Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
[Link]
Power line communication (PLC) is a technology that employs the infrastructure of
electrical power distributed system as communication medium. PLC technology could
provide the consumer with a spectrum of services such as internet, home entertainment,
home automation, and enable the electricity supply authority to efficiently mange their
distribution networks in a competitive manner.
This technique has immediate attraction for meter communication system, since every
consumer is connected to the communication network and that network is owned and
controlled by the electricity supply authority. In a meter reading communication system
high power signals are transmitted through the network, which are then received by all
connected meters. This system has been extensively implemented in Europe and especially
in France.
PLC systems can also be used to transfer data inside buildings using power lines
discounting the cost of insulating communication cables. A recent survey shows that one
third of new broadband customers will choose power line communication by 2012(in
Europe and France). PLC technology could also let the power distribution companies open
lucrative revenue streams by bundling electricity supply with broadband
telecommunication access providing high speed and reliable communication traffic
including Internet access.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
1.1 POWER LINE COMMUNICATION
Power line communication, also known as PLC, uses existing power distribution wires to
communicate data. This, however, is not a new idea. In 1838 the first remote electricity
supply metering appeared and in 1897 the first patent on power line signaling was issued
in the United Kingdom. In the 1920's two patents were issued to the American
Telephone and Telegraph Company in the field of "Carrier Transmission over Power
Circuits". One would think that the long-ago conceived idea of power line communications
would be well developed by now. However, this is not the case because the power line is
not well suited for data communication.
The greatest advantage of power line as communication media is its reach to customers.
Every building is connected to the power grid and moreover every room has power line
contact point. The extent of this existing wiring cannot be matched to any other
communication medium. In, addition PLCC can provide a multitude of new services to the
users which are difficult to implement by other technologies, e.g., remote electricity meter
reading, appliance control and maintenance, energy management, home automation etc.
Power line communication technology has been slow to evolve because the lines were
designed solely for the purpose of 50 Hz main power distribution. Unfortunately, power
lines are a rather hostile medium for data transmission. The medium has varying
impedance, considerable noise, and high attenuation all which can change as different
types of devices are connected to the electrical supply.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
1.2 COMMUNICATIONS BACKGROUND
In order to better understand PLC, the following section provides an overview of a general
communications system. This will include a discussion of the elements of a
communications system, the methods for transmitting data, and performance measures.
1.2.1 Communications System Model
Figure 2.1 shows a simplified model of a digital communications system. The overall
objective of a communications system is to communicate information from a source to a
destination over some channel.
Communication System Model
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
1.2.2 Source and Destination:
The source can be any digital source of information. If the source is analog such as speech,
then an analog to digital converter must precede the transmitter. At the receiving end, the
decoded information is delivered to the destination.
The source may also compress redundant data, which minimizes the number of bits
transmitted over the channel, but can also create a loss of source information. The data is
unpacked at the destination to either an exact replica of the source information (lossless
data compression) or a distorted version (lossy data compression).
1.2.3 Channel Encoder and Channel Decoder:
Channel coding reduces the bit error probability by adding redundancy (extra check bits)
to the bit sequence. The check bits are computed over a k-symbol input sequence to create
an n-symbol output code sequence. This determines the code rate Rc where Rc = k/n and
Rc ≤ 1. This is the ratio of the number of actual data bits to the total number of bits
transmitted. The channel decoder uses the extra bits to detect and possibly correct errors
which occurred during transmission.
The number of extra bits added depends on how much error detection and correction is
needed. Channel coding (also known as error control coding) is a heavily studied area. It is
used to improve performance over noisy channels (such as the power line). Two major
classes of codes exist: block codes and convolution codes. Block codes are implemented
by combinational logic circuits. Reed-Solomon (RS) codes are a popular block code.
Convolution codes (also known as tree codes or trellis codes) are implemented by
sequential logic circuits.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
1.2.4 Channel Modulator and Channel Demodulator:
The purpose of the modulator is to take the encoded data and produce an analog signal
suitable to propagate over the channel. The data is converted from a stream of bits into an
analog signal. At the receiver, the demodulator tries to detect which waveform was
transmitted, and convert the analog information back to the sequence of bits. Modulation is
typically performed by varying the amplitude, the phase, or the frequency of a high-
frequency carrier signal.
For example, if the input signal of the modulator is used to vary the amplitude of the
carrier signal, the modulation is called Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK). There are several
other modulation techniques including FSK (Frequency Shift Keying), PSK (Phase Shift
Keying) and QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation).
1.2.5 Channel:
The channel can be any physical transmission medium including coaxial cable, twisted
pair, optical fiber, air, water, or for this work - the power line. It is important to know the
characteristics of the channel, such as the attenuation and noise level because these
parameters directly affect the performance of the communication system.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
[Link] LINE AS A COMMUNICATION MEDIUM
A power line network is a very huge infrastructure covering most of the part of the
inhabited area. Power is typically generated at high voltages and transmitted over high
voltage network to medium voltage line then to low voltage line by substations. These
substations then distribute the power to large number of customer using low voltage
distribution network.
Power line communication uses the available power line network as a communication
medium. The greatest advantage of using PLCC is its huge and fine grain network.
Already every building is connected to the power grid and moreover every room has
power line contact points. The extent of this existing wiring cannot be matched by any
other communication network. Thus, the emerging PLCC technology opens up new
opportunities for the mass provision of cost effective local access.
A communication channel is defined as the physical path, using which signal propagates
between the transmitter and the transmitter and the receiver node. The quantity of any
channel depends upon the noise present and attenuation of the channel. If noise at the
channel depends upon the noise present and attenuation of the channel. If noise at the
receiver is high, then it makes detection of the original signal difficult. Also, as the signal
attenuation increases, less signal power is available at the receiver. This makes the
detection harder in presence of noise.
Through PLCC is a emerging field, it has its own limitation. The main objective of
power lines is to deliver power. Their characteristic depends on the load condition and
varies as load changes. As there are different loads on power line whish generate very
strong noise signals, it is a very noisy communication channel. Also, as power line are
designed to carry electrical power energy, and not for communication, it has very strong
attenuation for the carrier signal frequencies. Thus, PLCC is strongly location and time
dependent.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
2.1 KEY ADVANTAGES OF PLCC
There are various strong points and key advantages to consider the PLCC as a
communication medium.
1. The power grid offer last mile connectivity: Through PLCC, the power line offers
what is sometimes called the last mile connectivity to the customer. In this regard,
it is not the only last-mile technology, but it appears to emerge as a significant
competitor to the other communication medium. Depending situation, varying
demand and capability, the overall communication infrastructure will have a hybrid
character. The power line is certainly a very good alternative, since it could provide
a permanent-access, two-way, always-on-line connection to the customer, 24 hours
a day.
2. The power grid supports information based services: Although PLCC technology is
recent and in need of further advances, both in terms of telecom capabilities and
equipment cost reduction, present relatively limited data rate transfer speeds are
sufficient for many useful innovative applications.
3. The power grid is already in place, thus enhancing cost-effectiveness: As the power
line infrastructure is already in place, it is potentially cheaper than other forms of
local telecommunications access, as it will require tremendous investment to
achieve comparable scale and grain size.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
2.2 COMPARING PLCC WITH OTHER RELEVANT
TECHNOLOGIES
There are several alternative technologies, beside PLCC, for the data communication and
services. Each technology has its own strength and weakness. A state of art comparison
between PLCC and other relevant technologies is presented in and summarize as below.
1. Public switched telephone network
Merits:
Mature and robust, good installed based, wide choice of product, easy to use
and install, relatively cost effective.
Demerits:
Relatively slow, on demand only
2. Cable Modem
Merits:
Excellent Performance, permanently on line
Demerits:
Limited geographical coverage, currently only available in limited trial,
connection based.
3. Microwave Communication
Merits:
Superior Performance, good geographical coverage, flexible of configuration.
Demerits:
Costly compared to PLCC, coverage not wide as PLCC.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
[Link] THE SIGNAL ONTO THE CHANNEL
Several closed current paths which may be considered:
1. In the case of differential mode coupling, the "line" wire is used as one terminal
and the "neutral" wire is used as the second terminal.
2. In the case of common mode coupling, the "line" and “neutral” wires are used
together, forming one terminal, and the "ground" wire serves as second terminal.
This coupling mode is known to yield up to 30 dB better coupling than differential
mode coupling. In some countries, common mode coupling is not allowed on low
voltage networks, due to potential dangers for the customers.
Two ways of connecting the PLCC unit to the network are possible:
1. The first is known as capacitive coupling. A capacitor is responsible for the actual
coupling and the signal is modulated onto the network's voltage waveform.
2. The second is known as inductive coupling. An inductor is used to couple the
signal onto the network's current waveform.
Inductive coupling is known to be rather lossy. However, no physical connection to the
network has to be made, which makes it safer to install than capacitive coupling.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
3.1 BASIC COUPLING CIRCUIT
Figure shows the basic coupling circuit concept.
An inductor or transformer is generally put parallel to the capacitor to form a high
pass filter. The high pass filter response passes the higher frequency communication
signal. The coupling circuit also includes various protection components such as fuses, and
diodes to combat high voltage surge and short circuit current.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
3.2 COMMUNICATION BETWEEN A POWER LINE
The relevant technology in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for
communication among various substations without dependence on the telecom company
network in known as Wave Trap.
Wave trap also known as Line trap. What it does is trapping the high frequency
communication signals sent on the line from the remote substation and diverting them to
the telecom/tele-protection panel in the substation control room (through coupling
capacitor). The signals are primarily tele-protection signals and in addition, voice and data
communication signals. It blocks the high frequency carrier waves (24 kHz to 500 kHz)
and let power waves (50 Hz - 60 Hz) to pass through. It is basically an inductor of rating in
milli henry.
The Line trap offers high impedance to the high frequency communication signals
thus obstructs the flow of these signals in to the substation bus bars. If there were not to be
there, then signal loss is more and communication will be ineffective/probably impossible.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
PLCC IMPLEMENTED BUILDING
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
[Link] OF PLCC
The preferred method of data transmission is carrier communication with digitally
modulated signal being transmitted over the power network. However, compared to other
communication channels power line present unique problem.
Power line characteristics are highly time and location dependent which represent
most critical obstacle for data communication. The noise signal level and attenuation
depends partly on the load connected to power line, which vary with time. The
communication channel, which is time variant, makes the design of communication system
very complex. Thus, at some time a strong noise source could completely block the
communication.
The line characteristics differ according to line voltage, i.e., high voltage or low
voltage line. Normally in conventional communication, impedance matching is attempted.
The power line network is not matched. The input and output impedance vary with time,
with different load and location it can be as low as 0.5 ohms to as large as few hundreds of
ohms. Variation due to cable impedance mismatch leads to poor degree of transmission.
In developing a potential communication channel using low voltage network, different
component of the power line need to be taken into consideration. These include low
voltage distribution substation with its inherent transformer, switchgear and cable.
Different distribution line parameters vary with type of the cable, age, current, and voltage
specification. Thus, the design of a proper and reliable power line communication system
is very complex.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
4.1 NOISE AND DISTURBANCE IN POWER LINE
Mean noise spectral density as a function of day.
The noise is always present in all communication media. The 3 voltage network i.e, high
voltage (HV), low voltage (LV), and medium voltage (MV) have different source of
channel disturbance. The distribution line noise is location and time dependent. As the
load on the distribution line changes, noise intensity is reflected accordingly. This also
varies according to the time of the day. In residential buildings the peak noise power can
be observed on morning or night hours compares to other hours of the day.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
4.2 TYPES OF NOISE
There are four types of disturbances that are present in the power line, they are as
follows:-
4.2.1 Impulsive noise:-
Histogram of noise impulses as a function of time of the day.
Impulsive noise is defined as those entire disturbances on the power line that last for
very small fraction of time. This type of noise is primarily due to all kinds of switching
phenomenon. This type of disturbance affects the whole frequency band but its duration is
for very short time.
From the given histogram one can clearly see that there is dependency between the
time of the day and the number of impulses. The number of impulses in day time is very
large comparing to remaining hours.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
4.2.2 Switching period noise:-
Switching period noise
This type of noise is caused by all kinds of switching devices, which commonly
work synchronously to the power system frequency like light dimmers. Switching period
noise is a major component in measurements. A very common measurements like the
striking one in shown in figure, where a persistent, high amplitude switching period noise
is present.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
4.2.3 Non-Switching period noise:-
Non-switching periodic noise.
The appearance of this noise is quite different from the switching period noise. This
noise has a continuous, long-lasting behavior in the time domain. The disturbance is
periodic and non-synchronous in the power system frequency. This must correspond to
some harmonics of devices operating at that frequency.
This kind of noise is usually generated by television set and computer monitors. The
repetition of pulse depends upon the screen scanning that varies among the television and
computer standards.
4.2.4 Background noise:-
If we subtract all different noise, mentioned earlier, from the total noise measured at a
certain location, then the remaining part portion of noise is the background noise. Unlike
the other types, the background noise is present all the time on any measurement. This
produces large transient voltages on the power line, depending on the size of the capacitor.
Wideband additive noise is present across the entire frequency range.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
4.3 ATTENUATION IN PLCC
The attenuation of power line is of prime importance in carrier application because it
determines the fraction of transmitted energy available at the receiving end to overcome
noise and interference. There is different signal attenuation in the distribution line, as a
communication channel, which are as follows.
1. To transmit the modulated signal on distribution line an isolation of transmitter
from high voltage signal is required. This is done using a coupler both at
transmitter and receiver. The signal experiences attenuation due to coupling
circuits, both coupling-in and coupling-out. Such attenuation is unavoidable
because direct injection of signal is impossible without isolation. But it can be
reduced through better coupling circuits.
2. There is attenuation due to the branching of the circuits. Branching causes
discontinuities in power line, which results in that part of the signal gets reflected
and part of its gets transmitted. Reflection is undesirable as it causes signal
attenuation.
3. The signal attenuation that is due to the impedance of the power line is called Line
Attenuation. The power line impedance is dependent on the size and length of the
line.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
4.4 IMPEDANCE IN PLC
The opposition in a circuit presents to an electrical circuit in called impedance. The
power network is a widely spread network, with the medium/low voltage transformer's
secondary as the driving force and many loads connected in parallel. The channel
impedance is thus a strongly fluctuating variable, depending on specific loads being
connected to the net at specific times. Impedance matching may be important since the
signal power at the receiver side reaches a maximum when the impedances of transmitter,
receiver and channel are matched.
The overall impedance of a network results from:
1. Impedance of the distribution transformer:
This increases with frequency. (Note that within the transformer,
the various phases are coupled, thus it is possible to transmit a signal across
phases without the use of coupling circuits.)
2. Characteristic impedance of the cables used. :
A wide variety of cables is used, which can be modeled as a serial
connection of inductors and resistors. The value of the characteristic
impedance is indicated to vary between 70 Ω and 100 Ω.
3. Impedances of the devices connected to the network. :
This typically varies between 10 Ω and 1OOO Ω.
Channel model with different types of impedances
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
4.5 PLCC ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY
Power lines are leaky radiate high-frequency electromagnetic signals.
Sensitive electronic devices need to be hooked up to power lines having severe
perturbations, and carrying voltages far outside the input ranges of these electronic
devices. Van der Laan gives a treatise on Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) problems.
He considered disturbances such as transients, voltage fluctuations and harmonics.
Reference can be made to the CBEMA curve shown in fig. below, developed by the
Computer and Business Equipment Manufactures Association, as a guide for specifying
acceptable voltage limits. Van der Laan suggests concentrating on the front end in order to
keep disturbances away from electronics. As diversion, one or more filters with passive L,
C and R components, restricted to the frequency band of the signal, should precede a
limiter. Limiters, which also have a finite life, should be used as little as possible.
The CBEMA curve.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
4.6 MULTI-PHASE NETWORK ERROR
One drawback to the designed protocol is that the design has considered transmission
on only a single phase. In an office environment with three phase supply, this means that
approximately two thirds of power outlets would be unavailable for transmission. Also,
since not all phases are present in one room, access to the network would be limited. A
solution to this problem would be to form a separate network for each phase and connect
them through a network bridge. A network bridge bridges data across two or more
networks (in this case the three phases). A bridge does not forward all data that it receives;
rather it has built in logic that makes forwarding decisions based on the destination of the
data.
In Figure if computer A wants to talk to computer C, and the network bridge recognizes
that they are on different networks, it forwards the data on computer C’s network. If
computer B wants to talk to computer D, the bridge does no forwarding of data because B
and D are on the same phase or network. This approach reduces the amount of data
flooding the network.
Three phase power line network.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
4.7 SECURITY
PLCC is shared channel (like WiFi). The transmission of data over a network that
anybody has access to could also pose a data security problem, however. Tapping the
signal could allow somebody to eavesdrop on communications. Only data encryption
eliminates that problem. Robust security is serious issue, as security increases complexity
also increases.
However, it is necessary to connect the personal computer installed inside the building
to the Internet, resulting in low versatility. A wide range of node capabilities is anticipated.
Some will be computers with a full user interface and a powerful processor. Others will be
cheap electronic devices, with perhaps a single button that may be pressed to signal intent.
In between, we will have televisions, personal video recorders, DSL routers and the like
with various user interfaces and computing capabilities. The protocols have to support
devices over this entire range.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
[Link] FOCUSED SERVICES
1. Automated Meter Reading: - Remotely obtain meter reading of customer’s
meter, load & consumption data, and detect energy theft.
2. Remote Connect/Disconnect: - Can connect or disconnect electrical supply from
central location, in demand side management.
3. Appliance Management: - individual appliances can be monitored and managed.
Customer can be informed if appliance has abnormal usage or appears inefficient
compared to modern alternatives.
4. Comfort & Savings:- provide home comfort and energy/cost savings function,
like, reduction in peak current consumption.
5. Multi-Utility Services: - Same channel can be used to transmit power as well as
can be used for data communication, audio communication, etc…
6. Network Control: - Operating efficiencies are targeted through automation of the
distribution network.
7. Energy Usage Management: - The customer information interface is used to
provide energy usage information and advices.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
[Link]
Power line communication (PLC) system is a relatively recent and evolving
technology aimed at utilization of electrical power lines for transmission of data. The
power line communications channel is a notoriously bad channel which has been
developed without regard for any communications considerations. Originally designed for
the transmission of electrical signals.
However, it is so widely distributed that considerable cost savings can be achieved, if
use is made of its cable infrastructure. Because of the wide geographical coverage of
reticulation networks, coordinating bodies have formulated specifications to restrict the
bandwidth and power levels of communications signals, in order to limit interference with
other users of low frequency radio communications.
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Semester : VII Branch : Electrical & Electronics Engineering Seminar Topic: PLCC
[Link]
1. Niovi Pavlidou, A. J. Han Vinck, Javad Yazdani and Bahram Honary, “Power Line
Communications: State of the Art and Future Trends”, IEEE Communications
Magazine, Vol.41 No. 4 pp. 34-39, April 2003.
2. Motorola, MC68360 Quad Integrated Communications Controller User’s Manual.
3. Lars Selander, “Power-Line Communications: Channel Properties and
Communication Strategies”, M. Sc. , Lund University, 1999.
4. Echelon Corporation, A Power Line Communication Tutorial – Challenges and
Technologies.
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