus · OPERATING TEMPERATURE LIMITED TO
very slow rise in temperature in fault ABOUT 250oC - in early reactors and about
conditions.
360oC in later designs thus limiting CARNOT
· UNENRICHED FUEL - no energy used in EFFICIENCY to about 40 - 50%, and practical
enrichment. efficiency to about 28-30%.
· GASEOUS COOLANT - thus under lower · LOW BURN-UP - (about 400 TJ per tonne)
pressure than water reactors (28 - 40 bar cf thus requiring frequent fuel replacement, and
160 bar for PWRs). Slow drop in pressure in reprocessing for effective URANIUM use.
major fault conditions - thus cooling not
impaired significantly. Emergency circulation
· EXTERNAL BOILERS ON EARLY
at ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE would suffice. DESIGNS make them more vulnerable to
damage. LATER designs have integral boilers
· ON LOAD REFUELLING within thick pre-stressed concrete biological
shield (see also AGRs).
ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 10
Fig. 10.1 Schematic section of an early Magnox Reactor. Later versions had a pressurised concrete vessel which also
enclosed the boilers as with the AGRs. This reactor was developed in the UK and France. The 2 French reactors have since
been closed as have the reactors at Berkley and Trawsfynydd in the UK.

Fig. 10.2 Section of an Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor. This reactor was only developed in the UK. There are currently
14 such reactors in 7 stations in the UK.
10.3.2 AGR REACTORS. 10.3.3 CANDU REACTORS.

FUEL TYPE - enriched URANIUM OXIDE - FUEL TYPE - unenriched URANIUM

2.3% clad in stainless steel OXIDE clad in Zircaloy
MODERATOR - GRAPHITE MODERATOR - HEAVY WATER
COOLANT - CARBON DIOXIDE COOLANT - HEAVY WATER
SUPERHEATED RANKINE CYCLE (with reheat)
- efficiency 39 - 30% ADVANTAGES:-

ADVANTAGES:- · MODERATE POWER DENSITY - 11 MW/m 3.

Thus fairly slow rise in temperature in fault
· MODEST POWER DENSITY - 5 MW/m 3. conditions.
Thus slow rise in temperature in fault conditions. · HEAVY WATER COOLANT - low neutron
· GASEOUS COOLANT - thus under lower absorber hence no need for enrichment.
pressure than water reactors (40 - 45 bar cf 160 · ON LOAD REFUELLING - and very efficient
bar). Slow drop in pressure in major fault indeed permits high load factors.
conditions - thus cooling not impaired
significantly. [Emergency circulation at
· MINIMAL CONTAMINATION FROM BURST
FUEL CANS - as defective units can be removed
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE might suffice.]
without shutting down reactor.
· ON LOAD REFUELLING - but only operational
at part load at present.
· NO FUEL ENRICHMENT NEEDED.
· is modular in design and can be made to almost
· MINIMAL CONTAMINATION FROM BURST any size
FUEL CANS - as defective units can be removed
without shutting down reactor.
· SUPERHEATING AND REHEATING DISADVANTAGES:-
AVAILABLE - thus increasing thermodynamic
efficiency well above any other reactor. · POOR LOAD FOLLOWING
· VERTICAL CONTROL RODS which can fall by CHARACTERISTICS
gravity in case of emergency. · CONTROL RODS ARE HORIZONTAL, and
therefore cannot operate by gravity in fault
DISADVANTAGES:- conditions.
· MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY about 28%
· ONLY MODERATE LOAD FOLLOWING
CHARACTERISTICS OTHER FACTORS:-
· SOME FUEL ENRICHMENT NEEDED. - 2.3%
· MODEST FUEL BURN-UP - about
OTHER FACTORS:- 1000TJ/tonne (c.f. 400TJ/tonne for MAGNOX,
2900TJ/tonne for PWR, and 2600TJ/tonne for
· MODERATE FUEL BURN-UP - about BWR)
1800TJ/tonne (c.f. 400TJ/tonne for MAGNOX, · FACILITIES PROVIDED TO DUMP HEAVY
2900TJ/tonne for PWR, and 2600TJ/tonne for WATER MODERATOR from reactor in fault
BWR) conditions
· SINGLE PRESSURE VESSEL with pre-stressed · MULTIPLE PRESSURE TUBES (stainless steel)
concrete walls 6m thick. Pre-stressing tendons instead of one pressure vessel
can be replaced if necessary.
Fig. 10.3 A section of a CANDU reactor. This design was developed in Canada, and has the advantage that it is modular
and can be built to any size. The British Steam Generating Heavy Water Reactor (SGHWR) was of similar design except
the cooling circuit was ordinary water. The space surround the fuel elements in the calandria in a SGHWR were still heat
water as in the CANDU design.

Fig. 10.4 A section of a PWR. This shows the safer design having the cold and hot legs entering the reactor vessel at the
top. the reactor at Sizewell has a secondary dome outside the primary containment building. This is the only one in the
world that has a double skin.
10.3.4 PWR REACTORS (WWER are Russian
equivalent). · ORDINARY WATER as COOLANT - but designed
to boil therefore pressure about 75 bar
FUEL TYPE - enriched URANIUM OXIDE
- 3 - 4% clad in Zircaloy
MODERATOR - WATER
· ON LOAD REFUELLING NOT POSSIBLE -
COOLANT - WATER reactor must be completely closed down.
· SIGNIFICANT CONTAMINATION OF
ADVANTAGES:- COOLANT CAN ARISE FROM BURST FUEL
CANS - as defective units cannot be removed
· GOOD LOAD FOLLOWING without shutting down reactor. ALSO IN SUCH
CHARACTERISTICS - claimed for SIZEWELL B. CIRCUMSTANCES RADIOACTIVE STEAM
- although most PWR are NOT operated as such. WILL PASS DIRECTLY TO TURBINES.

· HIGH FUEL BURN-UP- about 2900 TJ/tonne - · CONTROL RODS MUST BE DRIVEN UPWARDS
VERTICAL CONTROL RODS which can drop by - SO NEED POWER IN FAULT CONDITIONS.
gravity in fault conditions. Provision made to dump water (moderator in such
circumstances).
DISADVANTAGES:- · FUEL ENRICHMENT NEEDED. - 3%
· MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY ABOUT 31 - 32%
· ORDINARY WATER as COOLANT - pressure
must be high to prevent boiling (160 bar). If break OTHER FACTORS:-
occurs then water will flash to steam and cooling
will be less effective. · MODERATE LOAD FOLLOWING
· ON LOAD REFUELLING NOT POSSIBLE - CHARACTERISTICS?
reactor must be completely closed down. · HIGH POWER DENSITY - 50 - 100 MW/m 3.
· SIGNIFICANT CONTAMINATION OF Therefore compact core, but rapid rise in
COOLANT CAN ARISE FROM BURST FUEL temperature in fault conditions. NEEDS
CANS - as defective units cannot be removed Emergency Core Cooling Systems (ECCS) which
without shutting down reactor. are ACTIVE SYSTEMS - thus power must be
· FUEL ENRICHMENT NEEDED. - 3 - 4%. available in fault conditions.

· MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY ABOUT 31 - 32% · SINGLE STEEL PRESSURE VESSEL 200 mm

thick.
OTHER FACTORS:-
10.3.6 RBMK or LWGR REACTORS.
· LOSS OF COOLANT also means LOSS OF
FUEL TYPE - enriched URANIUM OXIDE
MODERATOR so reaction ceases - but residual - 2% clad in Zircaloy about
decay heat can be large. 4% for PWR)
MODERATOR - GRAPHITE
· HIGH POWER DENSITY - 100 MW/m 3, and COOLANT - WATER
therefore compact. HOWEVER temperature could
rise very rapidly indeed in fault conditions. NEEDS ADVANTAGES:-
Emergency Core Cooling Systems (ECCS) which
are ACTIVE SYSTEMS - thus power must be · ON LOAD REFUELLING POSSIBLE
available in fault conditions.
· VERTICAL CONTROL RODS which can drop by
· SINGLE STEEL PRESSURE VESSEL 200 mm
GRAVITY in fault conditions.
thick.
NO THEY CANNOT!!!!
10.3.5 BWR REACTORS
DISADVANTAGES:-
FUEL TYPE - enriched URANIUM OXIDE
- 3% clad in Zircaloy about · ORDINARY WATER as COOLANT - which can
4% for PWR) flash to steam in fault conditions thereby further
MODERATOR - WATER hindering cooling.
COOLANT - WATER · POSITIVE VOID COEFFICIENT !!! - positive feed
back possible in some fault conditions all other
ADVANTAGES:-
reactors have negative voids coefficient in all
conditions.
· HIGH FUEL BURN-UP - about 2600TJ/tonne
· if coolant is lost moderator will keep reaction
· STEAM PASSED DIRECTLY TO TURBINE going.
therefore no heat exchangers needed. BUT SEE · FUEL ENRICHMENT NEEDED. - 2%
DISADVANTAGES.
· primary coolant passed directly to turbines. This
DISADVANTAGES:- coolant can be slightly radioactive.
 · MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY ABOUT 30% ?? · LOAD FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS
UNKNOWN
OTHER FACTORS:- · POWER DENSITY probably MODERATE?
· MULTIPLE STEEL TUBE PRESSURE VESSEL
· MODERATE FUEL BURN-UP - about
1800TJ/tonne

Fig. 10.5 A Boiling Water Reactor. Notice that the primary circuit steam is passed directly to the turbines.
Fig. 10.6 The Russian Light Water - Graphite Moderated Reactor. This reactor was of the type involved in
the Chernobyl incident in 1986.
10.3.7 FBR REACTORS · VERTICAL CONTROL RODS which can fall by
gravity in case of emergency.
(sometimes also known as LMFBR - Liquid Metal Fast
Breeder Reactor). DISADVANTAGES:-

FUEL TYPE - depleted URANIUM METAL or

URANIUM DIOXIDE in outer regions
· DEPLETED URANIUM FUEL ELEMENTS
of core surrounding PLUTONIUM MUST BE REPROCESSED to recover
DIOXIDE fuel elements in centre. All PLUTONIUM and hence sustain the breeding of
fuel elements clad in Stainless steel. more plutonium for future use.
MODERATOR - NONE · CURRENT DESIGNS have SECONDARY
COOLANT - LIQUID SODIUM PRIMARY SODIUM CIRCUIT
COOLANT. heating water and raising steam EXTERNAL to
reactor. If water and sodium mix a significant
ADVANTAGES:- CHEMICAL explosion may occur which might
cause damage to reactor itself.
· LIQUID METAL COOLANT - at
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE under normal OTHER FACTORS
operation. Will even cool by natural convection
in event of pump failure. - BREEDS FISSILE VERY HIGH POWER DENSITY - 600 MW/m 3.
MATERIAL from non-fissile 238U and can thus However, rise in temperature in fault conditions is
recover 50+ times as much energy as from a limited by natural circulation of sodium. very slow
conventional 'THERMAL' nuclear power plant. rise in temperature in fault conditions.

· HIGH EFFICIENCY (about 40%) and

comparable with that of AGRs, and much higher
than other reactors.

Fig. 10.7 A Fast Breeder Reactor. This type of reactor has depleted Uranium - 238 in a blanket around the fissile
core material (of enriched U-235 or Plutonium). Fast neutrons can be captured by the fertile U - 238 to produce
more Plutonium. Typically one kilogram of fissile Plutonium could produce as much a 3/4 kg of Plutonium from
U-238 and would thus provide enough fuel not only for itself but also 2/3 other reactors.
 REACTOR COUNTRY FUEL Cladding Moderator Coolant BURN-UP Enrichment POWER
of origin (TJ/tonne) DENSITY
MW m-3
natural
MAGNOX UK/ Uranium Metal MAGNOX graphite CO2 400 enrichment 1
FRANCE (0.7%)

AGR UK Uranium Oxide Stainless graphite CO2 1800 2.5-2.7% 4.5

Steel

SGHWR UK Uranium Oxide Zirconium Heavy Water H2O 1800 2.5-3.0% 11

PWR USA Uranium Oxide Zircaloy H 2O H2O 2900 3.5-4.0% 100

BWR USA Uranium Oxide Zircaloy H 2O H20 2600 3% 50

(water/steam)
natural
CANDU CANADA Uranium Oxide Zircaloy Heavy Water Heavy Water 1000 enrichment 16
(0.7%)

RMBK USSR Uranium Oxide Zirconium/ graphite H2O 1800 1.8% 2

Niobium

HTGR several Uranium Carbide Silicon graphite Helium 8600 93% 6

Carbide
depleted Uranium
metal or oxide
FBR several surrounding Stainless none liquid sodium ? - 600
inner area of Steel
plutonium
dioxide

Summary Characteristics of Main Reactor Types.

10.3.8 CONCLUDING COMMENTS ON FISSION fuel - although many assumptions are made e.g. the
REACTORS:- economic value of PLUTONIUM which make definite
conclusions here difficult.
¨ A summary of the differences between in the different
reactors is given in 'Nuclear Power' by Walter Patterson - ¨ DECISIONS on whether to reprocess hinge on:-
chapter 2, and especially pages 72-73, and 'Nuclear Power, · the Uranium supplies available to Country in
Man and the Environment' by R.J. Pentreath - sections 4.1 question,
and 4.2.
· whether FBRs are to be built.

¨ The term 'THERMAL REACTOR' applies to all FISSION

¨ FOR AGR and CANDU reactors it becomes more
REACTORS other than FBRs which rely on slow or
attractive economically to reprocess, although the above
'THERMAL NEUTRONS' to sustain the fission chain
factors may be overriding - e.g. CANADA which has large
reaction. FAST NEUTRONS are used in FBRs to breed
uranium reserves IS NOT reprocessing.
more FISSILE plutonium from FERTILE URANIUM -
238. This process extends the resource base of
URANIUM by a factor of 50 or more, i.e. a FBR will
10.3.9 REPROCESSING IS ESSENTIAL FOR FAST
produce MORE fuel than it consumes. BREEDER REACTORS.

¨ REPROCESSING IS NOT ESSENTIAL for THERMAL ¨ For each FBR, approximately FOUR times as much fuel as
REACTORS, although for those such as MAGNOX which in the reactor will be in the various stages of cooling,
have a low burn up it becomes a sensible approach as transportation to and from reprocessing, and the
much of the URANIUM - 235 remains unused. Equally in reprocessing itself. The time taken to produce TWICE
such reactors, it is believed that degradation of the fuel this total inventory is known as the doubling time and will
cladding may make the long term storage of used fuel affect the rate at which FBRs can be developed. Currently
elements difficult or impossible. the doubling time is about 20 years.

¨ IAEA figures suggest that for PWR (and BWR?) fuel ¨ PLUTONIUM is produced in 'THERMAL REACTORS'
elements it is marginally UNECONOMIC to reprocess the but at a much slower rate than in FBRs. The
 PLUTONIUM itself also undergoes FISSION, and this PHASE 1
helps to reduce the rate at which the FISSILE URANIUM - construction of a waste packaging unit with remote
- 235 is used. handling facilities to check waste for radioactivity as
it is removed from reactor.
¨ In theory there is nothing to stop reprocessing the spent
fuel, extract the plutonium and enrich the depleted provision of an access tunnel through steel outer
uranium for reuse as a fuel in 'THERMAL REACTORS'. dome and removal of 1 (possibly 2) of four boilers.
The plutonium may also be consumed in such reactors, or
the fuel may be MOX - mixed oxides of uranium and PHASE 2 - dismantling of reactor itself using a specially
plutonium. designed robotic arm.

¨ TEXTBOOKS often state that this is what happens in UK, Decommissioning is scheduled to take about 10 years
but in practice the URANIUM and PLUTONIUM are as there is no urgency for completion of task some
stockpiled for future possible use in FBRs time will be spent in experimentation.

10.3.10 NUCLEAR POWER -DECOMMISSIONING Site will be returned to a greenfield site.

REACTORS
NOTE: British Energy prefer a solution where reactor is
· The WINDSCALE experimental AGR was shut down in entombed and covered with soil rather than removing reactor
1981 after 17 years of operation. completely.

· TWO YEARS of testing then occurred, followed by Four civil programme reactors have been decommissioned -
removal of the entire spent fuel. Berkeley and Trawsfynydd and Hunterston A in Scotland, and
recently, Bradwell. At all of the above, the spent fuel has been
removed and a start has been made on removing the non-
· In 1985 a start was made on removing the reactor entirely. reactor buildings from site. This is well advanced in the case
of Berkeley.
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 11

11. THE NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE.

11.1 TWO OPTIONS AVAILABLE:- 2) PURIFICATION/CONVERSION - entails
dissolving 'yellow-cake' in nitric acid and
1) ONCE-THROUGH CYCLE, conversion to Uranium tetrafluoride which can be
2) REPROCESSING CYCLE reduced to URANIUM METAL for use as a fuel
element for MAGNOX reactors or converted into its
CHOICE DEPENDS primarily on:- oxide form for CANDU reactors. All other reactors
require enrichment, and for these the UF 4 is
1) REACTOR TYPE IN USE, converted into URANIUM HEXAFLOURIDE of
2) AVAILABILITY OF URANIUM TO "HEX".
COUNTRY IN QUESTION,
3) DECISIONS ON THE POSSIBLE USE OF 3) ENRICHMENT. Most reactors require
FBRs. URANIUM or its oxide in which the proportion of
URANIUM - 235 has been artificially increased.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS show little
difference between two types of cycle except that for Enrichment CANNOT be done chemically and the
PWRs, ONCE-THROUGH CYCLE appears slight differences in PHYSICAL properties are
MARGINALLY more attractive. exploited e.g. density. TWO MAIN METHODS
--------------------------------------------------- OF ENRICHMENT BOTH INVOLVE THE USE
OF "HEX" WHICH IS A GAS. (Fluorine has only
11.2 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE can be divided into one isotope, and thus differences arise ONLY from
two parts:- isotopes of URANIUM).

· FRONT-END - includes MINING of a) GAS DIFFUSION - original method still

Uranium Ore, EXTRACTION, used in FRANCE. "HEX" is allowed to
CONVERSION to "Hex", ENRICHMENT, diffuse through a membrane separating
and FUEL FABRICATION. the high and low pressure parts of a cell.
235U diffuses faster the 238U through
· BACK-END -includes this membrane. Outlet gas from lower
TRANSPORTATION of SPENT FUEL, pressure is slightly enriched in 235U (by
STORAGE, REPROCESSING, and a factor of 1.0043) and is further enriched
DISPOSAL. in subsequent cells. HUNDREDS or even
THOUSANDS of such cells are required
NOTE: in cascade depending on the required
enrichment. Pumping demands are very
1) Transportation of Fabricated Fuel elements large as are the cooling requirements
has negligible cost as little or no screening between stages.
is necessary.
Outlet gas from HIGH PRESSURE side is
2) For both ONCE-THROUGH and slightly depleted URANIUM and is fed
REPROCESSING CYCLES, the FRONT- back into previous cell of sequence.
END is identical. The differences are only
evident at the BACK- END. AT BACK END, depleted URANIUM
11.3 FRONT-END of NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE (see contains only 0.2 - 0.3% 235U, and it is
Fig 11.1) NOT economic to use this for enrichment.
This depleted URANIUM is currently
1) MINING - ore needs to be at least 0.05% by stockpiled, but could be an extremely
weight of U3O8 to be economic. Typically at value fuel resource should we decide to
go for the FBR.
0.5%, 500 tonnes (250 m 3) must be excavated to
produce 1 tonne of U3O8 ("yellow-cake") which b) GAS CENTRIFUGE ENRICHMENT -
this technique is basically similar to the
occupies about 0.1 m3.
Gas diffusion in that it requires many
stages. The "HEX" is spun in a
Ore is crushed and URANIUM is
centrifuge, and the slightly enriched
leached out chemically when the
URANIUM is such off near the axis and
resulting powder contains about 80%
passed to the next stage. ENERGY
yellow-cake. The 'tailings' contain the
requirements for this process are only 10 -
naturally generated daughter products.
15% of the GAS DIFFUSION method.
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 11

All UK fuel is now enriched by this process.

Fig. 11.1 Once through and Reprocessing Cycle for a PWR. The two cycles for an AGR are similar,
although the quantities are slightly different. For the CANDU and MAGNOX reactors, no
enrichment is needed at the front end

4) FUEL FABRICATION - For MAGNOX reactors PLUTONIUM fuel fabrication presents much
URANIUM metal is machined into bars using greater problems. Firstly, the workers require
normal techniques. CARE MUST BE TAKEN more shielding from radiation. Secondly, it is
not to allow water into process as this acts as a chemically toxic. Thirdly, is metallurgy is
moderator and might cause the fuel element to complex. FOURTHLY, AND MOST
'go critical'. CARE MUST ALSO BE TAKEN IMPORTANT OF ALL, IT CAN REACH
over its CHEMICAL TOXICITY. URANIUM CRITICALITY ON ITS OWN. THUS CARE
METAL bars are about 1m in length and about MUST BE TAKEN IN MANUFACTURE AND
30 mm in diameter. ALL SUBSEQUENT STORAGE THAT THE
FUEL ELEMENTS ARE OF A SIZE AND
Because of low thermal conductivity of oxides SHAPE WHICH COULD CAUSE
of uranium, fuels of this form are made as small CRITICALITY..
pellets which are loaded into stainless steel
cladding in the case of AGRs, and ZIRCALLOY NOTE:-
in the case of most other reactors. 1) The transport of PLUTONIUM fuel elements
could present a potential hazard, as a crude
atomic bomb could, at least in theory, be made
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 11

without the need for vast energy as would be the 11.5 ONCE-THROUGH CYCLE
case with enriched URANIUM. Some people
advocate the DELIBERATE 'spiking' of ADVANTAGES:-
PLUTONIUM with some fission products to
make the fuel elements very difficult to handle. 1) NO REPROCESSING needed - therefore much
lower discharges of low level/intermediate level
2) 1 tonne of enriched fuel for a PWR produces 1PJ liquid/gaseous waste.
of energy. 1 tonne of unenriched fuel for a
CANDU reactor produces about 0.2 PJ. 2) FUEL CLADDING NOT STRIPPED -
However, because of losses, about 20-25% therefore less solid intermediate waste created.
MORE ENERGY PER TONNE of MINED
URANIUM can be obtained with CANDU. 3) NO PLUTONIUM in transport so no danger of
diversion.

11.4 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE (BACK END) - DISADVANTAGES:-

SPENT FUEL STORAGE.
1) CANNOT RECOVER UNUSED URANIUM -
SPENT FUEL ELEMENTS from the REACTOR contain 235, PLUTONIUM OR URANIUM - 238. Thus
many FISSION PRODUCTS the majority of which have fuel cannot be used again.
SHORT HALF LIVES. During the decay process, heat is
evolved so the spent fuel elements are normally stored 2) VOLUME OF HIGH LEVEL WASTE MUCH
under water - at least in the short term. GREATER (5 - 10 times) than with reprocessing
cycle.
After 100 days, the radioactivity will have
reduce to about 25% of its original value, and 3) SUPERVISION OF HIGH LEVEL WASTE
after 5 years the level will be down to about 1%. needed for much longer time as encapsulation is
more difficult than for reprocessing cycle.
Much of the early reduction comes from the
decay of radioisotopes such as IODINE - 131
and XENON - 133 both of which have short 11.6 REPROCESSING CYCLE
half-lives (8 days and 1.8 hours respectively).
ADVANTAGES:-
On the other hand elements such as CAESIUM -
137 decay to only 90% of their initial level even 1) MUCH LESS HIGH LEVEL WASTE - therefore
after 5 years. This element account for less than less problems with storage
0.2% of initial radioactive decay, but 15% of the
activity after 5 years. 2) UNUSED URANIUM - 235, PLUTONIUM AND
URANIUM - 238 can be recovered and used
SPENT FUEL ELEMENTS are stored under 6m again, or used in a FBR thereby increasing
of water which also acts as BIOLOGICAL resource base 50 fold.
SHIELD. Water becomes radioactive from
corrosion of fuel cladding causing leakage - so 3) VITRIFICATION is easier than with spent fuel
water is conditioned - kept at pH of 11 - 12 (i.e. elements. Plant at Sellafield now fully
strongly alkaline in case of MAGNOX). Other operation.
reactor fuel elements do not corrode so readily.
DISADVANTAGES:-
Should any radionucleides actually escape into
the water, these are removed by ION 1) A MUCH GREATER VOLUME OF BOTH LOW
EXCHANGE. LEVEL AND INTERMEDIATE LEVEL
WASTE IS CREATED, and routine emissions
Subsequent handling depends on whether from reprocessing plants have been greater than
ONCE-THROUGH or REPROCESSING storage of ONCE-THROUGH cycle waste.
CYCLE is chosen.
Note: At SELLAFIELD the ION EXCHANGE
Spent fuel can be stored in dry caverns, but plant called SIXEP (Site Ion EXchange Plant)
drying the elements after the initial water was commissioned in early 1986, and this has
cooling is a problem. Adequate air cooling must substantially reduced the radioactive emissions
be provided, and this may make air - radioactive in the effluent discharged to Irish Sea since that
if fuel element cladding is defective. WYLFA time. Further improvements with more advance
power station stores MAGNOX fuel elements in waste treatment are under construction..
this form.
2) PLUTONIUM is stockpiled or in transport if
used in FBRs. (although this can be 'spiked').
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 11

Such waste may be generated in

HOSPITALS, LABORATORIES,
NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS, and all
parts of the FUEL CYCLE.
11.7 REPROCESSING CYCLE - the chemistry
BURYING LOW LEVEL WASTE
Fuel stored in cooling ponds SURROUNDED BY A THICK CLAY BLANKET
to allow further decay IS A SENSIBLE OPTION. The clay if of the
: SMECTITE type acts as a very effective ion
: cladding to inter- EXchange barrier which is plastic and deforms to
Fuel decanned --> mediate level any ground movement sealing any cracks.
: waste storage
: IN BRITAIN IT IS PROPOSED TO BURY
: WASTE IN STEEL CONTAINERS AND
Dissolve Fuel in PLACED IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN A
Nitric Acid DEEP TRENCH UP TO 10m DEEP WHICH
: WILL BE SURROUNDED BY THE CLAY.
:
add tributyl phosphate (TBK) High level IN FRANCE, THE CONTAINERS ARE PILED
in odourless ketone (OK) --> waste ABOVE GROUND AND THEN COVERED BY
: A THICK LAYER OF CLAY TO FORM A
: TUMULUS.
further treatment with TBK/OK --> medium level
: waste 2) INTERMEDIATE LEVEL WASTE.
:
: INTERMEDIATE LEVEL WASTE contains
reduced with ferrous sulphamate HIGHER quantities of SHORT LIVED
: : RADIOACTIVE WASTE, OR MODERATE
: : QUANTITIES OF RADIONUCLEIDES OF
URANIUM **PLUTONIUM MODERATE HALF LIFE - e.g. 5 YEARS -
converted to converted for 10000 YEARS HALF LIFE.
UO3 and storage or fuel
recycled fabrication for FBR IN FRANCE SUCH WASTE IS CAST INTO
CONCRETE MONOLITHIC BLOCKS AND
**NOTE: PLANT MUST BE DESIGNED VERY BURIED AT SHALLOW DEPTH.
CAREFULLY AT THIS STAGE TO
PREVENT THE PLUTONIUM REACHING A IN BRITAIN, one proposal was to bury similar
CRITICAL SHAPE AND MASS. PIPES IN blocks at the SAME SITES to those used for LOW
THIS AREA ARE THUS OF SMALL LEVEL WASTE.
DIAMETER.
IT IS CLEARLY UNSATISFACTORY AS
11.8 WASTE DISPOSAL CONFUSION BETWEEN THE TWO TYPES OF
WASTE WILL OCCUR.
These are skeletal notes as the topic will be
covered more fully by Alan Kendall in Week NIREX have no backed down on this proposal.
10/11 SEPARATE FACILITIES ARE NOW
PROPOSED.
1) LOW LEVEL WASTE.
3) HIGH LEVEL WASTE.

LOW LEVEL WASTE contains contaminated It is not planned to permanently dispose of HIGH
materials with radioisotopes which have either LEVEL WASTE UNTIL IT HAS BEEN
very long half lives indeed, or VERY SMALL ENCAPSULATED. At Sellafield, high level
quantities of short lived radioisotopes. FEW waste is now being encapsulated and stored on site
SHIELDING PRECAUTIONS ARE in specially constructed vaults.
NECESSARY DURING TRANSPORTATION.
MOST RADIONUCLEIDES IN THIS
NOTE:THE PHYSICAL BULK MAY BE CATEGORY HAVE HALF LIVES OF UP TO 30
LARGE as its volume includes items YEARS, and thus activity in about 700 years will
which may have been contaminated during have decayed to natural background radiation
routine operations. It includes items such level.
as Laboratory Coats, Paper Towels etc.
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 11

PROPOSALS FOR DISPOSAL INCLUDE burial burial under ANTARCTIC ICE SHEET, shot
in deep mines in SALT; burial 1000m BELOW INTO SPACE to the sun!
SEA BED and BACKFILLED with SMECTITE;
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 12

12: Nuclear Fusion

12.1 Basic Reactions The triple product of the three above parameters is used
as a measure to see how close to relevant reactor
Deuterium is Hydrogen with an additional neutron, and conditions, experiments currently achieve. This is
is abundant in sea water. Tritium is a third isotopes of illustrated in Fig. 12.1
hydrogen with 1 proton and 2 neutrons. It is
radioactive having a half life of 12.8 years.

The current research is directed towards Deuterium -

Tritium fusion as this the more easy to achieve. The
alternative - Deuterium - Deuterium Fusion is likely
not to be realised until up to 50 years after D- T fusion
becomes readily available. Current estimates suggest
that D - T fusion could be commercially available by
2040, although several Demonstration Commercial
Reactors are likely before that time.

Tritium will have to be generated from Lithium and

thus the resource base for D - T fusion is limited by
Lithium recourses.

The basic reaction for D - T fusion is

D + T ---- He + n

Where is waste product is Helium and inert gas

To generate tritium, two further reactions are needed

6
Li + n = T + He
7
and Li + n = T + He + n

Since spare neutrons are generated by the fusion

reaction itself, it is planned to produce the Tritium Fig. 12.1. Triple product plotted against Central Ion
needed by placing a lithium blanket around the main Temperature with a few selected data points from JET
reaction vessel. obtained during the 1990's

12.2. The Triple Product 12.3 Progress towards fusion (based on

triple product values)
To achieve fusion three critical parameters must be met

i). The deuterium - tritium gas must be as a

Two terms are used here
plasma - i.e. at high temperature such that the
electrons are stripped from their parent atoms Break - even - this is where the energy released by
rather than orbit them. In a plasma, deuterium the reaction equals the energy input
and tritium become ions and it is the central to start the reaction.
ion density which is critical. If the pressure of Ignition is the point where the energy released is
the gas is too high, then the plasma cannot sufficient to maintain the temperature
form easily. Typical values of ion density of the plasma without need for
which must be achieved are around 2 - 3 x 1020 external inputs.
ions per cubic metre.
Date Distance from Ignition
ii). The temperature must be high typically in 1970 25 000 times away
excess of 100 million oC. The fusion reaction 1980 700 times away
rate falls off dramatically such that at 10 1983 100 times away
million oC, the reaction rate is less than 1988 20 times away
1/20000th of that at 100 million oC. 1989 10 times away
1991 Break even achieved and now
iii). The confinement time of several seconds
about 6 times away from ignition
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 12

JET was not designed to go above about break even, 12.5 A full Reactor design for commercial
and experiments are now looking at numerous aspects operation
associated with the design of ITER - International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
Fig .12.3 shows a schematic of how a commercial
reactor might operate. The Deuterium and Tritium are
fed into the reaction chamber and the waste product is
Helium. Neutrons pass through to the Lithium blanket
to generate Tritium and further Helium which are
separated as shown. The heat from the reaction is
cooled by a cooling circuit which via a secondary
circuit raise steam for generation of electricity in the
normal way.

12.2 A simplified section of a fusion device

showing the helical magnetic field

12.4 Basic Reactor Design

Experience has shown that the most promising

reactors are those which are bases on a
TOKOMAK which usually takes the form of a
donut The plasma must be kept away from the
walls as it is so hot and this is achieved by using
magnetic confinement. To do this there are two
magnetic field - one the TOROIDAL one consists
of regularly spaced coils in a vertical plane, the
second the POLOIDAL field is generated by
passing a heavy current through the plasma itself.
The net result of these two field is to produce a
helical field as shown in Fig. 12.2, while the actual Fig. 12.4 showing a schematic of a possible
cross section of the JET reactor is shown in Fig. commercial fusion power reactor.

12.5 Why is it taking so long?

There are numerous technical problems to be overcome
and many thousands of test runs are done each year to
try to modify designs and improve performance. One
of the critical issues at the moment is the question of
impurities which arise when the plasma touches the
wall, causing a limited amount of vapourisation. The
ions vaporise, act as impurities and lower the internal
temperature making it difficult to sustain the required
temperature.

Current experiments in the late 1990's have tackled this

problem by redesigning the "D" to incorporate divertors
at the base. The magnetic field can be altered to cause
the impurity ions to collect in the diverter area and
hence be withdrawn from the system. The latest
12.3 thoughts of the shape are shown in Fig. 12.5
Fig. 12.3 Cross Section of the JET reactor - the
Plasma chamber is "D" shaped.
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 12

12.5 Safety

Unlike nuclear fission there are no waste products other

than Helium which is inert. The reactor itself will
become radioactive, but no more so than a conventional
nuclear reactor, and this can be dismantled in 100 years
without much difficulty. Unlike fission reactors, the
inventory of fuel in the reactor at any one time is very
small, and in any incident, all fuel would be used
within about 1 second. There is a possible hazard from
a Tritium leak from the temporary store, but once
again the inventory is small

Fig. 12.5 the

current shape of the "D" showing the divertor box at the
base which is used to remove impurities.

13 NUCLEAR POWER - RADIATION AND MAN

13.1 QUANTITY OF RADIOACTIVITY - a measure OLD UNIT:- rem (Rad Equivalent Man)
of the number of atoms undergoing
disintegration. 1 Sv = 100 rem

OLD UNIT:- CURIE (Ci) - number of disintegrations 13.4 NUCLEAR RADIATION (annual
per second of 1g of radium. doses):-
NEW UNIT:-BEQUEREL (Bq) - one disintegration per - includes allowance for inhaled radon of 0.8
second. mSv.

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq Location mSv

--------------------------------------------------
NATURAL RADIATION
13.2 ABSORBED DOSE:-
UK average 1.9
London 1.6
OLD UNIT:- 1 rad = 0.01Jkg -1 - thus absorbed dose
is expressed in terms of Aberdeen 2.5
energy per unit mass. USA average 1.8
Colorado 3.3
NEW UNIT:- 1 gray (Gy) = 1Jkg-1 India (Kerala) 8.0 - 80.0
Sri Lanka 30.0-70.0
i.e. 1 Gy = 100 rad Brazil - Minas Gerais 17.0-120.0
--------------------------------------------------- Rio de Janerio 5.5 - 12.5
13.3 RELATIVE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTIVENESS
(R.B.E):- MAN MADE
diagnostic X-Ray 0.45
Takes account of fact that different radiations have radiotherapy 0.05
different effects on living tissue. Thus absorbed dose as
measured above in GRAY is modified as follows:- Atmospheric Weapon Tests 0.01
WEIGHTING FACTOR Miscellaneous
TV + air travel 0.008
X-rays, beta & gamma rays 1.0 Nuclear Power Stations 0.0003
Reporcessing 0.0025
Neutrons & protons 10.0 Coal Fired Power stations
radioactive emissions in 0.001 - 0.002
Alpha particles (helium nucleus) 20.0
ash/stack
NEW UNIT:- Sievert (Sv)
 ENV-2E02 Energy Resources 2004 - 05 Section 12

RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM DOSE TO Sellafield - fishermen/lava bread eaters - 30% **

GENERAL PUBLIC Trawsfynydd - eaters of locally caught fish
8%
- 5 mSv in any one year or 0.1 Sv averaged over 1 Other Power Stations <0.3%
lifetime. Fuel fabrication/ Harwell/ Dounreay <1.0%

RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM DOSE TO NOTE: * Discharges from Sellafield were significantly

MONITORED WORKERS reduced following commissioning of SIXEP in
1986.
- 50 mSv. in any one year ** Even for Sellafield this is less than the background
level, and would be achieved by 3 medical x-
13.5 ACTUAL DOSES RECEIVED BY rays or by moving to Colorado.
CRITICAL GROUP OF GENERAL PUBLIC (as %
of DOSE LIMIT i.e. 5 mSv) as a result of nuclear
installations.

13.6 ACTUAL DOSES RECEIVED BY POWER STATION WORKERS

- number of workers in each group - These data are for early 1980s

< 5 mSv 5 - 15 mSv 15 - 50

mSv
Berkeley 152 276 17
Bradwell 503 82 6
Hinkley Point A & B 1135 139 1
Trawsfynydd 404 130 13
Dungeness 786 2 0
Sizewell 472 10 0
Oldbury 512 18 5
Wylfa 677 15 0

TOTAL 4641 672 42

1977 4477 738 39

1978 4666 754 34

13.6 PROBABILITY OF DEATH FOR AN INDIVIDUAL IN UK PER YEAR

ACTIVITY RISK
Smoking 10 cigarettes a day 1 in 400
All Accidents 1 in 2000
Traffic Accidents 1 in 8000
Leukaemia from natural causes 1 in 20000
Industrial Work 1 in 30000
Drowning 1 in 30000
Poisoning 1 in 100000
Natural Disasters 1 in 500000
Struck by Lightning 1 in 2000000
Risk
> 1 in 1000 considered unacceptable
1 in 10000 to 1 in 100000 warrants money being spent to eliminate or reduce effects
< 1 in 100000 considered as an individual risk and warning may be sufficient - e.g.
floods, landslides etc.
< 1 in 1000000 generally considered acceptable